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THE 

GROCER'S 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Copyright by Artemas Ward, 1911 
Entered, Stationers' Hall, 1911 



The James Kempster Piinting Company 

117-119 Liberty Street 

New York 



THE 

GROCER'S 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 



A COMPENDIUM OF USEFUL INFORMATION CONCERNING FOODS 

OF ALL KINDS. HOW THEY ARE RAISED, PREPARED AND 

MARKETED. HOW TO CARE FOR THEM IN THE 

STORE AND HOME. HOW BEST TO USE 

AND ENJOY THEM— AND OTHER 

VALUABLE INFORMATION 

FOR 

Grocers and General Storekeepers 



COMPILED BY 

ARTEMAS WARD 

Formerly Editor of 

"The National Grocer " 



PRICE, TEN DOLLARS 



NEW YORK 

Copyright by Artemas Ward, 1911 
Entered, Stationers' Hall, lilU 






TO THE 

GROCERS 

AND 

GENERAL STOREKEEPERS 

OF THE UNITED STATES 

THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED, 

BY ONE WHO HAS STUDIED THEIR BEST INTERESTS 

FOR MANY YEARS, 

IN THE HOPE THAT 

THEY MAY FIND IT AN AID 

TO BETTER DEALING, 

WIDER KNOWLEDGE, 

GREATER SALES 

AND LARGER PROFITS. 



C:C1.A2()39?8 



PREFACE 

"If you Clin till the unforgiving minute 

With sixty seconds' wortli of disiance run." 

— Kipling. 

This book is tlie product of many sucli luiiiutes stolen out of tlie liours of a very 
busj^ life, at irregular intervals, during a period of about thirty years. 

In 1SS2, realizing that the Grocers and General Storekeepers of the United States 
greatly needed a book giving information on many points relating to their business, I 
attempted to supply that want, and issued The Grocer's Handbook. Time and money, 
as well as personal experience and proper co-operation on the part of others, were 
denied me, and it is with a feeling of shame that I refer to that crude but well intended 
effort. Perhaps the present volume is its best apology. 

I have never abandoned the hope of issuing a better book — have steadily collected 
scraps of information — noted points of value — laid plans and considered costs. In 
the past two years application for information has been made to producers and manu- 
facturers in all parts of the world. So carefully detailed were the communications 
that return postage was provided in stamps of the countries of the recipients, even 
those of China and Japan, yet in numerous cases several letters had to be written before 
any attention was secured, and, too frequently, the replies were indifferent — perhaps it 
was found difficult of belief that anyone intended to publish a creditable book for 
Grocers! 

Probably the indifferent ones would now gladly give pictures, details and other 
information, but I was obliged to fulfill my purpose without their aid — to obtain, by 
personal search and often in odd ways, photographs and other illustrations, some of 
them rare and difficult of access, and to develop many of the most interesting features 
from crude commercial reports. 

My thanks, and those of the readers of this book are, on the other hand, due to 
the many leading houses of the world who kindly aided in making it what it is. Per- 
sonally, I must acknowledge the industry and accuracy of Mr. Charles Martyn, 
formerly Editor of The Gaterei-, without whose efficient aid the work would have been 
too heavy for me. 

In so wide an undertaking errors and omissions will no doubt be discovered — I 
shall try to correct them in future editions. In several instances, prominent houses 
sent in absolutely contradictory statements on important subjects, while high author- 
ities disagreed with the Department of Agriculture. In one case, a great company, 
unquestionably the greatest of its kind in the world, ridiculed our submitted text — and 
a month later its own chief chemist endorsed it as complete and accurate. 

The color plates, by The American Colortype Company, tell their own story of 
modern color printing and a well executed order. 



My connection with the Grocery Trade has continued unbroken during the thirty 
years in which this Encyclopedia has been taking form — for twenty years in editing The 
National Grocer (absorbed by the American Grocer in 1894) — from 1884 to 1909 as 
General Manager for Sapolio, and still glad to aid all its interests — and now, in 
presenting the completed work, I find pleasure in the thought that I am still serving my 
friends in the Trade. 

Artkmas Ward. 



INTRODUCTION 



This Encyclopedia attempts to give some information on every article of food and 
drink, and also touches on many other interesting items handled by General Store- 
keepers. The first aim is so extensive as to approach the impossible — and to describe all 
the varied goods of a general stock would be impracticable — but its pages treat on more 
than twelve hundred subjects. The first item in the text, Abalone, tells of a shellfish 
of the Pacific Coast now growing in favor — the last line lists ZiDetschenwasser , a 
German liqueur. Gunpowder , Nails, Rope, Shot and other articles are given space, and 
a few points of legal or commercial import are briefly considered — as. Trade-marks, 
Partnerships, Good-tvill, Power of Attorney, and, at greater" length, Windoio Dress- 
ing, and the origin of the trade, under Grocer. 

The number of new fruits which during the last few years have found their way 
into our markets; the large, and constantly increasing, variety of other foods and food 
delicacies, both domestic and imported, now offered for popular consumption, and 
the noteworthy growth of public interest in, and knowledge of, food values, make it 
essential that the modern grocer keep himself thoroughly informed and up-to-date. It 
is this service Avhich the Encyclopedia is designed to render. Where reference is made 
to seasons, the character of the general demand, etc., it must be borne in mind that the 
book is published in the northeastern part of the United States and that therefore it 
may not in such particulars accurately report conditions on the Pacific Coast, the 
Gulf of Mexico or abroad. 

The Grocer who does not think better of his calling in life as he glances over this 
book, is not worthy of it. Forest and Ocean, Land and Sea, the Animal and the Veg- 
etable Kingdoms — the earth and its fullness — are all tributary to his trade. Vinegar 
may be a trifle, but he shall see train-loads of tank-cars carrying it to factories. Under 
Wines he will find twenty pages of helpful information, including a catalog of types and 
varieties embracing nine hundred and sixty-eight items and more complete than any 
hitherto published. 

There are eighty full-page plates in color, and four hundred and forty-nine illus- 
trations in all. Twelve pages on Cheese contain descriptions of forty-eight varieties. 
Twenty on Coffee include a color-page showing twelve varieties of leading beans, so 
natural that they might be mistaken for real samples. Seven pages on Oysters are illus- 
trated by a color-page and three full-page, and several smaller, half-tone plates. One 



shows the oyster in its various sizes, from the "seed" to a seven-year-old "giant," while 
others furnish views of planting and gathering in the United States and France. Min- 
eral Waters gives thirty-nine different Springs, their locations and their specific 
qualities. Tea, richly illustrated, fills sixteen and a half pages, and Rice is shown in 
cultivation and gathering in many lands. 

If the dealer wishes to add fresh meats to his business he will find assistance in 
the large space accorded to Beef, Mutton, Veal and Pork, showing by colored plates 
and plain diagrams all the principal cuts. And his troubles are met in several direc- 
tions, from Aionings to the Ants and Cockroaches A\-hich annoy him. 

Many extraordinary subjects are touched upon. Kanrjaroo Tails, as a new meat 
supply, is immediately followed by Kawten, a Japanese isinglass, and Kosher treats of 
Jewish food restrictions important to those who have Hebrew customers. Bacteria, 
Microbes and Yeast tell in plain terms the latest facts of modern scientific discovery in 
relation to foods, their flavor, digestion, development and decay, while Food Values 
devotes six and a half pages to that important topic. Mushrooms, six pages and illus- 
trations of fourteen varieties, is covered thoroughly. 

Every dealer should be interested in the liberal articles on Labels, Markets, Res- 
taurants and Guilds — in the fund of information given under the heads of Cigars, 
Chewing Oum and Sponges — and should be glad to learn more about Cold Storage, 
Adulteration, Cookery, Preservation and such subjects as Fermentation and Distilla- 
tion, and how to defend himself against Mold and Maggots. 

The Appendix, of thirty-nine pages, contains a list of five hundred and nineteen 
words used to describe foods, drinks, etc., with their equivalents in French, German, 
Italian and Swedish, which should prove valuable to dealers born in those countries — 
who, even when well acquainted with English, find many a puzzling question put to 
them over the counter — and should greatly aid dealers born in English-spealiing lands 
whose trade lies with foreign-born customers. This dictionary is carefully repeated 
in each language, as "French-English," "German-English," "Italian-English" and 
"Swedish-English." As the majority do not use more than four hundred words from 
the cradle to the grave, these vocabularies of over five hundred words in one line of 
business must be very complete. 

The Appendix contains, next, a list of two hundred and fifty-five of the most 
common Culinary Terms, which explains how the well linown staples sold by the Grocer 
at such low prices masquerade under French names to justify an enormous advance 
in price when they appear on Menus or Bills of Fare. 

Valuable tables of Weights and Measures are also included. 



INDEX TO COLOR PAGES 



Opposite Page 

- 16 



Alligator Pears ----- 

Apples. Plate /----. 

Plate II - - - .- 
Apricots ------ 

Asparagus - - - - - - 

Bananas ------ 

Beef Cuts. Plate I - - - - 

Plate 77 - , - 
Plate III - 
Plate IV - 
Berries. Blackberries, Currants, Huckle- 
berries, Blueberries, Dewberry, Easpber- 
ries. Cranberries, Gooseberries, Straw- 
berries ------- 

Bread. Plate I — Cottage, Domestic, Gra- 
ham, French ----- 

Plate II — Pumpernickel, Eye, Twist, 
Vienna, New England - - - - 

Brussels Sprouts ----- 

Celery ------- 

Cheese. Plate I — Pineapple, ISTeufchatel, 
Limburger, Emmenthaler ("Swiss") 

Frontispiece 
Plate II — Camembert, Cheddar, Cream, 



22 1 
26 ',' 
SC 

44" 
50 y 
54v 
58/ 
62' 



66 ; 

76' 

80 
90 \, 

100 ; 



Edam - 
Cherries --■--.- 
Clams ------- 

cocoanut ------ 

Coffee. Plate I — Branch - - - 

Plate II — Beans - - - - 
Corn. Plate I — Eed - - - - 

Plate 77— Sweet - - - - 

Cucumbers ------ 

Dates - - - 

Ducks (Wild). Canvasback, Mallard, 
Euddy ------- 

Eggplant ------ 

Fig Tree ------ 

Fish. Plate I — Sea Bass, Striped Bass, 
Flounder, Kingfisli, Whiting - - 240V 

Plate II — Cod, Haddock, Hake, Hali- 
but, Pollack - - - - - 250 ' 

Plate 777— Bluefish, Butterfish, Mack- 
erel (Common), Pompano, Smelt, Span- 
ish Mackerel ----- 504^ 

Plate IV — Salmon, Shad, Brook 
Trout, Weakfish - - - - - 540 

Game Birds. Euffed Grouse, Prairie 

Chicken, Quail, Woodcock - - 2601 

Grains. Plate I — Barley, Buclavheat, 
Eice - - - - - - - 526 ' 

Plate 77— Oats, Eye, Wlieat - - 676 V 



118 > 

124 1/ 

138-{ 

154'/', 

161', 

168/, 

186' 

192", 

202 (, 

208 \ 

218': 

224'^ 
230! 



Opposite Pdge , 

Grapes. Plate I — Catawba, Concord - '270^ 
Plate II — Delaware, Niagara - - 274'' 
Grape Fruit ------ 282 ■ ,. 

Honey ------ -.302v' 

KUMQUA-TS AND LoQUATS - - - SgOy' 

Lamb Cuts - - - - - - 326^ 

Lemons ------- 332', 

Licorice- ------ 338"'^, 

Liqueurs ------ 342 ■■ 

Macaroni ------ 350 v 

Mango ------- 358'-. 

Maple Sugar - - - - - - 368 -J . 

Mushrooms - - - - - - 398 ^ 

Muskjielon ------ 378^; 

Mutton Cuts ------ 404 •' 

Nuts. Plate I — Brazil Nut, Butternut, 
Walnut, Black Walnut - - - - 410 ■■ 

Plate II — Almond, Chestnut, Filbert, 
Hickory Nut, Litchi Nut, Paradise, 
Pecan, Pignolia (Pine), Pistachio - - 414 j 
Olives -------- 422,', 

Oranges. Plate I — Branch - - - 429 v 
Plate II — Florida, Navel, King, Tan- 
gerine ------- 430 \ 

Oysters ------- 436 -/ 

Oyster Plant ----- 4467 

Peaches ------- 454 1/ 

Peanuts ------ 458 -/ 

Pears ------- 462 V, 

Pepper and Capsicums - - - . - 468 V 
Persimmons ------ 474 ( 

Pineapple - - - • - - - 482'- 
Plums ------- 488.- 

Pomegranate - - - - - - 492 v 

Sausages. Bologna, Cervelat, Frankfur- 

ters. Head Cheese, Mortadelli, Salami - 556 v 
Shellfish. Lobster, Crab, Crayfish, 
Prawns, Shrimps ----- 346^ 

Smoked Meats. Bacon, Hams, Boned 
Shoulder ------ 292 \ 

Spices. Cinnamon, Cloves, Ginger, Mace, , 

Nutmeg - - - - - - 580^ 

St. John's Bread ----- 592 "'^ 

Sugar Cane ------ 598 ^ 

Tea ------- 616 .' 

Tobacco ------- 634V 

Tomato - - - - ' - - - 640x/ 

Tropical Fruits. Cashew, Guava, Man- 

gosteen, Star-Apple, Sweet Sop - - 586 "^ 
Turtle ------- 654; 

Vanilla ------- 658 

Veal Cuts ------ 662' 

Watermelon ------ 388 ^ 




(2) Neufchatel 

(3) Llmbur^er 



(1) Pineapple 

(4) Emmenthaler ("Swiss") 



CHEESE 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



FOR GROCERS AND GENERAL STOREKEEPERS 



This Encyclopedia covers all articles ordinarily handled by Fancy and General Grocers, and, in 
addition, a wide range of information on other subjects more or less closely allied to their trade, or 
to that of the General Storekeeper. The text has been made as concise as possible, while retaining 
the most interesting points on the cultivation, manufacturing, marketing, etc., of the principal 
staples. As it is designed chiefly for trade and public reference, purely technical terms — chemical, 
botanical, etc. — have been avoided, except where they are needed to evade the confusion ivhich ivoidd 
result from the employment of contradictory popular titles or terms. 

The Appendix, commencing on page 710, contains a dictionary of all common food names, in 
five languages, an explanatory list of the principal French Culinary and Bill-of-Fare luords and 
phrases in general use, and Tables of Weights and Measures. 




ABALONE: an immense uni-valve shellfish common on the Pacific Coast. It some- 
what resembles the eastern scallop but has only one shell. Its flesh, which corresponds 

in general character to that of the oyster, was 
formerly eaten only by Chinese and Japanese 
fishermen, but white residents of the Coast 
States are beginning to appreciate and relish 
it. It is sold fresh, dried and canned; in the 
two latter cases cut into pieces of suitable size. 
The pearly shell is beautiful when polished 
and is much used in the manufacture of 
souvenirs, ornaments, etc. In Japan, the aba- 
lone product is an important item in the fish- 

Abalone Shells CrieS iudustry. 

ABATTOIR (from the French Ahattre, "to knock down") : a public slaughter- 
house. The most notable American abattoirs are those in Chicago, Kansas City, So. 
Omaha and New York. In the larger 
establishments, cattle are killed, skinned, 
cut up and hung in the cooling room in 
thirty-nine minutes — each carcass being 
in that short time handled by twenty men. 
Hogs are killed at the rate of 550 an hour, 
each being handled by twenty-five men in 
thirty-two minutes. Sheep are killed at 
the rate of 620 an hour, the slaughtering 
and dressing occupying about thirty-four 
minutes. 

The wholesale Slaughtering and 
Meat Packing industries of the country 

Drying Abaloiie M 




12 



THE GIIOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



emplpy a capital of more than $250,000,000 and 
about 75,000 persons. The value of the output 
is in the neighborhood of a billion dollars, of 
which approximately 85% is in the form of 
edible products — fresh, cured and canned meats, 
lard, etc. — and 15% in various industrial items. 

ABSINTHE: a liquor extensively drunk on 
the Continent, especially in France and Switzer- 
land, and now largely exported to the United 
States. That of good quality consists of about 
50% alcohol, distilled with absinthium or worm- 
wood and other herbs, such as balm, fennel, anise 
and hyssop, or their essential oils. To prepare 
it for drinking, the liquor is mixed with water, 
added drop by drop and permitted to fall from 
some height. 

Absinthe drunkenness, or even continuous tippling, produces utter derangement of 
the digestive system, ending in paralysis. 

The herb Ahsinthium is employed medicinally for its tonic properties. 




COPVBICllT, KEVBTOSE VIEW CO. 

Stock-yards, Kansas City, Mo. 



ACARUS, or Mite: a species of insects including many varieties, among which the 
Cheese Mite, the Flour Mite and the Sugar Mite are common to the trade. The Cheese 
Mite is one of the most minute of these pests (see article on Cheese). The Flour Mite 
is covered with long hairs, and is capable of a good deal of motion. The Sugar Mite 
is found in great quantities in all "raw" or soft sugars, but refined sugar is free from 
it. Brokers handling samples of raw sugar are often troubled by acari, as they bury 
themselves under the skin and cause an irritation simi- 
lar to the itch. The surface of jelly and preserves that 
have been kept overlong is frequently covered with 
mites, and there is also a variety which lives on vege- 
tables and makes itself especially obnoxious in the 
Spring. 

ACCOUNTS. Family accounts are generally kept by 
grocers in pass-books. Care taken before accounts are 
opened, and while they are running, will often aid mate- 
rially in their settlement. In factory districts, it is not 
unusual to obtain written agreements that they shall be 
settled regularly on pay-days. Persons desiring to open 
accounts are sometimes willing to give security to a 
small amount, or to name references. The latter offer 
should always be accepted, as many who would other- 
wise not mind defrauding the grocer will pay rather 
than have the case reported to those whom they gave 
as references. To add each account up every month or 
oftener and present a bill, is very important. To write 
plainly in the pass-book avoids misunderstandings A 

Absinthium 




THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



13 



duplicate should invariablv be kept in the stoi'e. 
lu suit for an account, the grocer should be 
prepared to furnish a fully itemized bill. If a 
short note can first be obtained it makes the suit 
simpler even if it is not paid, as it generally pre- 
cludes all question as to the items of the bill. 

ACETIC ACID : which is sometimes employed 
by confectioners in sugar boiling, to stiffen cake 
icing, etc., and, in dilute form, is the principal 
characteristic of vinegar, is, commercially, a pun- 
gent, colorless liquid, obtained chiefly either by 
dry distillation of wood or by the oxidation of 
alcohol by means of ferments. 

PyroUgneous Acid, the crude product ob- 
tained by wood distillation, is the preservative 
principle developed in the smoking of hams, etc. 




COPYRIGHT, KEVBTONS VIEW < 

Union Stock-yards, Chicago 



ACETIC ETHER: is obtained by treatment of acetic and sulphuric acids and 
alcohol. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of many imitation fruit extracts, 
particularly cherry, currant, peach, pear, raspberry and strawberry. 

ACIDULATED: rendered acid or sour. "Acidulated drops" are an old-fashioned 
candy similar to the modern lemon and lime drops. 

ACORN: the seed of the oak. Acorns are important now only as an occasional food 
for cattle, but in the early days they served as one of the principal articles of human 
diet in temperate zones, and even in modern times, during periods of scarcity, they 
have been found an acceptable food by European peasants. They are said to be occa- 
sionally poisonous during the autumn months. 



ADULTERATION. 



The grocer 




C0P\BH:1IT, KEV6T0NE VIEW CO. 

Union Stock-yards, Chicaso 



is never an advocate of adulteration. Some manu- 
facturers adulterate for the sake of profit, but 
even then they are generally driven to it unwil- 
lingly by the demand for cheap goods. A fair 
price is necessary to secure pure goods. 

The cry of adulteration goes to great ex- 
tremes; the desire to appear critical and to be 
considered a good .ludge gives rise to much of it, 
and no sensible dealer Avill encourage it. Indeed, 
an honest and intelligent im-estigation nearly 
always proves that at least half the accu.sations 
are unfounded. 

It should also be remembered that there are 
many food items A^■hieh are not desirable when 
absolutely pure — mustard is "adulterated" by 
nearly every large manufacturer by the addition 
of flour, because it is too pungent in its natural 



14: THEGEOOEE^SENCYCLOPEDIA 

state; such "adulteration" is not only harmless but may be defended as perfectly proper 
and justifiable. 

Again, many of the statements with regard to adulteration are rendered alarming 
by the misuse of chemical terms. To tell the average consumer that a table syrup 
is made of "glucose" is to state a mystery; to say that it is made of "starch treated 
with hydrochloric or muinatic acid" would cause alarm — ^yet the final result is a thor- 
oughly wholesome product whose principal constituents are "sugars" identical with, 
or closely allied to, those into which the sucrose of flowers is converted by bees in the 
manufacture of honey, and all starchy food is converted by the human stomach in the 
ordinary process of digestion. 

If, as modern medicine asserts, a state of dread affords a direct opening to disease, 
the alarmists are as dangerous as the adulterists, and it would seem better to live in 
ignorance than to be frightened out of the world by too critical inquiries as to what 
we eat or drink. 

Much adulteration exists which is deleterious to health, but, unfortunately, it is 
generally where it is least expected and rarely detected. Laws of the most stringent 
character are enforced in Great Britain, and fall very oppressively on retail grocers, 
many of whom purchase goods the purity of which they are unable to determine. 

AERATED BREAD: is that leavened by the addition of carbon-dioxide. See gen- 
eral article on Bread. 

AERATED WATER: is, correctly speaking, distilled water to which purified filtered 
air is added to improve its fiavor. The term is, however, frequently applied to Car- 
bonated Waters (which see). 

AGUARDIENTE: a brandy made in Spain, Portugal and several Spanish- American 

countries. 

ALBUMEN: a thick, viscous substance found in both vegetable and animal matter. 
It is the most valuable component of meat, flour and many other foods (see Foou 
Values). The best natural example is the white of an egg, which is nearly pure 
albumen. Chemically pure albumin is almost colorless, odorless and tasteless and is 
insoluble in pure water. In France, large quantities are prepared at the abattoirs 
by drying the blood of the cattle killed. It is used to clarify wine, syrups and other 
liquids, in photography, the textile industries, etc. In cases of poisoning by mineral 
acids the white of an egg is a valuable antidote. 

ALCOHOL, Ethyl Alcohol (also called Grain Alcohol, Root Alcohol, Spirits of 
Wine, etc., according to the source) : occurs as the result of the fermentation — i. e., 
the effect of the growth of yeast cells, either wild or cultivated (see Yeast) — of liquid 
containing a moderate amount of any one of several forms of "sugar." The sugary ele- 
ment is the result of the conversion of starch, either by natural growth in grapes, sugar 
beets, etc., or by the action of malt diastase, etc., on the starch of grains (see Whisky) , 
potatoes, etc. The alcohol is extracted from tlie fermented liquid by the process of 
Distillation (which see). 

Pure alcohol is transparent and colorless, agreeable in odor, of strong and pun- 
gent taste and highly volatile and inflammable, burning with a pale blue or smokeless 



THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 15 



flame. If thoroughly refined, the product is identical — both by chemical analysis and 
in appearance, flavor, etc. — no matter what the source of the original starch. 

Brandy and Whisky generally contain about one-half alcohol in volume. "Proof 
spirit" contains approximately half in weight but somewhat more by volume. 

In addition to its use in spirituous liquors, alcohol is employed in an almost infi- 
nite variety of ways — in the arts, in the electrical world, in the manufacture of arti- 
ficial silk, leather, etc., by perfumers, chemists, extract makers, anatomists, natu- 
ralists, etc. As Denatured Alcohol (see following), its scope has been greatly widened 
within the last few years. 

Denatured Alcohol: is merely ordinary alcohol with special ingredients added in 
order to make it impossible to drink it, the purpose being to cheapen it for industrial 
and commercial purposes by avoiding the heavy government tax on alcohol which can 
be consumed in beverages. The additional ingredients make it injurious to health and 
objectionable in both taste and odor, but do not detract from its commercial efficiency. 
Furthermore, when once denatured, there is little likelihood of it being improperly 
used, as it is both expensive and difficult to extract the foreign ingredients. 

There are two forms of alcohol so treated — one completelij denatured and tlie 
other specially denatured — the latter for uses for which the former would not be suit- 
able. 

The most generally approved formula for completely denatured alcohol adds ten 
gallons of wood (methyl) alcohol and one-half gallon of petroleum benzine to each 
hundred gallons of ordinary (ethyl) alcohol. 

Among the many possible additions for specially denatured alcohol are camphor, 
benzol, castor-oil and soda lye, sulphuric ether, etc. 

Alcohol for industrial purposes is in Germany made chiefly from potatoes, in 
Prance from beets, and in this country from grains, molasses, etc. Its manufacture 
adds appreciably to the wealth of the nation by turning to account damaged and 
spoiled grains, vegetables and fruits — all of which can be converted into alcohol 
thoroughly serviceable for industrial purposes. 

The commercial uses of alcohol, when obtainable at a low price, are almost innu- 
merable. In the household it serves as a clean, cheap and serviceable substitute for 
gas or electricity, for both illumination and cooking. Its possibilities promise to be 
illimitable, for in France a new process has been discovered by which it may be pro- 
duced by chemical synthesis, and it is predicted that the cost of such production can 
be reduced to less than ten cents a gallon. 

ALE. This was apparently the current name in England for all malt liquor before 
the introduction of hops, about 1524. Later, the word "beer" was similarly employed. 

The principal difference in the brewing of modern Ale and Lager Beer is found 
in the process of fermentation. Ale is a "high" or "top" fermentation at about 58° 
Fahr. ; Lager, a "low" or "bottom" fermentation at about 40° Fahr. Each requires a 
special yeast. The percentage of alcohol varies from four to six per cent in ale against 
from three to flve in lager beer, the difference being due to the greater quantity of 
malt used in the former. 

In America, ale is brewed chiefly from malted barley, grain, cerealin (a compound 
resembling diastase), grape sugar and hops. All varieties may be grouped under two 
heads: "Present Use" or "Cream" or "Light Draught" ale, intended for immediate 



16 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

consumption, and "Stock Ale," containing more alcohol and extract, intended to be 
kept for months or years, either bottled or in casks. 

Light Draught ales are distinctly an American product, the tendency here being 
toward clear, light types. In the endeavor to attain this result, some brewers have 
sacrificed much in flavor, but others have been successful in producing a true "Ale" 
with a lager beer finish. 

English and Scotch ales enjoy a high reputation. The latter are distinguished 
by the small quantity of hops employed and their marked vinous flavor. India Pale 
Ale derives its name from a variety originally brewed for the East Indies market, 
which Avas especially heavily hopped to better withstand the hot climate. "Bitter Ale" 
is similarly made by using a large proportion of hops. 

"Half (G Half' is a mixture of half ale and half porter (see Stout). 

"Musty," in New England, signifies a mixture of ale and lager beer. 

When properly draAvn, ale should be perfectly clear, contain sufficient carbon- 
dioxide (carbonic acid gas) to produce a foam or collar on top and a slight cham- 
pagne effervescence, and have the aromatic smell of hops. It should never be exposed 
to the air in an open vessel, because of its tendency to ferment and sour. 

When brewed by the newest methods, ale does not become turbid at low tempera- 
tures, and when bottled and pasteurized can be kept indefinitely without sediment, 
remaining clear even when packed on ice. 

Bottled ale should be kept on its side in a cool place — the temperature preferably 
not below 44° nor above 50° Fahr, 

ALEBERRY : a beverage made by boiling ale with spice, sugar and bread-sops, the 
last commonly toasted. A domestic remedy for a cold. 

ALEWIFE: an American species of herring, taken along 
the coast from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Chesapeake Bay. 
It is largely exported after salting to the West Indies. 




ALKALINE WATERS. See Mineral Waters. 



Alewife 



ALKANET : the dark red root of a deciduous plant, of blackish appearance exter- 
nally but inside showing a blue-red meat, surrounding a whitish core. It readily gives 
up its red color on infusion in spirits, oils, etc., but not in water, which derives from 
it only a dirty brown color. Alkanet is used by perfumers, etc., and it is also employed 
occasionally to color cheese, to improve the appearance of poor grades of port and 
similar wines, to give the appearance of age to port wine corks, etc. 

ALLIGATOR APPLE: a large, smooth, heart-shaped tropical and sub-tropical fruit. 
The flesh is sweet-scented and agreeable in flavor, but so strongly narcotic that it has 
neA^er attained general popular use, 

ALLIGATOR PEAR, or Avocado: a tropical fruit, native to Mexico and northern 
South America but now Avidely grown also in the West Indies and in Florida and 
other Southern States. 

The tree is a fine spreading evergreen with large leaves of oval shape and bright 
green color, a free producer under good circumstances. The fruit, big and heavy, weigh- 




ALLIGATOR PEARS 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



19 




Alligator Pears 



ing up to four pounds, consists of a single large 
rugged seed wrapped in a membranous cover, 
inside a firm, buttery flesh of bright greenish- 
yelloAV color, containing from ten to twenty per 
cent of greenish oil. The outer skin is tough and 
leathery, varying in color, some being • bright 
green, others yellow, brownish green, dark purple 
or red, etc. The most common shapes are the 
oval, pear-shaped and round or bell. The large 
green fruits are considered the best. 

Alligator Pears are now obtainable nearly 
all the year round — the first supplies from 
Colombo and other parts of South America reach 
the Eastern markets in January or thereabouts, 
the Cuban fruits following in April and con- 
tinuing through the summer to October, those from Jamaica continuing to November 
and from Trinidad and Granada to January. The Florida supply is heaviest during 
the months of July and August. 

Alligator Pears have advanced considerably in favor during recent years. They 
deserve still greater popularity, as the large percentage of easily digested vegetable oil 
or fat makes their flesh exceptionally nutritious. 

The fruit is served in halves or sections, as cantaloupes, to be eaten with salt, 
and pepper and vinegar if desired, or with a little lime or lemon juice and sugar — 
or the flesh is cut in slices or cubes, similarly dressed or served with French salad 
dressing. If the flesh is cut into little grooves with a sharp knife, the dressing will 
be more easily absorbed. 

The flesh of the ripe alligator pear is of about the consistence of well-made 
butter. The fruit is just right when the flesh will yield gently to a slight pressure of 
the fingers. The skin is then easily peeled off the pulp. 




ALLSPICE, also called Pimento and Jamaica Pepper : is the dried fruit of a small 
West Indian tree called the Pimento. It is about the size of a 
pepper, or small pea, and is gathered when fully grown, but not 
ripened, and dried in the sun. It is called Allspice from its sup- 
posed resemblance in flavor to a mixture of cinnamon, nutmeg and 
cloves. It is often used in place of cinnamon. 

ALMERIA GRAPES. See article on Grapes. 

Allspice 

ALMONDS : rated commercially among the most valuable nuts, are the kernels of the 
fruit of a tree, which is said to be a native of the East and of Africa but which long ago 
became fully naturalized throughout the whole South of Europe and is now grown 
with equal facility in California. It resembles the peach tree both in size and appear- 
ance. The fruit ripens generally in July and August, and the new nut crop is ready 
for shipment in October. 

Almonds are divided into "Sweet" and "Bitter," only the former being sold as an 
edible nut. Sweet Almonds are subdivided into sevei'al types, varying considerably in 
size and shape. In the shell there are three principal grades — Paper Shell, Soft 



20 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Gathering Almonds, California 



Shell and Hard Shell — both imported 
and from California. 

Of the imported Shelled Almonds, 
the best known are the Jordan and 
Valencia, chiefly from Malaga, Spain. 
Jordan Almonds are long and plump 
and pointed at one end — the type 
shown on the Color Page facing page 
414. They are highly esteemed both 
as a dessert item and for confectionery 
purposes. Valencias are about three- 
eighths of an inch long, round at one 
end and obtusely pointed at the other. 

Bitter Almonds, imported chiefly 
from Mogadore, Morocco, are used only 
for their oils, for flavoring, etc. See 
Aljiond Oil, following. 

Oreen Almonds are young sweet almonds. They are often preserved in sugar. 

Burnt Almonds are roasted sweet almonds. They are done up with sugar when 
destined for use as confectionery, being then known also as "Pralines" and "Sugar 
Almonds." Eoasted plain, they are employed for coloring and flavoring liquors. 

Blanched Almonds are sweet almonds with the skins removed. 

Almonds are also sold Ground (dried and crushed), Salted, etc. 

ALMOND EXTRACT : is a solution of Oil of Bitter Almonds, about 1%, in alcohol of 
fair strength. 

ALMOND OIL: is obtained by expression from the ground kernels or seeds of the 
sweet or bitter almond, apricot or peach. It is largely employed in perfumery. The 
best qualities are light yellow or white in color, almost entirely free from odor and 
possessing only a mild, nutty flavor. Oil of Bitter Almonds is an entirely different 
product, which is not obtainable by the cold, or only slightly warm, expression 
employed for Almond Oil — it is a volatile oil extracted by distillation from the crushed 
kernels of bitter almonds, apricots or peaches, after the expression of Almond Oil. In 
concentrated forna. Oil of Bitter Almonds is poisonous because of the large quantity of 
hydrocyanic or prussic acid it contains, but in diluted form, as in Almond Extract, it 
is a popular flavoring in confectionery, cooking, etc. 

ALMOND MEAL, ALMOND PASTE: are made from ground sweet almonds, after 
the extraction of Almond Oil. They are much used in pastry and confectionery — in 
the manufacture of almond macaroons and other sweet pastries, in fancy cake and 
pie filling, etc. 

ALMOND MILK: is an emulsion of almond oil and water. It has an opaque, milky 
appearance. 



ALMOND SYRUP: if of high quality, is an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds in 
barley syrup (then generally known as Orr/eai /ST/rup), or in a syrup of Orange Flower 



THEGROCER^SENCYCLOPEDIA 21 

Water and sugar. Ten parts of sweet almonds are generally employed to three parts 
of bitter almonds. 

ALUM: a salt composed of the combined sulphates of Potassium and Aluminum. 
It crystallizes in cubes and eight-sided forms, and has a sweetish astringent taste. It 
is sometimes employed by bakers to whiten their bread. That used in Baking Powders 
is Burnt Alum — a white spongy substance produced by heating alum until it melts 
and then driving off all the moisture by additional roasting. Its employment in bak- 
ing powders has been much abused by parties interested in other preparations, but if 
completely neutralized it is harmless. The taste test is a poor one, as no raw baking 
powder has a pleasant flavor, and an overdose of cream of tartar would be about as 
bad as one of burnt alum! 

AMERICAN WINES. American wine makers have duplicated nearly all the Euro- 
pean Wines in popular demand. In some the results are disappointing to the con- 
noisseur because probably of differences in climate and soil, as well as in handling, but 
in others a high measure of success has been attained — especially in Red wines of the 
Claret (or Bordeaux), Burgundy and Italian types; White wines, such as "Cham- 
pagnes" and Rhine and Moselle types ; Sauternes, and the stronger wines, such as Port, 
Sherry, IMadeira, Malaga, etc. There are also several American wines which have won 
distinction under entirely new names, noteworthy among them being Angelica, Catawba, 
Concord, Delaware, Scuppernong and Zinfandel. 

Still wines are produced in both the East and in California, and to a limited 
extent in the South; "Champagnes" principally in the East, especially in western 
New York, and the Central States. 

In the East the grapes chiefly grown for sparkling wines are the Catawba and 
Delaware (see article on Grapes), Elviras and Dutchess (white grapes), and the Isa- 
bella and Eumalans (black grapes). The wines from several or all of these six, and 
other, varieties are blended in the making of the best domestic "Champagnes." The 
Concord (also described and illustrated in the article on Grapes) is used for both 
red and white still wines and the Clinton and Ives for heavy red wines. 

The most famous of Southern wine grapes are the Scuppei'nong (which see), Nor- 
ton and Ives, the last two especially noteworthy as the source of fine clarets. 

The largest wine product is that of California, the average output exceeding 
40,000,000 gallons a year, about 25,000,000 gallons of which is "dry" wine. The 
greater part of the dry-wine district is in the neighborhood of the Bay of San Fran- 
cisco, the modification of the temperature there by the sea fogs resulting in grapes 
ripening at the particular sugar and acidity points which are the most suitable for 
its fermentation. The sweet wines are produced very largely in the hot interior val- 
leys, where the grapes ripen at a comparatively high sugar and low acid point. The 
industry is conducted on a very large scale, especially in the sweet wine districts — 
there are many wineries which crush more than 10,000 tons of grapes every season. 

AMMONIA: is a gas consisting of Nitrogen and Hydrogen, marked by a strong pun- 
gent smell and possessing alkaline properties. Its common form, Spirits of Ammonia 
or Hartshorn, is water saturated with the gas. 

The many household uses of Ammonia are familiar to all. It is also about the 
best thing to apply to the bites or stings of insects and is said to be an excellent fire 



22 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




extinguisher. It is sometimes used in baking powders, but being extremely volatile 
it soon loses its strength. 

ANCHOVY: a small fish of fine and peculiar fiavor, a member of the herring tribe, 

and closely resembling the English Sprat. It is found in 
3\™ )" pnf!*wRrrF several parts of Europe, but is most abundant in the Medi- 
xi<}lJ!hLmF^A terranean, especially in the vicinity of the Island of Gor- 
gona, near Leghorn, where also the catch is generally con- 
ceded to be of the finest quality. 

Anchovies are prepared for exportation by removing the heads, intestines and pec- 
toral fins and packing in rock salt in small kegs, to be later bottled, whole- or filleted, 
in oil or salt, etc., or otherwise repacked for retailing. Dutch anchovies are cleaned 
of their scales, the French and Italian are not. The small fish are valued more highly 
than the larger. 

Anchovies are also extensively potted and made into a butter or paste and a sauce 
or essence. The ancient Greeks and Eomans prepared the sauce or relish known as 
"Garuni" from them- 



ANCHOVY ESSENCE: a pink-colored, thick, oily sauce, consisting of pounded 
anchovies, spices, etc., used as a flavoring for soups, sauces, etc. 

ANCHOVY PEAR: a brown russet fruit borne by a very ornamental tropical tree, 
thirty to fifty feet in height, with large flowers and leaves averaging three feet in 
length. It tastes somewhat like a mango and is used in the same way. 

ANGEL FISH, sometimes, but incorrectly, called a "Porgy" : a dark-grey southern 
fish, resembling a Butterfish, but with long side-fins, weighing generally from three 
to ten pounds, but sometimes caught very much larger. It is in season during July 
and August. The flesh resembles in taste that of the Sheepshead. 



ANGELICA: an aromatic plant, native to the Alps, which grows wild in Europe, 
as far North as Iceland and Lapland. The natives of the latter country 
use the fleshy roots as food and the stalks as medicine. Commercially, 
the young and tender leaf stalks and midribs are candied for sale as 
confectionery, and the roots and seeds are employed to flavor gin. 

ANGELICA Wine: "white" sweet aromatic domestic wine, re- 
sembling Tokay in style. Some varieties consist of the unfermented 
grape juice fortified with brandy or clear spirit immediately after 
pressing; others are partly fermented before fortifying. 

ANGOSTURA, or Angustura: an aromatic bitters which takes its 
name from the town of Angostura, Venezuela, the original place of 
manufacture. It is used as a. digestiA^e tonic and for flavoring bever- 
ages, etc. It is now made in Trinidad, British West Indies. 




Angelica 



ANILINE DYES: a general name for coal-tar dyes, which are chiefly made from 
aniline, obtained from nitro-benzene. See Dyes. 




(P Spltzenburg 
(4) Greening 
(6) Northern Spy 



(3) Golden Russet 
APPLES 



(2) Green Sweet 
(5) Baldwin 
(7) Swaar 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



25 



ANISE SEED, Aniseed: the minute seeds of an annual plant, cultivated chiefly in 
Spain, Egypt, Syria and other jNIediterranean countries, but 
also to a large extent in Germany, principally in the vicinity 
of Erfurt. It is used as a condiment, in the manufacture of 
liqueurs, candy, etc. 

Star or Chinese Anise, imported mainly from China, is 
in flavor similar to Common Anise, but is very different in 
appearance, being star shaped and frequently of a total diam- 
eter of about an inch. 



ANISETTE, Greme d' Anise : a liqueur with aniseed flavor. 
See general article on Liqueurs. 




Chinese Common 

ANISE 




ANNATTO, or Annato, Arnotto, Arnatto: a red color extracted from the reddish 
pulp which surrounds the seeds of the Arnatto tree, found prin- 
cipally in South America and the West Indies. It is exported 
chiefly in cakes of two or more pounds weight, generally 
wrapped in leaves. Externally it usually presents a brown 
appearance. 

Annatto is frequently used in coloring butter and cheese — 
giving the former the rich yellow hue required by the consumer 
without affecting its quality. 

ANTELOPES: the general title of a large and varied class 

of deer and similar animals. The flesh of some is excellent, 

that of others not generally agreeable to the human palate. ~ 

See Venison. 

Arnatto 

ANTS. The only point concerning these troublesome insects that is of real interest to 
the grocer is how to get rid of them. The remedies suggested are as numerous as those 
for a cold ! Here are a few : 

Balsam of Peru. Eub a thin fllm of it near the bottoms of the table legs or on 
the floor, and renew the application in three weeks. In addition, boil one ounce of the 
balsam in a gallon of water for thirty minutes, and sponge this water, while hot, over 
wooden floors and walls. 

Powdered Borax and Pulverized Alum. Sprinkle underneath the paper on the 
shelves. 

Oil of Sassafras. Follow the train — for ants form a train in traveling — to its 
origin. Saturate a small cloth with the oil and apply to every portion of the dis- 
tance covered. If they come out of a crack, pour a little of the oil into it — it is sure 
death to them. 

If ants become troublesome about the pastry case in the summer time, insulate 
it by raising it on four inverted cups set in saucers filled with water. Give the case 
a good cleaning and in half a day the ants will become discouraged. Do not leave 
the case insulated longer than is necessary, as it is suggestive. 



APHIS: a plant louse or insect which feeds on vegetables, fruits, etc., and is a source 
of much loss to farmers and gardeners. It is also of scientific interest because of its 



26 THEGROCER-'SENCXCLOPEDIA 

faculty of emitting a sweet fluid known as "honey dew" or "aphis sugar," which is 
eagerly sought by ants. 

APENTA : a still and sparkling Hungarian aperient water. See Mineral Waters. 

APOLLINARIS : a noted effervescent table water. See Mineral Waters. 

APPENZELL: a cheese similar to "Swiss" or Emmenthaler. See article on Cheese. 

APPLES. This well-known fruit has been much improved by cultivation from its 
original wild state, which is still seen in the crab apple — a small, acid, almost uneat- 
able fruit, and yet the parent of the 1,500 varieties now used in so many ways — for eat- 
ing raw, in cooking and preserving, for jellies and desserts, for cider and vinegar, etc. 
The cultivated tree is at its prime when about fifty years old and will bear fruit for 
more than a hundred years. 

The apple contains an abundance of potassium and sodium salts and its acids are 
thought to be of great benefit to persons of sedentary habits. A ripe raw apple digests 
in eighty-five minutes. The practice of serving apple-sauce with roast pork, rich goose 
and similar dishes is based on scientific reasons. 

The different varieties vary widely in taste, appearance and time of ripening. 
Fifteen of the best known types are shown on the accompanying Color Pages — oppo- 
site, and facing page 22. 

The Early Harvest, a small yellow sweetish type, is one of the first to make its 
appearance, ushering in what are commonly known as the "summer apples." Of these, 
the leading varieties are the Highglow, very^handsome and fine-fiavored, the Sourbough 
and the Gravenstein — the last-named generally rather large, roundish but somewhat 
irregular in shape and in color greenish to orange yellow, striped or mottled with red. 
Of smaller size but of attractive red skin and tender, juicy, sub-acid flesh is the June, 
very popular in the West and South. 

Next come the "Pall Apples," the best of which are : the Maiden Blush, medium to 
large in size, oblate and regular in shape, and in color yellow with crimson blush ; the 
Belleflower; several varieties of the Holland Pippin, of good keeping quality, medium 
size, flattish in shape and yellow in color — inclining sometimes to green, and occasion- 
ally to red ; the Fall Pippin, large, round and yellow, and the Strawberry Pippin. 

Of the "Winter Apples," the leading varieties are the Greening, Baldwin, Northern 
Spy, Spitzenburg, Seek-no-further, Lady Sweet, Gill Flower or Sheep's-nose, Green 
Sweet, Swaar, Streaked Pippin, Russet, Newton Pippin, etc. More Greenings are sold 
than of any other winter type, it being the general family apple, both raw and cooked. 
When first gathered in the fall it is of bright green color, but this gradually changes 
to a rich mature yellow. The Baldwins are comparatively inferior, generally of a dry, 
insipid flavor, but they are largely bought because they are sound and fine looking, 
frequently presenting a better appearance than really superior apples. The Northern 
Spy and Spitzenburg are generally considered the highest types of the "Baldwin" class 
of apple — good specimens are handsomely colored and excellent in flavor and quality. 
The Spitzenburg is of deep rich yellow, nearly covered with bright red, with darker red 
stripes. The Northern Spy is of similar colors but generally shows' more yellow. The 
"Seek-no-further" is usually of deep yellow, but some varieties are bright red. The Lady 
Sweet or Pommeroy, one of the most desirable of "sweet apples" for general market 




(1 ) Early Harvest 
(4) Streaked Pippin 

(7) Maiden Blush 



(3) Red June 

(6) Lady 5weet 

APPLES 



(2) Gravenstein 
(5) Newtown Pippin 
(SI Fall Pippin 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



29 



purposes, is of fine red and yellow color, good shape and flavor and excellent keeping 
qualities. The Gill Flower is commonly called the Sheep's-nose from its peculiar pointed 
shape. The Green Sweet is a crisp, brittle, juicy fruit, and one of the best late- keeping 
sweet apples. The Swaar, generally of greenish or yellow color effect, is not attractive 
in appearance but it is noted as a fine dessert fruit. The Streaked Pippin is a large fruit 
of mixed red and yellow color, of good edible and cooking qualities. The Russet is the 
latest comer and the hardiest and is usually kept until the other varieties are beginning 
to disappear. The Newton or Golden Pippin is now raised chiefly for export to Europe, 
where it is much esteemed. 

Another beautiful and delicious fruit is the Eennet, of regular shape, skin of rusty 
tinge and flesh of sweet acid and delicately aromatic flavor. It is not, though, a good 
keeping apple. 

The care of apples is simple but exact. They should be kept dry and cool — the 
colder the better, short of freezing — and all bruised or decaying fruit must be removed 
at once from contact with sound fruit, as otherwise the trouble will speedily spread to 
an alarming extent. 

The packing of apples is changing. The barrel is being superseded by the box — 
^vhich is a great deal better suited to the retail trade. In the Northwestern and 
Pacific States it is employed exclusively. The box most commonly used measures 
inside 9% inches high, by 10% inches wide and about 20% inches long, and holds about 
one bushel, or nearly fifty pounds of fruit, varying slightly according to the 
variety. 

When the box package is used, the frait should be carefully graded to uniform 
size and packed in layers. If wrapped in paper, similar to that used for oranges, a 
higher price can be obtained than for unwrapped fruit. A fancy display label bear- 
ing the title of the fruit and the name of the grower or dealer should be prominently 
displayed on each box. 



Apple Storage. The bulk of the apples placed in cold-storage warehouses begin to 
come into the market after the Christmas holidays, those first sent out being the less 
hardy varieties which will not 
keep for any great length of 
time. Some very choice types 
can be carried over until early 
in July, just reaching the sea- 
son when the earlier varieties 
of the new crop are ready. 

Apples are placed in the 
cold-storage rooms in exactly 
the same barrels and boxes in 
which they are shipped from 
the grower, not even a barrel- 
head or box-lid being removed. 
The temperature is kept con- 
stantly at about 32° Fahr., and 
it is a pretty safe assertion that 
any apples going into the ware- 
house in perfect condition will Barreling Apples 




30. THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

still be found so when displayed for sale on their re-appearance in the markets. 
The New England system of packing apples in sand is said to be a fair substi- 
tute where cold storage is not available. A layer of dry sand is placed in the bottom 
of the barrel and on this a layer of apples, none of the apples, though, touching each 
other. Dry sand is then placed both bet^neen and over the fruit, the process being con- 
tinued until the barrel is full. Apples packed in this manner keep well, and if one 
or two in a layer are slightly affected the sand prevents the trouble from being com- 
municated to the others. 

Evaporated Apples. The best grades of evaporated apples are sold as "Fancy," the 
second quality as "Choice" and the third as "Prime." None but the finest varieties 
of the white-fleshed kinds should be used for the highest grade "Fancy." Fruit that 
is too poor to be worked into the "Prime" class is generally utilized by chopping and 
evaporating the whole fruit, without peeling or coring. The product is knoAvn as "chops" 
and is chiefly exported. 

The greater part of the evaporated apple output is handled in 50 lb. boxes, especially 
for export, bakers' supplies, etc., but for private trade a considerable quantity is put 
up in cartons, weighing generally 1 lb. gross. The latter method is the most generally 
satisfactory for retailing, especially if the cartons or boxes are correctly labeled with 
the name of the variety. The labeling is important because of the differing qualities 
and characteristics of the many kinds. When bulked indiscriminately, a single large 
box may contain a dozen different varieties, many of them unfit for cooking, and the 
result of their use is very liable to be disappointing. 

See also general article on Dried and Evaporated Fruit. 

APPLE JACK: the New Jersey name for Apple Brandy. It is plentiful in most of 
the Eastern States and, as it is generally cheaper than any other spirit, it serves a 
good purpose in cooking, for sauces, flavoring extracts, etc. 

APRICOT: a fruit which in appearance Suggests a small yellow peach, but which 
is borne by a tree of the same genus as the plum. It is eaten in every imaginable way 
— fresh, the fine varieties being especially valued for desserts; canned, dried, candied, 
made into jam, etc. It may be prepared for use by the housewife in any way that 
peaches are. 

The apricot was introduced into Europe during the time of Alexander the Great, 
and was first cultivated in England during the sixteenth century. 

The fresh apricot season commences about the middle of June and lasts for about 
eight weeks. 

The California dried apricot product amounts annually to 15,000 tons or more 
and is supplemented by the great quantity canned there. Only a comparatively small 
part of the California crop is marketed fresh, as the fruit is of such delicate texture 
that it does not stand shipment well. 

There is also a limited importation of dried and candied apricots from Italy and 
the south of France. 

APRICOT BRANDY: a liquor distilled from fermented apricot juice. 

APRICOTINE, Crenie d'Ahricot. See general article on Liqueurs and Cordials. 




APRICOTS 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 33 

AQUA VITAE, Latin for ^' water of life"^ : a name familiai'ly ap]3lied to tlie lead- 
ing native distilled spirit. Thus, it is "usquebaugh" or whisky in Scotland and Ire- 
land; "geneva" or gin in Holland; and "eau de vie" (French for "water of life") or 
brandy in France. When the term is employed in England, French brandy is under- 
stood. 

AQUAVIT, a modification of Aqua Vitue : a liquor distilled from wheat and pota- 
toes, originally made in Norway. 

ARACHIDE OIL: another name for Peanut Oil (which see). 

ARGOL: is crude Cream of Tartar (which see). It is held in solution in the juice 
of grapes but it is not soluble in alcoholic fluids, so the formation of alcohol during 
the fermentation of wine results in its precipitation. In wines bottled before they are 
fully ripe, the argol is precipitated on the side of the bottle in a sort of crust, thus 
forming what is called "crusted wine." The imported product comes chiefly from 
France and Italy. 

AROMA: a pleasing odor, a delicately rich and spicy fragrance, generally applied 
to the fragrance of wine, coffee, etc. 

ARRACK, AracJc, ArracJci, Ariki, Araha, etc. : a general name for numerous spirit- 
uous liquors drunk in the East, variously made from coarse palm sugar or "Jaggery," 
rice, kumiss, the juice of dates, cocoanuts and other palms, etc. 

The "Saki" or Rice Spirit of Japan is a softened sound of "Arracld." 
Arrack is consumed here to a limited extent, that from Batavia being considered 
the best. It is too powerful to be generally popular as a beverage, but it finds favor 
for use in punches and with grape fruit, etc. When sliced pineapples are put into 
Arrack and the spirit is kept for some time, it mellows to a delicious flavor and many 
consider it then unrivaled for "nectarial punch" or "rack punch." 

ARROW-ROOT: a starch obtained from the root of a West Indian plant, largely 
cultivated in all tropical countries. Its name is said to have been 
obtained from the fact that the Indians used the fresh roots to cure 
the wounds made by poisoned arrows. More probably it is derived 
from Ara, the old Indian name of the plant. 

The roots are dug when they are about a year old. When good, 
they contain about 23 per cent, of starch. In Bermuda and Jamaica 
they are first washed, then cleaned of the paper-like scale, washed 
again, drained and finally reduced to a pulp by beating them in 
mortars or subjecting them to the action of the wheel-rasp. The 
milky liquid thus obtained is passed through a coarse cloth or hair 
sieve and the starch allowed to settle at the bottom as an insoluble 
Arrow-root powder. This powder, dried in the sun or in drying houses, is the 

"arrow-root" of commerce and it is at once packed for market in air-tight cans, pack- 
ages or cases. 

Arrow-root has in the past been quite extensively adulterated with potato starch 
and other similar substances, so care is needed in selection and buving. The genuine 




34 THEGROCEE-'SEN CYCLOPEDIA 

article is a light, white powder (the mass feeling firm to the finger and crackling like 
newly fallen snow when rubbed or pressed), odorless when dry, but emitting a faint, 
peculiar odor when mixed with boiling water, and swelling on cooking into perfect 
jelly, very smooth in consistence — in contradistinction to adulterated articles mixed 
with potato flour and other starches of lower value which contain larger particles. 

Arrow-root is used as an article of diet in the form of biscuits, puddings, jellies, 
cakes, etc., and also with beef tea, milk or veal broth, or plain boiled with a little 
flavoring added, as an easily digestible food for invalids and children. 

ARTICHOKE: a plant resembling the thistle, which is cultivated for its flowering 
head, gathered before the flower expands. The edible portion is the fleshy part of the 
calyx — the "bottom" or basin of the blossom — and the base of the leaves of the flower. 

The flesh corresponds to what children call 
the "cheese" of the ordinary thistle. As eaten 
here, it is generally boiled before serving, but 
in Europe it is popular raw, seasoned only 
with salt and pepper. 

If cut so as to leave an inch or two of 
stem, artichokes possess good keeping quali- 
ties, frequently remaining quite fresh for two 
weeks or longer under average retail condi- 
tions. 

Canned artichokes, principally the fonds 
or "bottoms" only, are imported in large quan- 
ties from Italy and France. The small arti- 
choke buds are used chiefly for garnishing. 

The Jerusalem ArtichoJce (which see) is an entirely different plant. 




Artichoke — showing edible base or "bottom" 



ASH: a word generally employed in food analysis to designate the mineral compo- 
nents (salts, etc.), as they form the residue or "ash" left after the application of heat 
sufficient to destroy all combustible components. See Food Values. 

ASHES. Formerly, all wood ashes were saved by prudent housewives and used for 
soap making, because of their strong percentage of lye, and in some sections the ashes 
of plants, especially of ferns, are still dampened and roughly made into balls for use 
in house cleaning. The cheapness of modern cleaning compounds has, though, prac- 
tically ended this little economy. 

ASPARAGUS : a native of Europe, which was a favorite vegetable of the ancient 
Romans. In this country, only the "spears" are eaten but in other parts of the world 
the seeds have been largely used for coffee- — they are still recommended for that pur- 
pose in some parts of Europe — and a fermented spirit is made from the berries. 

An asparagus bed will continue to produce for a century, but it is at its best 
between the third and sixth years. Its commercial productivity is generally limited 
to fifteen years, as the stalks become smaller and less desirable with age unless 
fertilization is very heavy. The roots are buried from four to ten inches below the 
level and the sprouts or spears are cut as soon as they reach the surface or a few 
inches above it and are then tied in bunches for the market. 



"// 




.\^['-\k'-\( .1 s 



THEGROCEE^SEN CYCLOPEDIA 37 



The exteusiou of cultivation lias resulted in cluiuging asparagus from a vege- 
table almost exclusively for the well-to-do into oue within the reach of nearly every- 
body. It is furthermore a vegetable of great adaptability — it can be readily grown 
all the year round, though the northern winter supply is necessarily somewhat 
expensive, and is nearly as good canned as fresh. 

The two principal market divisions are into the "green," in all sizes and qualities 
and varying from briglit green to purplish; and the "white," generally more or less 
tinted with purple and usually in the large size. The white is obtained chiefly by 
deep planting of the roots or by banking earth up around the shoots, but some 
special varieties grow nearly white without this assistance. The preference for one 
or the other is in some sections a matter of fixed local sentiment, and in others 
is subject to changing fashion. New England and Southern trade prefer the green; 
the West and Northwest, the white, and New York vacillates betvi'een the two. 

In cooking fine fresh asparagus, it is best to stand the bunch on end, leaving 
about an inch of the tips above the surface of the water. In this way it is possible 
to cook the spears thoroughly without destroying the appearance of the tips. If the 
tips are not sufficiently cooked by the steam, the bunch may be laid on its side for 
a few minutes immediately prior to taking out. 

ASPIC: the name given to a clear savory jelly made from meat and used to 
decorate entrees, tongues, salads, etc. The word is derived from "Spike jelly," i. e., 
jelly flavored with "Spike" or "French" lavender, at one time a popular dessert. 

ASSETS: the whole available property of a merchant or a firm. In computing the 
assets of a store a great mistake is made when everything in stock is put down 
at its original price. The available Value is rarely more than what the goods would 
bring at auction. 

AVOCADO : a salad fruit gaining in popularity. See Alligator Pear. 

AVOIRDUPOIS: the system of weights used for everything except medicines, 
precious stones and precious metals. A pound avoirdupois contains 16 ounces or 
7,000 grains (see Weights in Appendix). The name is derived from the old French 
words aver (goods) de (of) jjeis (weight). 

AWNINGS: are made usually from sail duck canvas and vary in price and durabil- 
ity according to the heaviness of the canvas. Permanent awnings are often of corru- 
gated iron, but the best qualities of canvas ought to last very nearly as long. The 
practice of whitewashing the awning in order to prevent mildew, is a useless waste 
of time and money — it does prevent mildew, but the lime in the whitewash eats into 
the cloth and renders it brittle and rotten. The tendency to forbid fixed roofs or 
awnings over the public streets is steadily growing, but the grocer will often find 
smaller awnings over his outside display of fruits and vegetables profitable. if not 
really indispensable. 



AXLE-GREASE: used for lubricating axles. The basis of the different brands is 
a compound of fatty oils to which is added tar, graphite, or mica to increase the 
durability of the grease and give it a better surface. 

3 



38 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

BABCOCK TEST: widely employed for determining the richness of milk and 
cream. The essential principle of the process is that sulphuric acid added in the proper 
proportion dissolves all components of the milk except the fat, permitting the entire 
fat content to rise to the surface to be measured. In creameries, to facilitate the 
process, the samples held in closed test-bottles, are, after the addition of the acid, 
agitated in centrifugal machines for some minutes before and after the application of 
a certain quantity of hot water. 

BACON: is the cured and smoked meat of the breast- pieces, sides and belly of 
the pig, the breast-pieces being generally employed for choice "breakfast bacon." 

In buying, one should look for thin rind and fairly even streaking of tender red 
lean and firm white fat. That with yellow fat should be avoided. As it loses in 
weight with keeping, a retailer should not carry it in greater quantities than 
required to meet current demands. 

Bacon should be kept in a cool, dry place. The injunction to avoid exposure to 
the sun, applies with particular force to the sliced varieties packed in tin and glass. 

Instead of purchasing bacon by the pound and having it cut in slices, the aver- 
age householder will do better to take it by the whole strip in canvassed or wrapped 
form. If freshly cured when bought and if the cover is replaced each time after open- 
ing, it is easily kept in good condition until consumed. 

Bacon is a nutritious as well as popular article of diet. Some people of seden- 
tary habits find it hard to digest, but the choicer kinds are quite frequently pre- 
scribed as part of invalid dietaries, in place of cod liver oil and similar preparations, 
the curing and smoking of the bacon-fat aiding in its assimilation. 

Broiling is the best method of cooking bacon, but careful frying will do fairly 
well. The slices or rashers should be very thin, not less than six slices to the inch. 
The skin on the one side and the smoke-colored edge on the other should be cut off 
before cooking. The broiler or pan should be warm before the slices are put on and 
the fire should be brisk. Some people like the bacon crisp, but it is more acceptable 
to the average palate when nicely browned but still elastic. It should be eaten 
immediately after cooking, as if allowed to stand for any length of time both flavor and 
tenderness are lost to a large extent. See Color Page opposite 292. 

BACTERIA : the family name which includes a great many of the smallest varieties 
of micro-organisms or "microbes" — minute vegetable growths. They are found in 
three chief forms — ^round, rod-shaped and spiral — but as a class they are dis- 
tinguished by their reproduction by fission — the full grown bacterium, except in a 
few cases, multiplying by dividing itself instead of producing others by budding (as 
yeasts) or by seeds or spores (as molds). They are universally recognized as of 
vegetable nature but some types are motile, the power of movement being often due 
to hair-like processes called fiagella. They are so small that they are discernible only 
by microscopes of high power — even the width of the finest needle would, compared 
to a bacterium, look like the width of a man's thumb beside a speck of dust. They 
are as a class the most important both for good and evil, of all microbes, the most 
numerous, the most vigorous — and the most difficult to control, for where the condi- 
tions are favorable, millions can result within twenty-four hours from a single active 
specimen left undisturbed. They are present everywhere that life is found, and some 
of them are always at work in all kinds of moist food unless hermetically sealed or 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 39 

held at the freezing or boiling points. Freezing will stop their increase but only heat 
considerably above the boiling point, or long continued boiling, is a sure destroyer 
of all kinds. 

Bacteria are found in great numbers also in various parts of the human body, 
but under normal conditions the presence there of some types is not only harmless, 
but absolutely necessary to health and life — for there are, from the human stand- 
point, both "good" and "bad" bacteria, and we need the former to counteract the 
latter. 

In addition to their functions in the human body — which subject belongs rather 
in the province of the physician than the layman — and their value in the gen- 
eral economy of the universe — which is too wide a subject for discussion here — 
bacteria, properly controlled, are of great value in the production of many foods. 
Their presence in various articles assists digestion by the chemical changes effected 
and also by producing flavors which stimulate the proper secretion of the digestive 
fluids which are not excited by flavorless articles of diet. 

Some varieties, for example, are almost indispensable adjuncts of butter and 
cheese making. The "ripening" of cream before churning, is merely waiting for 
chemical changes to be effected by the growth and increase in it of good bacteria. 
One thousand million of bacteria to the square inch is a conservative estimate for 
well ripened cream. Butter made from cream too fresh, and therefore deficient in 
bacterial life, is flavorless. This ripening of cream is not new — though the knowledge 
of the cause of the change is. Long before the presence and activity of bacteria 
were discovered, the butter maker used to set his cream aside and allow his un- 
suspected helpers to ripen it before he commenced churning. Another of the secrets 
of good butter making is though to know how far to let this change continue, for 
if overdone the cream is spoiled. 

Many bacteriologists have made a study of the production of the best kind of 
bacteria for the use of butter-makers, and certain varieties can now be procured in 
open market under the name of "Pure-Cultures." These are used in much the same 
manner as yeast is used by bakers. 

In the manufacture of cheese, bacteria play an even more important part — in 
fact, its manufacture without them is inconceivable, as the flavors for which cheeses 
are prized are directly attributable to bacterial agencies — though in some cases, as 
Brie, Oamembert, Gorgonzola, Eoquefort and Stilton, credit must also be given to the 
employment of special "mold" microbes. The production and sale of bacteria for 
cheese making has reached an active stage in Europe and it is only a question of 
time when it will be possible to set cultures for all the choicest imported cheeses at 
work in local American dairies. 

Again, the only good table vinegar is the result of the activity of a species of 
acid-producing bacteria, and even the lactic 'bacierhim, which incurs the enmity of the 
Tinthinking by "souring" the milk, is a very good friend — in this particular case the 
flavor of the milk is spoiled for many people, but the lactic acid formed makes it an 
especially health-giving drink and prevents for a time other noxious bacteria from 
rendering it dangerous by decomposition. Indeed, milk that has been "preserved" 
from souring by checking the formation of lactic acid may prove distinctly dangerous 
for consumption even though the fresh flavor is retained. 

These instances give some idea of the good services rendered under certain con- 
ditions by many kinds of bacteria — and they are also indispensable to agriculture 



40 THEGROCER^SENCYCLOPEDIA 

and other industries — but in the retailer's establishment and the household they are 
best regarded as enemies to be fought at every turn, for their uncontrolled access to 
fresh food is certain to result in loss and sometimes in danger to health. They are 
far more generally destructive than either wild yeast or molds. All real putrefac- 
tion is due to the action of bacteria — the breaking down of the structure of the food 
as they feed on certain elements in it and other changes caused by their growth and 
multiplication — and, as already stated, they are present everywhere, being especially 
plentiful in and around human habitations. Thoroughly dry, salted, smoked and 
(under certain conditions) spiced and pickled foods are safe from their depreda- 
tions, but any fresh foods that contain from 25% to 30% moisture, except those that 
are very acrid or very heavily sugared, offer suitable soil for their growth and 
multiplication — if undisturbed, they rapidly take them through the various stages of 
putrefaction to the culminating point of decay. 

Daylight, sunshine and cleanliness are opposed to bacteria, so stores and homes, 
and especially kitchens, should be blessed . with all three as a preliminary safe- 
guard. Next, fresh meats, canned goods (after opening) and similar foods should 
be eaten as fresh as possible. When immediate consumption is impossible, a good 
refrigerator offers a considerable measure of temporary protection, but it is only 
temporary, for the growth of some kinds of bacteria is checked by nothing short of 
freezing. 

As already stated, boiling continued for an hour or so after the full heat has 
permeated every part of the food will kill all kinds of bacteria — will sterilize it — but 
this must be followed by immediate and hermetical sealing while still boiling hot, or 
new bacteria may get into it and start propagation afresh. 

BAGS. Formerly the making of paper bags was one of the duties of the grocer's 
assistants, but they are now made more cheaply by machinery. Many manufac- 
turers, desirous of advertising their wares, print paper bags and supply them to the 
trade at a nominal price, or give them with every sale of their own goods, but every 
good grocer can better afford to advertise his own store in that way, than to make 
the trifling saving. 

Paper bags are made in a great variety of sizes and qualities. The present 
self-opening square bag was invented in 1883, following closely after the introduc- 
tion of the satchel bottom bag. (See a] so Paper and Waxed Paper.) 

BAKING. See sub-head in general article on Cookery. 

BAKING POWDER : a compound used in place of yeast, in which an acid acting 
upon an alkali generates carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas). As this action takes 
place as soon as the powder is moistened, the dough is made ready for baking more 
promptly than when yeast is used. 

Practically all baking powders are composed of an acid, an alkali and a filler. 
The alkali is nearly always Bicarbonate of Sodium, and starch is generally employed 
as the filler, but there is a wide variation in the acid constituent used, and baking 
powders may be conveniently classed according to its nature. They may be recog- 
nized as follows: 

(1) Tartrate Powders, in which the acid constituent is cream of tartar or 
tartaric acid : — Eoyal, Dr. Price's, Cleveland's, Sea Foam, etc. 



THE G It C E 11 ^ S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



41 



(2) AhiNi- Powders, in which the acid constituent is geuerully a calcined double 
sulphate of aluminum and sodium : — Davis, Calumet, K. C, etc. 

(3) Phosphate Poioders, in which the acid constituent is acid calcium phos- 
phate: — Horsford's, Wheat, etc. 

In the process of baking, the chemical constituents undergo certain changes, so 
that the residue in the finished bread is of somewhat different character from tlio 
original ingredients. That left in food, when cream of tartar powders are used, is 
rochelle salts ; powders founded on phosphates leave calcium and sodium phosphates, 
and alum powders leave glauber's salt and a salt of aluminum. The quantity is, 
however, in each case very small. 

The date when baking powder was first manufactured is involved in some doubt, 
but it is known that Preston & Merrill, of Boston, made it prior to 1855, the common 
name then being "yeast powder." Phosphate powders were invented by Professor 
E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, Mass., in 1857, and their manufacture commenced soon 
thereafter by the Eumford Chemical Works, of Providence, R. I. Royal Baking 
Powder was first introduced in 1867 and Alum powders about the year 1875. 

Grocers should not sell baking powders which do not give entire satisfactiou, even 
if they are cheap and pay a good profit, because the loss resulting from a dissatisfied 
customer is likely to be much more than the profit on the baking powder. Private 
brands should be avoided because of the uncertainty as to their true character and 
legality under the Pure Food Laws. It is safest to buy only well known "regular"' 
brands bearing the name of a responsible manufacturer. 

Care should be taken to keep all baking powders in a dry place as they lose their 
strength if exposed to dampness. 



BALM, Balm Mint, Lemon Balm. See Garden Balm. 



BALYX, or 

Sturgeon. 



Balik: an European, originally Russian, term for salted or smoked 



BAMBOO SHOOTS: young shoots of the bamboo 
plant, eaten as a vegetable by the Chinese and one of the 
characteristic components of Chop Suey. 

BANANAS. The banana, the most prolific .fruit 
plant known, is a native of the East Indies but is now 
cultivated in all tropical countries. It is palm-like in 
appearance, but is in fact a large "plant," the thick, soft 
stem being formed by the overlapping of the long 
vertical leaf-stalks. This stem in the dwarf types is 
only about four feet in height, but in the most widely 
known varieties it reaches from twelve to twenty feet, 
up to even forty feet, with a diameter in the latter 
case of twelve to sixteen inches. The leaves spread out 
from the top of the sheath, each from six to ten feet in 
length by two feet or so in width. 

The fiowers, long and narrow, generally red, some- 
times pink and yellow in color, are at first folded 




llaiKina lilo^soiil 



42 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



close together to form a head at the end 
of a large drooping spike. Those at the 
point of the spike die unproductive, but 
the others, commencing from the stem 
side, rapidly change into fruit, layer by 
layer in circles around the stem, which 
steadily elongates so as to give each layer 
or "hand" plenty of room to develop- 
some branches containing as many as 160 
fruits. A branch is known commercially 
as a "bunch" — the standard size being 
nine "hands" or "ridges," or "layers" to 
a stem, with from ten to fifteen bananas 
to a "hand." In Central America, the 
bunches often run a good deal larger. 

Contrary to popular belief, bananas 
do not grow on the tree as they hang in 
the store, but with the small end of the 
fruit pointing upward. 

After the fruit is taken, the plant is 
cut down — a new stalk growing up again 
and producing fruit in ten to twelve 
months. This course is repeated for 
about ten years, when the vigor of the 
plant generally decreases and it is re- 
placed by a new cutting. For commercial 
purposes, the banana is cultivated with a good deal of care— it is set out in hills and 
rows, very much like maize, except for the much larger distances separating the hills, 
and is carefully weeded and watched — but as a native food it needs very little atten- 
tion, all that is necessary being to loosen the earth around the roots every season and 
to remove any suckers thrown up and plant them at requisite distances. 

The yellow bananas are everywhere the most plentiful, but the red varieties are 
raised in considerable quantities in Cuba and Central America. Their respective 
merits are entirely a matter of individual opinion. 

The "fig" or "lady-finger" banana, a very small, thin-skinned yellow variety, is 
the most esteemed in tropical countries — the fiesh is finer and the fiavor very soft and 
sweet. 

Bananas are brought to our markets in a green state, coming chiefiy from Jamaica 
and Central America. As they are easily frozen, they are in cold weather packed 
very carefully before shipping— but are always sent at the risk of the party ordering. 
When received by the retailer or consumer in green condition, they should be 
kept in a moderately warm room or cellar until they begin to show color. Both cold 
and excessive heat will prevent them from maturing satisfactorily. When ripened, 
they are especially sensitive to low temperature and will readily deteriorate in any 
place where the thermometer registers below 50° Fahr. Placing in a refrigerator, or even 
laying on a cold marble slab, will turn them black and may spoil their fiavor. 

In selecting bunches, give the preference to those with stems still greenish in 
color and bearing fruit full and plump in appearance. If the fruit is thin or flat 




OOrraiceT, z 

A great Banana plantation near Port Limon, Costa Rica 




oopir:out, underwood <fr ostiERwoon, n. y. 



GATHERING BAXANAS. JAMAICA 



44 



THE GKOCER^S. ENCYCLOPEDIA 



looking, the bunch was probably cut too 
soon and in that case, though the fruit 
may ripen and become yellow, it will 
never attain tlie flavor and delicacy of 
that properly developed on the plant. 
Some varieties are naturally more or less 
"flat" in appearance even when fully de- 
veloped, but as they are generally inferior 
in quality, it is safest for the average 
retailer to adhere to the rule to take only 
those "full and plump." 

Properly selected and carefully 
ripened to a good deep yellow, the banana 
of the northwestern retailer is just as 
delicious as the fruit plucked from the 
plant in its tropical home. 

The banana is in this country nearly 
always eaten raw, but in the West Indies 
and other tropical and sub-tropical parts 
it is also baked and otherwise cooked, 
both as a vegetable and dessert, made into 
flour for bread, dried black in the sun 
after the manner of figs, preserved with 
sugar and with vinegar, and pressed and 
fermented to yield a spirituous drink 

Placing the Bananas in freight cars rCSemblino' Cidcr 

The Plantain (Avhich see) is of the banana family and the fruit resembles a yellow 
banana, but it is larger and coarser and suitable only for cooking. 




BANANA EXTRACT. 



See general article on Extracts. 



BANNOCK: in Scotland and the northern counties of England, a flat round cake, 
made of oat, rye or barley meal, baked on the 
hot hearth or on an iron plate over the fire. 
The bannock is the primitive cake, varied in 
material, of every country. 

For consumption in this country, bannocks 
are enriched by adding chopped almonds, orange 
peel, etc., to the dough. 

BAOBAB, 01- Monkey Bread: the fruit of 
a low, abnormally thick-trunked tree, native to 
Africa but grown also in India. It is generally 
oval in shape and about nine inches in length. 
It is downy in appearance, but under the down 
is a strong woody shell, enclosing a fibrous and 
farinaceous pulp of sub-acid fiavor.' The juice, 
slightly sweetened, is frequently used in the 
treatment of tropical fevers. 




COPtRIOHT, OMIEHWOOn it UMiEU 

Loading' n fruit steamer with Bananas 



THE GKOC.ERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



47 



BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY: the edible fruit of the Pereskia Aculeata, a cactus 
found in the West Indies and distinguished as leaf-bearing in the ordinai'y sense of 
the word. It somewhat resembles the gooseberry in appearance, is generally yellow in 
color and of excellent flavor. 




BARBERRY: the berry of a shrub of prickly character, growing from four to nine 
feet in height, Avhich in various types is found wild in nearly every temperate coun- 
try. In the United States, it is particularly abundant in New England. 

The fruit, of bright red color, ripens in October and November. It is too acid 
to be generally acceptable for eating raw, but it makes excellent preserves, jams, etc., 
and as such is very wholesome. 

The young leaves are of a bitter but 
pleasing flavor and are sometimes used as 
a salad and for garnishing. 

The famous French jam known as 
"Confiture d'epine vinette" is manufac- 
tured, principally in Rouen, from the 
Seedless Barberry. 

Barberries are also used in France 
for the manufacture of malic acid. On 
analysis they show in addition a small 
percentage of citric acid. Barberries 

BAR-LE-DUC "JELLY": preserves, originally of selected seeded whole white 
currants, but now also of strawberries, raspberries, etc., manufactured in the French 
town of Bar-le-duc. The popular term "Bar-le-duc jelly," is misleading as the typical 
product is a jam or preserve, the berries remaining intact in a thin syrup. The 
title "Lorraine Jelly" is sometimes used, as the city of Bar-le-duc lies within the 
boundaries of the former province of Lorraine. 

BARLEY {see Color Page opposite 526) : a grain grown in nearly every part of the 
world, which has apparently been cultivated from the most remote antiquity. The 
Books of Moses and the early Greek and Roman writers make many references to it. 
The Greeks are said to have trained their athletes on it and "barley wine" or "beer" 
was enjoyed at a very early date. 

Barley grows very rapidly, in the northern United States maturing in about 
three months after seed sowing. The greater part of the crop is consumed in the 
form of malt and malt products — beer and kindred beverages, whisky, etc. 

Medicinally, barley is rated as the mildest of the cereals. It contains less protein 
and carbohj'drates but more fats and salts than wheat. In various forms it is 
especially valuable as a part of invalid dietaries. 

Barley Meal: the whole grain ground, is the form in which barley is generally 
sold for the manufacture of beer, whisky and other liquors. In the northern parts 
of Europe large quantities are also employed in bread making. 

Barley Malt. See Malt. 

Pot, or "Starch," Barley: is the grain deprived of its outer husk. 

Pearled Barley: is the grain with both the outer and inner husks removed, fol- 
lowed by a polishing process. It is entitled to place as a "cereal" food, but in the 



48 THE GROOEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

f 

average American household it is used only in soup or in preparation of home remedies 
for colds, etc. 

The largest consumption of Pearled Barley, including practically the entire out- 
put of the finer grades, is among Hebrews, who prepare it both as a breakfast food 
and a pudding. 

Patent Barley: is a flour obtained by grinding Pearled Barley. It has none of the 
acrid taste found in barley meal ground with the husks. 

BARLEY HONEY: is a Japanese product made from barley starch, generally in 
combination with rice flour. 

BARM: foam taken from the surface of fermented malt liquors. It is commonly 
known as Brewers' Yeast. See Yeast. 

BARREL. See tables of ^Veights and Measures in Appendix. 

BARROW, or Push-cart: a small carriage moved by hand. It should be kept well 
painted and under cover. In purchasing, care should be taken that the load balances 
evenly on the axle. 

BARTER : dealing by an exchange of goods. This was the original mode of dealing 
before the use of money and is still very common wherever money and banking facil- 
ities are scarce. The country dealer is often obliged to take eggs, butter, etc., as pay 
for sugar, starch and soap, and when he can move the produce quickly and well, and 
is not paying too much for it, the barter seems to give a double proflt, because 
he makes something on the sale of the groceries and something on the sale of the 
produce. But it is often a great snare for the following reasons: 

First, the produce may move slowly and so tie up capital, even if it does not 
result in loss by deterioration of quality. 

Second, the belief that there is a double proflt in barter, leads the dealer to pay 
a higher price for goods taken in trade. There is really no double proflt. For keep- 
ing, handling and selling groceries, one profit is realized ; for receiving, shipping and 
selling produce, another profit should be earned — and the dealer who performs both 
for a single profit, is doing half his work for nothing. 

Third, it requires all the average man's judgment and ability to run a grocery 
properly, and those who try to combine with it the business of buying and shipping 
produce, and its freights, sales, drafts, returns and commissions, generally find out 
that they are not masters of both, but that one eats up the profits of the other. 

Fourth, barter leads to a competition in buying which is worse than that which 
"cuts" in selling, for the dealer who cuts the prices of his groceries, generally stops 
before he gets to cost, because he knows just where that point is, but the buyer who 
competes on produce does not know the price at which the goods will sell in the city 
and is often easily led into paying more than he can realize after all the charges are 
paid. 

No dealer can afford to do two transactions for one profit; few are capable of 
managing a double business, and when goods are sold below their value or bought 
above it, it is well to let others control the market. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



49 



The common 




Basil 



BASIL: a highly aromatic herb, with a flavor resembling cloves 
variety is seldom made use of, but there is a large type whose 
leaves are employed very generally in flavoring sauces and 
soups, especially Green and Mock Turtle soup. Basil vinegar 
is made by steeping the leaves in vinegar. 

BASS: a well shaped, round and fleshy fish, of which there 

are three chief food varieties — the Striped, Sea and Black (or 

Fresh Water or Lake). The first two are found all along the 

Atlantic coast. The Striped Bass ranges in weight from half 

a pound to seventy-five pounds for some huge specimens and 

is in season all the year round. The Sea Bass averages from 

a half pound to five pounds and is in season from the middle 

of May to the end of December. The Black Bass averages 

about the same weight as the Sea Bass and is in season from 

June to December — its two principal types are the "Big Mouth" and "Small Mouth," 

the latter being considered the better. See illustrations of Striped Bass and Sea Bass 

in Color Page opposite 240. 

BATH BRICK, or Bmio? JSncfc: a dry brick used to polish steel knives and other 
cutlery, originally made from deposits of fine silicious sand found near Bath, Eng- 
land, but later made also at Bristol, England, and at South Hampton, N. H. 

BATH BUN: a kind of light, sweet roll, generally round in shape and usually con- 
taining currants, etc. It takes its name from Bath, England, the city of its origin. 

BAY LEAVES : the leaves of a shrub of the laurel variety, growing wild in Greece, 
Italy and other Mediterranean countries and in some Southern sections of the United 
States. 

Among the ancient Greeks, the Bay Leaf was in large part dedicated to heroism 
and poetry, but modern usage consecrates it to the more material pleasures of the table. 
The principal consumption is of the dried leaf, used as flavoring for soups, etc. 

BAY RUM: a liquor obtained by distilling Bay Leaves in rum, used as a perfume 
and hair tonic. It is generally imported from the West Indies. Imitations are plenti- 
ful, but very inferior in fragrance. 

BEAD: the tiny, iridescent bubbles which, on agitation, form on the surface of 
some alcoholic liquors. 

BEADING: any substance added to spirits to make them carry a "Bead," and to cling 
in drops on the sides of the bottle or glass. 

BEAN: a vegetable which appears to have been cultivated long before the com- 
mencement of recorded history and in one variety or another to flourish in every 
part of the world. It was well known to the ancient Egyptains and Grecians — and 
when the first voyagers reached the Western continent they found that here also the 
growing of beans, and peas, had apparently always been a common industry among 



50 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Broad Beans 



the natives — their preparation of beans and corn is perpetuated in "succotash." 
The bean of European history is the Broad or Windsor variety, with broad 
curved pods, containing thick bulging seeds of distinct and 
agreeable flavor. It is largely grown in Europe and Canada 
but is not an important crop in the United States as the cli- 
mate is not suitable for its best growth. 

The principal beans of United States cultivation are the 
Kidney and Lima, both of them believed to be native to South 
America. 

The Kidney Bean is the Haricot of the French and in Great Britain is sometimes 
called the French Bean. There are a great many varieties, capable of general classi- 
fication into "tough podded" and "edible podded." 

The "tough podded" class produces the bulk of the dried beans of commerce, vari- 
ously known as "Kidney Beans," "Navy Beans," "Marrow Beans," "Black Beans," etc., 

io many colors, shapes and sizes. "Black" or "Turtle" 
Beans, grown chiefly in the Southern States, make an 
especially rich and excellent soup. Some varieties, as 
"Flageolets," are cultivated with special regard to the 
consumption of the fresh seeds or beans. 

To the "edible-podded" class belong the numerous 
types of "Wax" or "Butter" beans, eaten fresh at all 
stages of development. The "Cranberry Bean" or "Red 
Speckled Bean," both shell and beans spotted or other- 
wise marked with red, is a variety cultivated principally 
in New England and popular there for making succo- 
tash. 

Siring Beans, Snap Beans, French Beans are imma- 
ture pods of numerous kinds of Kidney beans. The 
best have little or no "string."' They should be so young 
that the seeds are barely visible and should be marketed 
as quickly as possible after gathering. In buying, see 
that they are crisp and tender when broken — -toughness 
or limpness is a sign of too great age or overlong keeping. 

String beans are kept for winter use by salting, both for home use and retailing. 
They are a popular winter vegetable among Germans. Before cooking, they are soaked 
in water over night to remove the salt. 

Canned String Beans, described for quality as "Stringless," "Fancy," etc., are 
graded by size as "extra small," "small," etc. "Haricots Verts" are French string beans. 
Ldma Beans are fl.at, slightlj^ kidney-shaped, and generally wrinkled or fluted. 
They are very popular, both fresh and dried, the green seeded /<r-^ 

types being considered the choicest. When dried, they serve 
as an agreeable winter food, soaked before cooking. 

Pea Beans are the Cowpeas of the agriculturist, but tliey 
belong to the bean family in spite of that title. They are ''~"^^ss^,_jgg^_^^ 
grown in many varieties, bearing seeds of different styles and Lima Beans 

colors. Their principal use is as a forage plant and soil fertilizer, but considerable 
quantities are dried for winter use. They are cooked like other dried beans and have 
a very pleasing flavor. 




string Beans 





(1) Fifth and Sixth Cut Ribs 
(3) Middle Cut Ribs 



(2) Ihlrd Cut Ribs 
(4) First Cut Ribs 



BEEF 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



53 



Among numerous other "special" varieties are the /S'o^ Zfeau (which see), Aspara- 
gus Bean, Frijole, Lab-lab, Red Bean and Scarlet Runner. 

Asparagus Beans take their name from the great length of their pods, which aver- 
age twelve inches or more in length and in some varieties even exceed a length of three 
feet. By Chinese gardeners in California they are known as "Tou Kok." The seeds 
are small but the green pods make an excellent "Snap" bean. They are used only 
to a limited extent in the United States, principally by the Chinese and other resi- 
dents of Oriental birth or extraction, but they are beginning to find favor also 
among the white residents of California. They have long been cultivated in Europe. 

Frijole Beans are a small flat variety, generally of a reddish brown or light tan 
color, very common, both "green" and dried, in the Southwest and Mexico. 

Lab-lab, or Egyptian Kidney, beans are frequently grown as an ornamental plant 
but they are very productive and under proper cultivation can be used both as String 
and Dried beans. 

Red Beans are grown principally in the tropics. They are less liable to cause 
intestinal irritation than the ordinary bean, but they are difficult to transport because 
of their tender skins. 

The 8carlet Runner is also cultivated here principally as an ornamental climber, 
but it is consumed in large quantities in Europe, especially in England, both as a 
string and green shell bean. 

Selecting and cooldng dried beans. Well dried, mature beans are smooth and 
shiny. If there are folds in the skins, it generally signifies poor drying or inferior 
quality. They should also be of 
uniform size and appearance. The 
most important qualification is 
that they should cook soft. The 
size is chiefly a matter of taste and 
the color, other things being equal, 
is unimportant. The prejudice 
against beans that grow dark in 
cooking is unfortunate as many of 
them are of fine quality and flavor 
and frequently more tender than 
the very white. 

The first step in household 
cooking is the swelling of the bean 
and softening of the skin by soak- 
ing in cold water for generally 
not less than eight hours. Some 
cooks cover with hot water so as 
to shorten the time but the cold 
water method is preferable. The large Lima Beans after soaking may be easily slipped 
out of their skins by pressing between the fingers. Many other kinds may be freed 
from their skins by sieving or stirring in water, the skins rising to the top and being 
then skimmed off. After this process, beans can be boiled and served in many ways, 
whole, mashed as "bean pudding," in soup making, etc. 

Beans, as also peas, are exceptionally rich in food value. Even when immature 
or "green" they are much more nutritious than other vegetables of popular use, and 




Gathering Beans "down South" 



54 THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

when ripe or "dry" they excel nearly all other foods — both animal and vegetable. 
They average at least as much protein as meat and nearly as much carbohydrates as 
wheat. The only lack is in the fat component. See Food Values. 

BEAN FLOUR: pulverized dried or ripe beans. Used in the same way as Pea Flour 
(which see). 

BEAR-LITHIA. See general article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

BEATEN BISCUIT, or "Maryland Biscuit" : a kind of bread biscuit made without 
leavening. The folding and pounding of the dough encloses small quantities of air 
in minute blisters and these expanding in baking make the biscuit light and porous. 

BECCAFICO, or "Fig-Pecker" : a name given to numerous small birds, popularly 
supposed to live on figs, highly esteemed for the table in Southern Europe. 

BEECHNUT: the seed of the beech-tree, one of the most beautiful members of the 
oak family, found in numerous varieties in this country and in Europe. The nuts— 
sharp-edged and triangular in shape — grow in pairs in a rather prickly scaly burr. The 
kernels are very tender and sweet flavored. See also Nuts {Food Values). 

BEE GLUE, or Propolis : a kind of glue which bees use to close up cracks, especially 
any cracks that admit cold. They sometimes daub it on combs, often spoiling the 
appearance and ruining the sale of otherwise nice comb honey. 

BEEF: is the most important of meats, the chief staple of the butcher and the lead- 
ing food article in the average household. 

It is a curious and in some respects an unfortunate fact that in different parts of 
the country there are many names for the same "cut," but Diagrams I and II on page 57, 
adapted from a recent Bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, illustrate a very 
widely accepted division of a whole beef and show the relative positions of the cuts in 
the animal and in a dressed side. 

The Neck Piece is frequently cut so as to include more of the Chuck than is repre- 
sented by the diagram. 

The Shoulder Clod is usually cut without bone. The Shoulder (not indicated in 
the diagram) includes more or less of the shoulder blade and of the upper end of the 
Foreshank. Shoulder Steak is cut from the Chuck. 

In many localities, the Plate is made to include all the parts of the forequarters 
designated on the diagrams as Brisket, Cross-ribs, Plate and Navel, and different por- 
tions of the Plate as thus cut are spoken of as the "brisket end of plate" and "navel 
end of plate." This part of the animal is largely used for corning. 

The Eibs are frequently divided into "first" cut, the first three ribs constituting 
the choicest "prime" ribs of beef, "second" cut and "third" cut, the last-named lying 
nearest the Chuck and being slightly less desirable than the former. 

The Chuck is sometimes sub-divided in a similar manner, the third cut being 
nearest the neck. 

The names applied to different portions of the Loin vary considerably in different 
localities. With the Hip it is generally known as "hip-loin." The part nearest the 




FLAT BONE TOP SIRLOIN 




ROUND BONE TOP SIRLOIN 



BEEF 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



57 




Diagrams I and II. 



1. Hindshank. 

2. Round. 

3. Rump. 

4. Loin. 

5. Flank. 

6. Nave] end. 

7. Brisket, 

8. Ribs. 

9. Chuck. 

10. Clod. 

11. Foreshank. 

12. Neck. 



Plate.— i and 7. 
Sacfc.— 8, 9 and upper 
part of 10. 




Diagram III. 



/ s 


6 


'■\ i 


. ( 



9 



11 



!*'((. l|li/lJlW 



1. Neck. 

3. Chuck. 

3. Ribs. 

4. Shoulder clod. 

5. Foreshank. 

6. Brisket. 

7. Cross ribs. 

8. Plate. 



9. Navel. 

10. Loin. 

11. Flank. 

12. Rump. 

13. Round. 

14. Second-cut round. 

15. Hindshank. 





DiAGRA.Ms IV and V. 
(See explanation on page 58.) 



58 



THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ribs is frequently called "small end of loin" or "small end sirloin" or "short steak." 
The other end of the loin is called "thick end sirloin" or "sirloin." Porter-house 
steaks are cut from the "thick end." The very tender strip of meat known as the 
"tenderloin" lies under or inside the hip-loin, being thickest at the hip part and 
gradually tapering off to a very narrow piece at the "small end." 

It is not uncommon to find the Flank cut so as to include more of the loin than 
is indicated in the figures, in which case the upper portion is called "flank-steak." 
The larger part of the flank is frequently corned, as is also the case with the Rump. 

In some markets, the Rump is cut so as to include a portion of the loin, which is 
then sold as "rump steak." 

The portion of the Round on the inside of the leg is regarded as more tender 
than that on the outside, and is consequently preferred to the latter. As the leg lies 
upon the butcher's table this inside of the round is usually on the upper, or top, side, 
and is therefore called "top round." 

The lower diagrams, (III, IV) show two other standard divisions — No. Ill, a 
method widely accepted by Chicago and Kansas City wholesale butchers, and Nos. IV 
and V a popular New York wholesale division. 

The following table explains the separation shown on illustrations Nos. IV and V. 



HINDQUARTERS, 
1, 2, 3, 4, 3 



Full Bound 
1, 2, 3 

"FtiW 



FOREQUARTERS, 

6, 7, 8 



1 — Leg or Shin. 

2 — Round: divided into Top, Bottom and Leg Bone. 

3 — Flank: of mixed fat and lean, containing Flank Steak nested in 

"cod" fat. 
4 — Short Loin: including Sirloin and, on under-side, part of Filet or 
"W rJ "T ■ Tenderloin. 

' I 5 — Full Hip : divided into Short Hip (containing the large end of Filet) 

*' 5 [ and Top Sirloin (or " Butt "). 

6— Plate*: divided into (a) Plate End, (b) Navel End, and (c) Breast or 
Brisket (together with part of 9). 

7—fl-Bib Cut*: divided into 3, 4, 5, 6 or 7-Rib pieces and "Chuck 
End" with remaining ribs. 

8 — Whole, or 

"Full" Chuck: divided into (a) Short Chuck, and (b) Shoulder and 
Breast or Brisket. 



* An 8-Rib Cut and the Plate together are known as a "Piece." 

Every normal steer has thirteen ribs. The general eastern rib cut gives eight 
ribs, an "8-rib roast" — one rib remaining on the hindquarters and four on the chuck 
— but this division is subject to wide variations at the wish of the purchasing retailer. 

See also the four Color Pages of Rib Guts, Sirloin Cuts, Steaks, etc.— alternate 
leaves commencing loith that opposite page 50. , 

The best beef is that of a young stall-fed, corn-fed steer. It should be of fine, 
smooth texture and bright fresh red color intermixed with fine streaks of white fat. 
It should retain the impression of the finger after it is removed — this is important, as 
old or tough beef is elastic to the touch. Meat that is pale or deep purple in color, 
that is wet and flabby, or has a sickly smell, should be carefully avoided. 

If the fat (of a healthy specimen) is yellow, the beef may still be of good quality 
— it is not from a stall-fed animal, but it may be a fine grass-fed specimen matured 
under specially favorable conditions — but if, as is generally the case, the fat is yellow 
from oil-cake feeding it has been obtained at the expense of the best flavor of the meat. 




PORTERHOUSE CUT 



^j^Se;'-'*'^"^^^'*?' 




PORTERHOUSE STEAK 




BEEF 



THE grocer's E N C Y C L r E D I a 61 



Cow beef and bull beef are also sold, but tliey are, at the general age of slaugliter- 
ing, not in any way comparable to steer beef in quality. Cow beef is a darker red 
than steer beef. When young it may be more tender than steer, but it is seldom if 
ever as juicy or fine flavored. 

"Boneless cuts" of beef are supplied to retailers throughout the country by several 
big j)acking houses. They include tenderloins, sirloin strips, sirloin butts, rib-beef 
rolls, loin backs, clods, etc. They are especially convenient and easy for the inexperi- 
enced butcher to handle and cut up, but some judges assert that, shipped in that man- 
ner, the meat deteriorates in flavor as the result of the loss of blood and extractives. 

Beef to be at its best should always be aged. To age it properly, a good refrigera- 
tor is, of course, indispensable. The temperature should be about 33° to 35° Fahr., and 
the atmosphere dry — the dryer the better. In cold dry air, beef will ripen and sweeten 
and maj safely be held a long time, whereas, in a warm, moist atmosphere it will 
become sticky and sour in a comparatively short time. It is important that the 
temperature shoiild be uniform and not allowed to rise and fall. 

One cannot dwell too emphatically on the importance of the proper aging of beef, 
for cooked fresh beef, even if cut from young animals, is certain to be tough, whereas 
beef properly aged will be more or less tender, even if cut from animals conspicuous 
for the number of their years. "Light" or very lean carcases are not though suitable 
for aging, as the fibre is liable to deteriorate during the process. 

Beef is generally acknowledged to be the best flesh-former of all modern foods, 
as in addition to an average of about 15% to 20% of protein it contains a considerable 
proportion of fat in an easily digestible form. A diet very largely of meat is not, 
tliough, desirable for the average person of sedentary occupation (see Food Values). 

When heads of families realize that there are many cuts of beef equally as nutri- 
tious as the sirloin, porterhouse steak and standing rib roast, which can, with verv 
little extra trouble, be served in forms just as palatable and inviting, they will find 
a wonderful difference in their expenditures for meats. Further, such a revolution in 
ideas would inevitably result in lower prices for the "choice cuts" also — it is only 
natural that high prices prevail for them now as the general public thinks that there 
are only three or four pieces of an entire beef that are fit for the table and all other 
parts have to be sacrificed at extremely low figures, or utilized by packers for their 
canned products. 

In broiling or frying a steak, the most important point is to put it over a quick 
fire and expose it on each side for about a minute so as to seal the juices in the meat 
— then proceed in the ordinary way to finish the cooking. 

Similarly, in "roasting" meat, have the oven hot, so that the outside is quickly 
cooked, to seal the juices inside. 

The average American doesn't care much for boiled fresh beef, yet, properly pre- 
pared, it is just as palatable as steak. The best cuts for this purpose are tlie brisket, 
cross-ribs and rump — the rump is especiallv suitable for those who prefer lean boiled 
meat. The principal points to be observed in cooking are: (1) tie the meat up to pre- 
serve its shape, (2) put into hoilinr/ water. (3) add salt, etc., and plenty of vegetal)les, 
(4) simmer fjenth/ until done — don't let it l)oil and bubble away, and don't overcook it 
or reduce it to rags. 

American prime beef has earned the reputation — abroad as well as at home — of 
being equal to the world's best anywhere. This is the result of the improvements dur- 
ing recent years in breeding, feeding and shipping. The old-time long-horned Texas 



62 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

steer, formerly the accepted American type, is obsolete as the result of crossing with 
high class imported stock and selection of the best grades has been brought to a very 
fine point; range feeding exclusively has been succeeded by grain feeding scientifically 
controlled for a considerable time prior to slaughtering, and modern methods of trans- 
portation have done away with the necessity for freezing shipments. 

Americans are, by the way, the greatest meat eaters in the world. The average con- 
sumption per capita here is 175 pounds per annum — and of this by far the greatest 
percentage is of beef in one form or another. English people average 110 pounds per 
capita, the French eat only half as much as the English, and the people of Germany, 
Austria and Italy consume still less. 

See also Brains, Heart, Kidneys, Liver, Sausage, Sweetbread, Tongue^ Tripe, 
ETC., and general article on Meats. 

Beef a la Mode. See Braised Beef. 

Beef Bread: the pancreas, frequently retailed as St^^eetbread (which see). 

Beef Extract. See Meat Extract. 

BEEFSTEAK MUSHROOM: one of the best known Tree Mushrooms (which see). 

BEER. The word "beer" as now used applies to all undistilled fermented malt liquors 
excepting those which travel under the special classifications of ale and porter or stout. 
Its principal constituents are prepared barley, called "malt" (which see) and hops with 
corn or rice, or both, added in varying proportions. Its flavor and quality depend not 
only on good materials and correct brewing, but also on the natural characteristics of 
the water employed — which explains the fact that, with all other conditions equal, 
some parts of the country enjoy a higher reputation for their beer than others are able 
to attain. 

The history of beer proper dates from the thirteenth century, but its predecessor 
"barley wine" was drunk in Egypt at least four thousand years ago. Herodotus de- 
scribes barley wine as made from barley malt, the principal ingredient of modern beer, 
and history tells that the Romans and later the early Britons, Danes and Germans prac- 
ticed the part of brewing it and consumed it in large quantities. 

In this country, in the early colonial days, every man was his own brewer. This 
statement is meant literally, for home beer brewing was as much a part of the house- 
wife's duties as the making of fruit preserves. The local government encouraged 
however the establishment of public breweries and, their product supplementing the 
increase in the quantity of imported beers as ocean traffic developed, the result was 
that in time the custom of home brewing died out as unnecessary. 

The beers brewed then — and for many succeeding generations — were all of the 
English style — ale, porter etc- — much heavier in alcohol than the product we know, 
darker in color, and more or less "muddy" in appearance. The greater percentage of 
alcohol was required to keep the liquor in good condition as brewing had not reached 
the scientific perfection of to-day. 

The English style of beers continued in universal use until the introduction of 
"lager beer" from Germany in the early half of the 19th century. The lighter bever- 
age met with almost instant favor and in a few years the demand for it had revolution- 
ized the brewing industry. Under different titles and brands it constitutes by far the 
greater part of the beer now consumed in this country. 




(1) Extra Porterhouse Steak (2) Second Cut or Chuck Steak 

(3) Hip Sirloin (4) Top Round Steak 

BEEF 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 63 



Formerly, beer was manufactured almost exclusively of barley malt and hops, and 
some varieties of both imported and domestic are still so brewed, but the addition of 
either rice or corn ( or both ) has become very general for several reasons — principally 
because of the preference of the general public for a very brilliant, sparkling brew and 
because of the high prices and limited quantity of high class barley malt produced. 
To these reasons may be added the fact that much even of high grade American malt 
contains too many insoluble albuminoids which tend to make the beer cloudy. 

The average proportion is 70% malt and 30% rice or corn, or 30% of corn and 
rice mixed. The rice is, perhaps, preferable to corn as giving a finer, cleaner taste, 
because of the absence of vegetable oil. The difference is, though, slight as very 
little oil is left in the corn after preparation. 

Only No. 1 white flint corn and fine ground imported Burma rice are used in 
high grade breweries. 

The preparation of the barley malt and the grinding of the corn (to a very fine 
hominy) are now frequently businesses separate from brewing, because of the magni- 
tude of preparation, separating, cleansing, etc. 

The first stages in brewing itself are the crushing of the malt and the prolonged 
boiling of the ground rice or corn. 

The crushed malt is run into the mash "tun" or tank and mixed with warm water. 
Then the rice and corn, still at the boiling point, are added to it, the diastase of the 
malt converting the starches of the grain into "sugar" (maltose and dextrin). 

The "wort," as the liquid product is then called, is next run off through a filter- 
ing apparatus into covered steam-jacketed copper boilers and there boiled, by steam 
pipes connection, for two or three hours. The hops, in the proportion of about one 
pound to a barrel, are added to the liquid as soon as it commences to boil. The liquid 
is next pumped through a hop strainer into the cooling tanks and thence as rapidly as 
possible through coils of cooling pipes into the ferment tanks. Here yeast is added 
and fermentation takes place. On the judgment and experience displayed in the 
preparation and handling of the yeast depends largely the success of the brew. 

From the fermenting house the beer goes to the "resting" or aging tanks. The 
next move, after a rest of generally three months or longer, is the finishing tank, 
where the finished product is "carbonated" either by the addition of carbon-dioxide 
taken from the fermenting tanks or of a small quantity of new beer just starting to 
ferment. Either process furnishes the "sparkle" and effervescence which give beer 
its attractive appearance. Finally comes the filtering and running into kegs or bottles. 

It is the boiling process which chiefly distinguishes beer as we know it from the 
ancient "barley wine." The boiling preserves the product by the elimination of the 
albuminoids, etc., and gives it both better appearance and flavor. The hops tend to give 
the desired bitter and aromatic taste. Bottled beer is further preserved by pasteuri- 
zation. 

The difference in the color of beers is attributable sometimes to local differences 
in the method of brewing, but more often to the quantity of malt used. As a general 
thing, a greater percentage of malt tends to make a beer darker and a greater per- 
centage of rice to make it lighter in color. Slight variations may also be due to the 
difference between light and dark malt, and an especially dark color may be attributable 
to the addition of 5% to 8% of caramel malt to a dark malt. 

The difference between "heavy" and "light" beer in composition, irrespective of 
color, is generally attributable to the temperature at which the "wort" is made. The 



(54 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

average is 150° to 160° Fahr., the result of adding the boiling grain to the- 
warm, hut not boiling, malt mash. A higher temperature produces less sugar and leaves 
a larger percentage of unconverted gxain extracts in the wort — and in consequence 
the completed beer will be heavj^ in body or extract but of a low alcohol percentage. 
A good example of a beer rich in extracts is the dark' Bavarian. Of opposite charac- 
ter is the Pilseuer kind — which is light in composition, almost free from extracts, but 
of a much higher percentage of alcohol. 

"Brewer's Sugar'' or "Commercial Dextrose,"' a form of glucose, is frequently used 
in place of part of the usual malt addition, principally from motives of economy when 
malt is high in price but also because it contains less nitrogenous matter and thus 
tends to make a clearer brighter brew. The chemical components are closely allied 
— malt under the action of diastase produces dextrin and maltose, and Brewer's Sugar 
contains dextrin, maltose and dextrose. 

American beer closely resembles the German in composition but it averages a 
little lighter in alcohol — varying in the ordinary varieties from 3% to 4%, going though 
in some cases as high as 7%. Some connoisseurs assert that the finest German beers 
excel any produced in this country, but it may be safely asserted that the average of 
the products of American breweries is fully equal to the average of those of any coun- 
try without any exception whatever. 

The title ''lager hcer'' signifies "store house beer," or beer laid by and stored for 
some months before use. 

Lager beer is distinguished in brewing by being fermented at a much lower tem- 
perature than ales. On this account it was formerly made only during the winter 
months, but the extension of refrigerating facilities in recent years has made its manu- 
facture possible all the year round. 

Malt Beer is made solely of barley malt and hops. 

Bode Beer is an especially strong variety of -German origin but now thoroughly 
localized here. It is darker in color, less bitter in flavor and stronger in alcohol. It 
is generally brewed in the winter from the first of the new crop of hops and malt and 
drunk in the spring. 

The goat which is usually associated with "Bock Beer" is attributable to a gen- 
eral misunderstanding concerning the origin of the title. "Bock" means "goat," but 
the name "Bock Beer" was taken from "Eimbock," the former nanie of Eimbeck, a 
Prussian city famous for its breweries during the time of the Eeformatiou. 

Stock Beer and ^Villtcl^ lieer are, practically, equivalents of Lager Beer. 

Black Beer or Dantsig Beer is a very dark, syrupy brew first made in Dantzig. 

Bitter Beer is a name occasionally applied to Ale (which see). 

The most noteworthy "temperance" beers which resemble genuine beer in flavor 
and appearance but which show less than 1% alcoholic component are made in about 
the same manner and with practically the same ingredients as lager beer, the alcohol 
being afterwards removed by re-boiling the finished product. 

BEESWAX: is the fatty substance secreted by bees in making combs for the deposit 
of honey. The commercial product is the comb refined, bleached, etc., after the extrac- 
tion of the hone3^ It is used in the making of fine candles and tapers, for honeycomb 
foundation (see Honey), etc. See also Wax. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



65 



BEESWING: a second or pseudo-crust much admired in port and a few otlier Avines, 
and wliich forms in tliem only when kept for some time after tlie iirst or true crust 
has formed. It consists of minute, glittering, floating particles of tartar, jiurer and freer 
from astringent matter than that deposited in the first crust. 

BEET: after the potato, one of the most important food roots. The small delicate 

varieties are p(»pular as a table vegetable, both fresh cooked 
and pickled ; the Sugar Beet furnishes nearly half of the world's 
sugar supply and large quantities of alcohol, and the Mangels 
and other coarser types are valuable as cattle food. 

For use as a vegetable, beets are generally boiled but some 
people prefer baking, which gives a deeper color and retains 
more of the natural juices. The red fleshed kinds are most 
popular for table purposes but there are several yellow-flesh 
types which are very fine in flavor and especially sugary to the 
taste. 

Several varieties of beet are grown exclusively for their 
tops or leaves, the most important of them being Chard (which 
see), the White or Sicilian beet and the >§ea beet. 

If stored in cellars, beets should be covered with sand or 
Beet soil to prcvcut shriveling. 

BENEDICTINE: one of the most ancient of liqueurs in present use, having been con- 
tinuously made since 665 A. D. It was originally prepared at the Benedictine monas- 
tery at Fecamp, Normandy, but since the French Eevolution of 1792 it has been made 
by a commercial company. It is flavored with a great variety of herbs, seeds, etc. See 
Colo?- Page of Liqueurs. 

BENGAL QUINCE or Elephant Apple: an Indian fruit of the citrus family, with 
smooth yellow rind and pulpy flesh of excellent flavor. A j^ellow dye is sometimes 
made from the rind, and the roots, bark and unripe fruit are locally used for medicinal 
purposes. 

BENZINE: a light oil of petroleum, used in the household for removing grease spots 
from clothes, etc. It takes the spot out by dissolving the grease. Commercially, it is 
also employed to dissolve caoutchouc, gutta-percha, wax, camphoi', etc. It is very in- 
flammable and all insurance requirements concerning it should be carefully complied 
with. The title "Benzine" should not be confused with "Benzene," more correctly 
called Benzol, a verv different article, obtained from coal tar. 




BENZOATE OF SODA, Sodium Benzoate: a salt made by adding benzoic acid 
to a hot solution of carbonate of sodium — -the sodium benzoate appears on cooling in 
the form of crystals. Commercially, it is a white powder, slightly sweet and astringent 
in flavor. It is used to a considerable extent as a food preservative (see Preservatives) . 
Commercial Benzoic acid is manufactured chiefly from coal tar and by synthesis, 
also to a cei'tain extent from rosins, especially that of the Toln and other South Ameri- 
can trees and Benzoin, exuded from the bark of an East Indian tree. It is found natu- 
rallv in cranberries and some other fruits. 



G6 THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

BERGAMOT, Bergamot Orange, or Mellarosa : a citrus fruit which may be classed 
as between an orange and lemon, cultivated principally in the South of Europe. It is 
generally somewhat pear-shaped, with thin, smooth peel, lemon-yellow in color and very 
aromatic, and greenish, sub-acid and fragrant pulp. The oil obtained from the rind is 
used in flavoring liqueurs and in perfumery. 

BERGAMOT (HERB) : a title frequently applied to a family of several different 
plants used as herbs for their stimulating and aromatic properties, as "Wild Berga- 
mot," "American Horse Mint," etc. 

BERGAMOT PEAR : in Europe, the popular name for several choice types of pears. 

BERRIES : should be kept in a cool dry place. Dryness is absolutely essential. Mois- 
ture, even in a cool atmosphere, will rapidly spoil them as it conduces to the growth 
of mold — and when berries have begun to mold, it is almost impossible to save them. 

It is much better to show berries in the window, if protected from the sun, or on 
a display table in the store, than outside in the street where they are reasonably sure 
to collect a fine assortment of grit and dirt. Some grocers have become so enlightened 
that even inside the store they show only a few boxes at a time — just enough to attract 
attention. The remainder are kept in the cellar or refrigerator until they are needed. 

As berries require very careful handling to wash them without spoiling their ap- 
pearance or flavor, the best advice is to exercise care in purchasing — avoiding those 
which are too soft or Avhich show sand, etc. Only fresh clean berries should be eaten 
raw — others are better cooked. 

See also Blackberries^ Strawberries, etc., and Color Page of Berries. 

BETEL NUT: the fruit of a palm cultivated in tropical Asia, noted for its narcotic 
and intoxicating properties. 

BETHESDA. See general article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

BIFFINS: a special kind of dried apple, flat in appearance and soft to the touch, 
prepared in large quantities in Norfolk, England. They are obtained by a very slow 
drying of the fruit and occasional pressing. 

BIGARADE or Seville Orange : the type chiefly used for preserving, etc. See Oranges. 

BILBERRY. See Huckleberries. Also in some sections applied to the June Berry. 

BILTONG: a South African term for strips of the sun-dried meat of antelope, etc. 

BIN : a large wooden box or chest with a lid, used for corn, flour, sugar, etc. Also, a 
compartment in a wine cellar. 

BIRCH BEER: a summer beverage made from the fermented sap of the birch. The 
sap is secured by "tapping" in the spring, a large tree often giving from four to six 
quarts in a single day. If the holes are properly closed after use, the trees may be 
tapped every year without injury. 




CURRANTS 

BLUEBERRIES 

BLACKBERRIES 



CRANBERRIES 

STRAWBERRIES 

HUCKLEBERRIES 



GOOSEBERRIES 

DEWBERRY 

RASPBERRIES 



THE GEOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 69 



BIRCH SUGAR: the evaporated sap of the birch tree, produced in very much the 
same way as Maple Sugar (which see) . 

BIRDS'-NEST SOUP: a famous Oriental soup made from the gelatinous, mucous 
substance with which several varieties of Swifts form the lower portion of their nests, 
building them bracket-fashion on the faces of cliffs. Eanten (which see), or Vegetable 
Isinglass, is frequently used as a substitute for Birds'-nests. 

BISCUITS or Crackers: are made nowadays in great variety and, in the majority of 
cases, of uniform excellence of flavor and ingredients. The result of the improvement 
in the domestic product during the last few years has been a noteworthy increase in 
consumption. The American appetite for biscuits is, however, still a long way behind 
that of some other countries — our annual per capita expenditure is only forty cents 
for biscuits of all kinds as against nearly three dollars in Canada and a full four dol- 
lars in England. 

The title "biscuit" is a combination of two French words which mean "twice 
cooked." In their original manufacture, "biscuits" underwent two separate bakings, 
the second to evaporate the moisture held over from the first. 

Enormous quantities of honey are used in the baking of the modern Sweet Biscuit 
as it helps to keep the product fresher and softer than when sugar is employed. 

The retailer is advised to buy in small lots so as to be sure that his stock is always 
fresh, and to lay in only those varieties for which there is a reasonably steady demand 
in his particular neighborhood. 

Hard, sweet biscuits are the best keepers. 

Excessive paleness is generally considered a defect as it is usually attributable to 
age or poor baking. 

Both retailer and consumer should see that crackers are kept in a warm, dry place 
— dampness will quickly spoil them. If moisture has deprived them of crispness, they 
can often be improved by putting in a hot oven for a few minutes. 

Bulk crackers should always be kept in boxes as nearly air-tight as possible — 
those with glass fronts or tops combining display and a fair measure of protection. 

"Package" crackers are always preferable to the bulk kind, for the latter can 
scarcely fail to suffer to some extent from exposure to atmospheric changes and to 
dust, flies and other nuisances. 



BISQUE: "cream" soup of Shellfish. See general article on Soups. 

BITTERS : spirits in which bitter roots or herbs have been steeped. Medicinally, they 
are divided into "Simple Bitters," including such remedies as Dogwood, Gentian and 
Quassia, which by their peculiar bitterness serve as a stimulant to appetite and diges- 
tion ; "Aromatic Bitters," including Virginia Snake Boot and Wild Cherry Bark, which 
contain an aromatic principle and are more or less astringent, and "Special Bitters" 
whose main principle is usually Cinchona, the source of quinine, and its several prepa- 
rations — in small doses acting as "Simple Bitters" and in larger as a remedy for ma- 
larial affections. "Cascarilla" is the Spanish and South American name for Cinchona 
and "Calisaya" is one of the best known varieties. 

Commercially, Bitters are widely used in this country as an appetizer, with other 
spirits and water, or with syrup and soda, etc. ; in the making of cocktails and various 



70 THE GKOCER^'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

other "mixed drinks." They are known by special trade names, taken generally 
from the constituent herb or bark, the place of production or the name of the manu- 
facturers. 

BIVALVE. As applied to foods, the term "bivalve" refers to shellfish having two 
shells joined by an elastic ligament which permits the shells opening (somewhat like 
the covers of a book — but not to an equal extent) and closing — as oysters, clams, etc. 

BLACK ASH : evaporated from the waste lyes of soap making and used in the manu- 
facture of alum and common soap. 

BLACKBERRY: the fruit of a bushy rambler, growing wild in the woods and 
fields, which is sold in large quantities in the early summer months. Cultivation has 
greatly improved its size and quality in recent years and has extended its fruiting sea- 
son to the end of September. In addition to its consumption as a fresh fruit, large 
quantities are used in cooking, made into jelly and jam, blackberry cordial, etc. 

Dried tlaclcherries , principally from the South, are wild berries dried in the sun. 
The quality is generally poor. 

The Dewherry is a fruit of the same species, but rather smaller, rounder and more 
juicy. It grows on a low, creeping bramble, and ripens several weeks before the black- 
berry proper. 

BLACKBERRY BRANDY: is boiled blackberry juice with medicinal spices added 
and fortified with sufficient brandy to prevent fermentation. It is much used in summer 
complaints. 

BLACKBIRD : originally, the name of a distinct variety of birds, but in this country 
freely applied in many sections to several birds widely diiSerent in family but alike 
in their black plumage. The only kind that can legally be sold as a game bird is that 
known as the "Crow Blackbird," which is considered excellent by many lovers of bird 
meat. Blackbirds were at one time highly esteemed as a food delicacy in England — 
an historical item that has been perpetuated in the nursery rhyme concerning the "pie" 
containing "four and twenty blackbirds" which was "set before the king!" 

BLACKFISH or Tautog: a North Atlantic fish in 
season from April to October. It varies in weight from 
one to fourteen pounds, large specimens measuring as 
long as thirty inches — these big fish being though very 
scarce. Its skin is tough and black like an eel's but the 
flesh is white, tender and of fine flavor. 

Blackfish 

BLACKING. The principal ingredients of common blacking are bone black, oil, mo- 
lasses and a little sulphuric acid. There is also a higher grade of blacking in which 
wax is used instead of molasses. This produces a softer and more durable polish and 
excludes moisture better than the ordinary article. Blacking should be kept in a dry, 
cool place. 

BLACKSTRAP. See reference in article under heading of Molasses. 




THE GROCER^S ENCYOLO.PEDIA 71 



BLANC-MANGE (from the French hlanc-mangcr, "white eating") : correctly, a pud- 
ing or jelly made of isinglass, gelatine, calves' foot jelly, etc., and milk. Ground rice, 
iirrowroot, cornstarch, etc., are, however, frequently substituted. Transparent Blanc- 
Mange, the title then being a misnomer, is a clear, flavored jelly. 

BLANCHING: whitening or making white. 

In cookerij. mushrooms, artichoke bottoms, etc., are "blanched" in water prepared 
l)y adding a little lemon, butter and salt and bringing to a boil. The term is also some- 
times, but incorrectly, applied in a culinary sense to Parboiling (which see in article 
on Cookery). 

In agriculture, the stalks of celery, asparagus, etc., are "blanched" by banking earth 
or putting planks, etc., around them while growing, to keep the sun off and thus prevent 
them attaining a green color. 

BLANQUETTE: a delicate white wine. A special variety of large pear. The 
French name for white-bait. In cookery, a stew with white sauce. 

BLET: a form of decay showing first as rotting spots in fruit such as apples, etc. 

BLETTING: a term applied to the change which takes place in hard, sour apples and 
similar fruits after they have been stored for a considerable time. The first effects are 
to improve the fruit by making the flesh softer and sweeter, but continued too long 
the change results eventually in decay. 

BLIMBLING: a fruit similar to the Caramiola (which see) but generally more acid. 

BLOATERS: selected fat herring, slightly salted and still more slightly smoked, re- 
tailed both from boxes and in cans, domestic and imported. As those in boxes are not 
intended for long keeping they should be consumed as soon as possible after curing. 
They are best from October to March. 

BLOOD WURST: a large sausage chiefly of pork, with hog blood, etc. See Sausages. 

BLUE. See item on Bluing at foot of this page. 

BLUEBERRY : a bluish-black berry of the Vaccinium family. See Huckleberry. 

BLUEFISH [See Color Page III of Fish) : a fish found at different periods the 
length of the Atlantic coast and consequently in season all the year, Florida supplying 
it during the winter months. It takes its name from the blue color of its skin and the 
slightly bluish tint of the flesh. It varies in size from half a pound to ten pounds — 
being occasionally found as heavy as twenty pounds. The very small fish caught dur- 
ing the summer months are known as "Snapper Blue." 

BLUE LICK SPRINGS. See general article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

BLUING or BLUE: used in washing clothes to give them a whiter appearance. It 
is retailed in both solid and liquid form in many grades. Indigo (which see) is the 
original form but Prussian blue and aniline dyes are now very largely employed. 



72 THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Liquid blue is very apt to freeze and should be kept in a warm place or the burst- 
ing bottles may entail great damage to other articles in stock. 

BOAR'S HEAD: formerly applied only to the head of the wild boar but now to that 
of any male pig, domestic or otherwise, when served whole. The wild boar, which has 
a shorter body and longer tusks and snout than the domestic hog and bears a thick hairy 
coat, is still hunted in Continental Europe, Northern Africa and Asia Minor. 

BOB- WHITE. The "Bob- White" — its name represents its call — is generally known 
as the Quail (which see). In some parts of the country it is erroneously called the 
"partridge" and the "Virginia partridge." 

BOCKS BEUTEL, Boxbeutel: a peculiar shaped bottle in which Steinwein and Leis- 
tenwein, fine Bavarian white wines, are generally imported. 

BOCKWURST: a term applied to various small sausages served with Bock Beer. 

BOILING. See sub-head in article on Cookery. 

BOLETUS : the large mushroom imported under the French name of Gepes. See 
Mushrooms. 

BOLOGNA: a well-known sausage, originated in Bologna, Italy. See Sausages. 

BOMBAY DUCKS: a familiar name for canned Bummaloe Fish (imported from 
India). 

BONITO: a fish varying in size from five to eight pounds,' found along the Atlantic 

coast, generally following the mackerel, which it resembles in 
scale coloring. It is in season from June to October. Its meat 
is rather dark. 

BORAGE : a garden herb. The young leaves smell somewhat like cucumbers and are 
used for salads and cooked as greens, etc. One or two leaves or flower spikes are often 
added to top a punch or wine cup. 

BORATED FISH : fish preserved by boracic acid ; largely imported from Norway. 

BORAX: one of the most useful of chemicals. The world's supply formerly came from 
Asia, principally Thibet and Persia, but the United States now furnishes a consider- 
able share of it, the largest deposits being those discovered in the middle and latter 
part of the last century in California and Nevada. The most famous are those of 
"Death Valley" in California, the borax being generally found in depressions which 
were probably lakes in prehistoric times. The borax there is generally in the shape 
of balls, from the smallest possible size to others as large as pumpkins, and usually 
stuck in clay around the depressions or "marshes" — technically so called though a ma- 
jority of them have been dry as dust for ages and the others hold water only during the 




THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 73 

rainy season. When these balls are broken they show a white crystal interior, which 
changes to a hard dull grey on further exposure to the air. In other parts, the borax 
is mixed with sand on the surface and in masses under ground. 

In its powdered and refined form and as boric or boracic acid, which is borax decom- 
posed by sulphuric or hydrochloric acid, borax has an extraordinarily Avide field of use- 
fulness. It is largely used in the silk and textile trades, in paper making and various 
other manufactures, as a substitute for and in the composition of soap, in the making 
of shampoo and other hair preparations, for preserving foods and liquids of all kinds, 
in the sick room and nursery, for the extermination of all manner of bugs and vermin, 
etc. 

Adulterations were formerly very common but the bulk of the borax sold to-day 
is pure. To test it, add to the powder a few drops of strong vinegar — if it effervesces, 
it is not pure. The most commonly used adulterant is bicarbonate of sodium. 

BORDEAUX WINES— Red. See Claret. 

BORDEAUX WINES — White: a majority of the white Bordeaux wines exported 
are produced in the celebrated Graves section of the department of the Gironde. 

The cheapest grades are generally marketed here as Bar sac, Bommes and Graves; 
the next higher as Sauternes, Haut Sauteriies and Haiit Barsac. The term "Haut" in 
this connection means "Upper," the higher sections of the Sauternes and Barsac 
districts producing wine of better quality. 

The most famous variety is the Chateau Yquem Sauternes — some vintages attain 
exceedingly high value. The other first "crtis" (growths or districts) are Cha,teau 
Latour-Blanche, Chateau Peyraguey, Chateau Vigneau, Chateau Suduiraut, Chateau 
Coutet, Chateau Climenz, Chateau (Bayle) Guiraud, Chateau Kieussec and Chateau 
Eabaut. 

The principal differences in the making of such wines as "Sauternes" and "Claret" 
are, that for Sauternes, "white" grapes are generally employed and that they are left 
on the vines until the last possible moment, until they are beginning to wrinkle with 
ripeness, so as to obtain the fullest amount of sugar ; that the juice is pressed and re- 
moved from the grapes as rapidly as possible to avoid its being colored by the skins, 
and that, going into the press later in the season, fermentation is arrested before all 
the sugar has been transformed into alcohol — producing a wine "white" instead of red 
and sweeter than claret — in which practically all sugar has been transformed. In ad- 
dition is, generally, a special selection of the grapes used— varieties heavy in sugar, such 
as Sauvignon and Semeillan, being grown in the majority of the vineyards of the 
Sauternes district — and, frequently, the addition of a small quantity of sugar-syrup 
after fermentation. 

The bulk of American "Sauternes" is produced in the Pacific Coast range district. 
Both the Eastern and Southern wine districts also supply a limited quantity, some 
brands being excellent in flavor and characteristics. 

See general article on Wines — Temperature, Decanting, etc. 

BORECOLE: a variety of cabbage with open leaves instead of head. It is best 
known popularly as Kale (which see). 

BOSTON BROWN BREAD: a famous New England specialty. See Bread. 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



BOUILLABAISSE: a famous French fish stew. See Culinary Terms in Appendix! 

BOUILLON : clarified broth. See general article on Soups. 

BOXBEUTEL : a special type of wine flagon or bottle. See Bocksbeutel. 

BRAINS : should be bright in color and firm. All kinds are esteemed as delicacies, 
but beef brains and calves' brains, the latter being the choicer, are the varieties chiefly 
retailed. In Southern cookery, the preference is generally given to sheeps' and lambs' 
brains. 

BRAISED BEEF or Beef a la Mode : generally part of the "round," boiled with carrots 
and other vegetables cut small. See Braising in article on Cookery. 

BRAN: part of the husk or coat of wheat or other grain (see Wheat) obtained in the 
process of flour making. Its principal use is as food for live stock but it is also mixed 
with white flour to make Brown or Graham bread, etc. 

BRANDIED CHEESE: old cream-cheese mixed and potted with brandy. See article 

on Cheese. 

BOUQUET of HERBS: a small bundle or "faggot" of various pot herbs etc., as 
parsley, thyme, celery, bay leaf, etc., for flavoring soups and stews. 

BRANDY: a liquor obtained by the distillation of the fermented juice of fruits. When 
the word is employed without any qualifying prefix, it is nearly always understood as 
the liquor distilled from wine, i. e., the fermented juice of grapes. Other brandies 
generally carry the explanations of their source — as "Cherry Brandy," "Peach Bran- 
dy," etc. After grapes, the most important commercial type of European brandy is 
that made from dried figs. 

Red wines yield the largest amount of brandy, but the product of white wines is 
considered the finer and more delicate. 

When first distilled, the liquor, known then as "white brandy," is entirely colorless 
and will so remain if stored in glass or earthenware. Custom first stored it in new oak 
casks and these gradually gave it the yellowish color which it had when first marketed. 
The public obtained the impression that the darker the brandy the greater its strength, 
and as a consequence a little caramel (burnt sugar) is nearly always added to obtain 
the now characteristic "brandy color." 

The finest brandy in the world is that known as Cognac, distilled from fine white 
wines grown in the vicinity of the City of Cognac, in the department of Charente, in 
the west of France. The word "Cognac" was for many years, until checked by legis- 
lation, so freely used on imported brandies that it is generally taken to be the French 
word for brandy. The proper equivalent is though Eaii, de Vie, "Cognac" only applying 
correctly to brandy from the Cognac district. 

The genuine Cognac is divided into four principal grades — "Grande Champagne" 
or "Fine Champagne" (the very finest), "Petite Champagne," "Borderies" and "Bois." 

The name "Champagne" was given in Old France to a plain or upland, the subsoil 
of which is chalk with a thin laver of mould. It is onlv suitable for vine cultivation. 



THE GKOCER-'SENCYCLOPEDIA 75 



There are many such "Champagnes" in France, but the two most famous are those 
around Reims (the source of Champagne wine) and ax'ound Cognac. Their soil and 
subsoil are similar. 

The third grade, "Borderies," is so .named because it is from the district "bordering 
on" the "Champagne." 

The fourth is styled "Bois," because formerly the country immediately beyond 
was a woodland {hois). It is divided into : Fins (fine) bois; Bons (good) bois; Bois 
ordiiiaires (ordinary); Bois eloignes (distant). 

Cognac as marketed is generally a blending of Grande Champagne or Petite Cham- 
pagne with Borderies or Bois, the first for flavor and aroma and the second for sti*ength. 
It is interesting to note that though Cognac is so distinctively a French product, com- 
paratively little of it is consumed in France, the bulk being exported to English speak- 
ing countries. In the offices of the largest Cognac firms, nearly 95% of the correspon- 
dence is conducted in the English language. 

The use of the word "champagne" in connection with brandy is also sometimes 
attributed to the custom of adding a small quantity of the finest brandy in the last 
stages of champagne making — the choicest brandy being used, the entire grade attained 
commercial significance as "Champagne brandy." 

"Cognac Vierge" is distilled from wine made from the first pressing of the grapes. 

The term Fine Cliampagne is also applied to a blend produced in Languedoc and 
Roussillon. 

Armagnac is another high class French brandy, produced in a district in South- 
west France, formerly known as Armagnac — now chiefly within the department of 
Gers. 

Eau de vie de Marc, or "lees brandy," is a distinct grade distilled from the fer- 
mented liquor obtained by steeping in water the skins, etc., left over from the pressing 
of the grapes for wine. It is generally of minor quality, but some varieties, as the best 
grades from the Burgundy district, are very highly rated. 

Care should be taken to avoid adulterated and imitation brandies. Their use is 
unnecessary as there is a plentiful supply of the genuine, both domestic and imported. 

Of the domestic product, that from California is generally rated as the best. The 
average annual output is in the neighborhood of five million gallons. Of this, about 
one-third, principally of that made from Muscat grapes, is placed on the market as 
Brandy, the remainder being used to fortify sweet wines, such as Port and Madeira. 

Genuine new brandy is frequently given the appearance and flavor of "age" by the 
addition of a little old rum, old kirsch, etc. 

Brandy is used medicinally as a stimulant and for various other purposes. It is 
distinguished from the majority of other ardent spirits by its light stomachic properties. 

BRAWN: veal or pork trimmings, chiefly the latter, seasoned, spiced and pressed. 
Sold in bulk, canned and sausage form. See Head Cheese. 

BRAZIL NUTS, Cream Nuts, Para Nuts: the fruit of a large tree, native to Bra- 
zil and Guiana. The nuts are brown and wrinkled in appearance, triangular in shape, 
with hard shells and white kernels of very agreeable taste. They grow encased and 
packed in round seed-vessels (see illustration in first Color Page of Nuts), varying in 
size from that of a cocoanut to some as large as a man's head and so hard that a 
sledge hammer is required to break them. See also article on Nuts (Food Values). 



76 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

BREAD. It is generally conceded nowadays that the Egyptians were the first to use 
leaven in the making of bread, though some historians give the credit to the Chinese. 
From Egypt, the custom traveled to Greece and, later on, the Greeks communicated the 
process to the Komans, who spread the invention throughout the northern countries 
during their campaigns. 

The allusions to bread in the works of the classic authors are very numerous. 
Athenaeus mentions no fewer than sixty-two varieties as known among the ancient 
Greeks and good descriptions of many of them are given. They employed in the mak- 
ing a great variety of grains — wheat, barley, rye, millet, spelt, rice, etc. — combining 
them sometimes with other substaiices such as the flour of dried lotus roots and the root 
of the cornflag, the last named first boiled so as to give a sweet taste to the bread. 

In ancient Eome, public bakeries were numerous, the great majority of them con- 
ducted by Greeks, who had the reputation of making the best bread. 

Wheat bread is the most popular in this country because wheat flour's higher per- 
centage of gliadin makes bread that is lighter than that of other flour. It is also credited 
with being a nearly perfect food ration. It is not as rich in food value as dried ripe 
beans or peas, but on the other hand it is in a form which is more generally accept- 
able as a leading article of diet and is easily assimilated. Its principal defect is the 
lack of fat, and that is generally overcome by the custom of eating it with butter or 
milk. It is also somewhat deficient in protein — hence the desirability of supplementing 
it with meat, fish, etc. (see article on Food Values). 

The exact science of modern bread making is a study of infinite minor chemical 
possibilities, but its fundamental principles may be outlined in a few words. The flour 
is mixed with water, a little salt and yeast, and left or set in a warm place to "rise." 
Later on, it is again kneaded and set to rise a second time. Then, as soon as the dough 
has risen sufficiently, it is shaped into loaves and baked in the oven. The time thus con- 
sumed varies in different processes, according to the quantity of yeast used, the tem- 
perature maintained, etc. In large modern bakeries, all or nearly all the work is done 
by machinery. 

The raising of the dough is effected by the growth in it of the yeast fungi. The 
diastase in the dough, produced by the action of the yeast on part of the soluble protein 
of the flour, converts part of the starch into a kind of sugar, and the yeast cells, feeding 
on and propagating in this, produce alcoholic fermentation — convert it into alcohol and 
carbon-dioxide ( gas ) . The alcohol, which passes away by evaporation, is unimportant 
but the carbon-dioxide, being distributed all through the dough, raises it as it expands 
in thousands of little pockets or cells in the dough. When the loaves are placed in the 
oven, the heat kills the yeast cells and stops the fermentation, but at the same time 
causes the gas already formed to expand still further, thus again raising the bread. 
Later, the gas forces itself out, but the air cells still remain, held in place by the stiff- 
ening in baking of the gliadin in the dough. The heat also changes some of the mois- 
ture into steam, which, being retained in the same or other tiny pockets, aids in the rais- 
ing process — and the result is the light porous loaf of everyday use. 

The brown crust of the baked loaf and much of its pleasing odor, are due princi- 
pally to the caramelizing of the dextrin and other sugars obtained by the conversion of 
the starch of the outer surface. 

The ordinary bread and rolls of everyday use are made from white flour — obtained 
by grinding the wheat grain after the bran coat and germ have been removed. For the 
more "fancy" varieties, milk and water, or milk alone, are substituted for the water in 




BREAD 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 79 



mixing the dough, and in some cases, sugar, butter, lard, etc., are added to it to make it 
sweeter or richer. 

]Sre\Y hot bread is generally rated as a bugbear to any except those of abnormally 
strong digestive powers — but lovers of good things to eat, who in fear of their lives 
have refrained from enjoying it, should take a stale loaf, wrap a wet towel around it 
and set it in a brisk oven for a while. The result will be a hot loaf that tastes better 
than one fresh from the baker — yet won't worry the digestion at all ! 

For French bread, just dip the loaf in water and set it in the oven without any 
cloth around it. 

Bread should be kept in an air-tight show-case, box or receptacle which must be 
frequently scalded and aired — and thoroughly dried before using again. 

In other countries, under various circumstances, bread has been made from a great 
variety of grains, vegetables and nuts. Beans, peas, potatoes, etc., produce fair bread if 
mixed with wheat or rye to prevent sogginess ; rice makes bread of pleasing flavor and 
attractive appearance ; the chestnut bread of the Corsican mountaineers is agreeable and 
healthful and will keep fresh for as long as two weeks, and acorns, mosses and innumer- 
able roots have also served — either alone or mixed with cereals. 

Aerated Bread, very popular in London, is made by charging the water used for wet- 
ting the dough with carbon-dioxide (gas), then working it up in enclosed iron kneading 
machines and putting directly into the oven, instead of allowing the gas to form in the 
dough from the fermentation caused by the working of yeast. The advantage is that 
bread can be thus made more quickly and cheaply and chemically purer — but, to the 
American palate, aerated bread has a rather flat taste. An objection in the trade is 
that owing to its firm crust it does not show its staleness and when taken away by the 
bakers is sometimes returned again as fresh — to the injury of the grocer, whose cus- 
tomers naturally complain. 

Boston Brown Bread is made from rye, cornmeal and graham flour, well sweetened, 
principally with molasses, cooked by steaming, boiling or baking, and generally served 
smoking hot. It was originated in New England and is still very popular there. With- 
in recent years it has attained also a considerable sale in other parts of the country, 
with a growing use in canned form. It is very nutritious but not as easily digested 
as wheat bread. 

Corn Bread has never attained full favor in the North, but in different forms it is an 
important article of food in the South, where it is consumed as "corn bread," "corn muf- 
fins," "Johnny Cake," "Corn Pone," etc. 

French Bread, as generally known in this c )untry, is a long narrow loaf — often eighteen 
inches long and upward — of crisp crust and proportionately little crumb. In France, 
there are two distinct types of bread. The kind already mentioned, in Paris some- 
times reaching a length of three to five feet, is known as "Pain ordinaire" (ordinary 
bread). The other is "Pain riche" (rich bread) — a finer variety mixed with milk 
and made in all sorts of shapes (crescents, etc.), generally of small size. 

Gluten Bread is made from ordinary flour dough subjected to straining and pressing 
under a stream of water until most of the starch is worked out, leaving the gluten as 



so THE grocer's encyclopedia 

the principal component. Properlj made, tlie result is a light elastic loaf especially 
suitable for diabetic and other patients from whose diet starch (and its product, 
sugar) should be excluded. 

Graham Bread, or Brown Bread, Whole Wheat or Entire Wheat Bread. Graham 
Bread is generally made from flour which contains all of the "bran coat," or at all events 
the "aleurone layer" (see Wheat), but its composition varies considerably. As gen- 
erally eaten nowadays, it is in other respects made in the same way as "white" bread, 
but the original Graham bread was made without yeast — the few "holes" in it being 
due probably to some minor fermentation. In flavor it was sweet and fairly palatable, 
but a good deal heavier than yeast bread. Whole Wheat or Entire Wheat bread is 
made from flour which consists sometiuies of the entire grain ground up; at 
others, merely a coarse flour containing part of tlie aleurone layer and grading between 
"Graham" and "ordinary" flour. 

The comparative advantages of "ordinary" or "white," Graham and Whole Wheat 
breads have been in dispute a long time. Advocates of Graham and Whole Wheat 
breads claim for them greater nourishing properties — others contend that "white" 
bread is more easily digested by the average person and that therefore more food value 
is assimilated by its use, irrespective of the chemical analj'ses of the loaves. To a disin- 
terested party, the comparative advantages or otherwise seem to be principally a matter 
of individual taste and digestion. The chemical difference is slight. 

Leavened Bread is bread of any kind, raised or "leavened" by yeast or any similar 
agent. 

Honey Bread is ordinary white bread slightly sweetened. 

Macaroni Bread has nothing to do with macaroni. It is ordinary white bread made 
from flour of the prolific variety of hard wheat Icnown as "Durum" or "Macaroni" 
wheat, now largely grown in the western and southern states. Its advocates claim for 
it all the advantages of other wheat flour. 

Malt Bread is that in which malt extract is added in making, the result being a bread 
that is sweeter ( from the sugars formed by the action of the diastase of the malt ) and 
moister (because of the dextrin formed). There is also an increase in the phosphatic 
content, etc. 

Pumpernickel is a dark German bread of unbolted rye, very heavy and slightly acid, 
made from fermented dough. Thinly sliced, it is considered a delicacy when made into 
sandwiches or eaten with the soup course. It is sold generally by delicatessen dealers 
— made here and also imported, the latter being canned in thin slices. 

Rye Bread, as sold in this country, is generally part rye and part wheat flour, some- 
times flavored and sprinkled with caraway seeds. 

Full rye bread is heavy in character owing both to the general manner of its manu- 
facture and to a peculiarity of the gluten of rye flour, and has an aromatic taste inde- 
pendent of the flavor of the caraway seed, etc., added in baking. It is a very important 
article of diet in Germany and the principal staple food in Russia. 



THE G R O C E R \S E N C Y C I. O P E D I A 



83 



Salt-rising Bread, is bread leavened by the addition to the sponge of a fermented batter 
of warm milk, salt and, generally, cornmeal. The name is derived from the salt dissolved 
in the milk to prevent the growth of bacteria in it while it is exposed to the atmosphere 
awaiting the action of (generally) "wild" yeast (see Yeast). 

Unleavened Bread is made without yeast or any other raising agent. Some "dyspep- 
tic breads" are sold in this form, but the most commonly seen type is the "Matzoth," 
a large round cracker or biscuit, made only of flour and water, eaten during the Jewish 
Passover — both plain, in place of leavened bread, and cooked in various ways. 

Vienna Bread is an American title for loaves made of the same kind of dough used 
in France for the pain riche mentioned in the paragraph on French Bread. It is seldom 
if ever baked in Vienna in the large loaves seen here ! 

BREAD FRUIT: the sweet, starchy 
fruit of a tree of tropical growth. It is 
round in shape, nearly or quite as large 
as a man's head and covered with a thick 
greenish rind. 

The natives generally gather it when 
the starch is in a mealy condition, then 
peel it, wrap it in leaves, and bake it by 
placing between hot stones. They also 
preserve it by allowing it to putrefy in 
watertight pits, the result being a mass re- 
sembling soft cheese, which, when used, 
is baked in the same manner as the fresh 
fruit. 

For Northern tables, it is best pre- 
pared by scooping a hole in the top, filling 
with butter and baking. Another method 
is to boil the entire fruit until tender, 
then peel, slice and serve with butter 
sauce. It resembles sweet potato in flavor 
and texture. 

BRETZEL. See Pretzel. 

BRIE CHEESE. See Cheese. 



BRIMSTONE. 

title of Sulphur. 



See matter following 




COPYBIOHT, UM>BaWOOD A uyDERWOOD, 

Gathering Bread Fruit. Panama 



BRINE: water in which salt has been dissolved until it will not take any more. It 
is used for preserving meats, butter, etc. When employed for meat, saltpetre is gener- 
ally added to retain or enhance the desired red color and a small quantity of sugar or 
molasses is sometimes included to give a sweet flavor. 

Brine is best kept in kegs made of oak or other hard timber. Meat should not be 
left in it longer than two months without boiling and skimming the brine, as the latter 



84 THE GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

is liable to acquire poisonous qualities. After re-boiling, more salt must be added to 
bring its strength up again. 

In country districts, brine is used over and over again, as old brine containing 
meat extract is said to take less from meat put in it than fresh brine. It is, though, 
scalded, skimmed and strengthened after each batch. 

BRIOCHE: is, strictly, a slightly sweetened rich bread or very plain cake, but, in 
general usage, the title is applied to a bun with syrup poured on it. "Fancy" brioches 
have a centre filling of cherries, pineapple, etc., mixed with liqueur. 

BROCCOLI: a variety of the common cabbage produced by cultivation. It is very 
similar to the Cauliflower, but more highly colored. It is not grown as much as 
formerly, as Cauliflower is now in the market nearly all the year. 

BROILING. See suggestions on this subject in general article on Cookeey. 

BROOM CORN : a plant of the same variety as Kaffir corn and sorghum, native to 
the East Indies, but now cultivated in both this country and Europe. It is said that 
the American industry is due to Benjamin Franklin, who picked one seed from a whisk 
brought to Philadelphia by a lady and planted it. It differs from other plants of the 
same species in having seed heads with longer, straighter and stronger branches or 
straw. The Standard plant gives the large heads used for carpet brooms, etc., and the 
Dwarf those made into whisks, etc. 

BROOMS : are generally made of broom-corn, the seeds being combed out by machin- 
ery. The handles vary from the cheapest to the most expensive woods. For their 
quality, brooms depend not only upon their material, but upon the way they are put 
together. They should be securely fastened and wrapped with from two to six ties of 
twine or wire — the more the better. The corn should be clean, tough, and regular in 
appearance. 

To clean brooms, dip them in hot soap and suds — it can be done on wash days. 
The life and flexibility of the broom will be improved and the carpets will be cleaner. 

BROSE: a kind of porridge made by adding boiling water, milk or broth to oatmeal, 
or barley or other meal and mixing by stirring. It is named according to the liquid used 
as a basis — as "water brose," "beef brose," etc. Athole Brose, often used in Scotland 
as a remedy for a sore throat, is made of oatmeal or honey and whiskey. It takes its 
name from the town of Athole. 

BROTH : a liquid or clear soup obtained by boiling or steeping meat, poultry, game, 
shell-flsh (as clams, etc.) in water, generally with the addition of vegetables or herbs, 
followed by straining. If obtained at a low temperature, it may contain a considerable 
percentage of nutriment, but, as generally made, it is principally valuable as a stimu- 
lant. Clarifled broth is also known as Bouillon and Consomme (see Soups). 

Broths have especially high value in the treatment of invalids, convalescents and 
others with delicate stomachs. They are nowadays agreeably diversifled by using a 
variety of distinctive vegetable and other flavoring ingredients — as "celery broth," 
"tomato broth," etc. — and are so retailed in bottles and cans. See also Meat Exteact. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



85 



BROWN BREAD: a term popularly applied to the various forms of Oraham and 
AVholc Wheat bread. See Bread. 

BRUSSELS SPROUTS : one of the numerous special varieties of cabbage, cultivated 
in Belgium siuce early in the thirteenth century and now grown in every temperate cli- 
mate. It is distinguished by its long stalk to which are attached a number of minia- 
tui'e cabbages, each an inch or so in diameter, which in the best varieties are when raw 
nearly as firm and hax'd as the stalk itself, but when cooked are as tender as fine cauli- 
flower and possess a very delicate flavor. The chief season is from September to Janu- 
ary. The outer skins should be peeled off before cooking and boiling should be con- 
tinued only long enough to make the "Sprouts" tender — their best qualities are lost 
and they become watery and mushy if overcooked. 



BUCKWHEAT [See Color Page I of 




COPYRtflMT, KETSTONB VIEW CO, 

Buckwheat in blossom on a Pennsylvania farm 

BUFFALO BERRY: a fruit resem- 
bling the barberrj^, ijopular in the West, 
where it is used in any manner suitable 
for currants. Its name originated in the 
old-time custom of serving it as a sauce 
with buffalo meat. 

BUFFALO LITHIA. See M i n e r a l 

Waters. 

BUN : a well-known class of light sweet 
cakes of small size and generally round 
shape. 

See Cross Buns, Bath Buns. etc. 



Grains) : originally stjded "Beech-wheat" 
because the grain presents a triangular 
shape resembling that of the beechnut. It 
is known in France as "Ble Sarrasin" be- 
cause report says that it was brought to 
Europe by the Crusaders. The plant, 
hardy and very rapid in growth, is raised 
in this country chiefly in Pennsylvania, New 
York and the New England states. 

Buckivheat flour is very popular for 
batter cakes, especially in cold weather. 
Unmixed, it is dark in color and of a rather 
rank bitter flavor, but this is generally modi- 
fied by mixing Avith wheat "middlings" — 
the combination making dough that is 
lighter and sweeter, and cakes which brown 
more rapidly on the griddle. 

In buying Buckwheat flour, small, fre- 
quent purchases are best. It should be 
kept cool and well covered as it is much 
sought by insects. 




Buffalo Berries 



86 THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

BURDOCK or Gobo : a vegetable native to Japan and in general characteristic simi- 
lar to the common wild Burdock. Its young roots are variously prepared. 

BURGUNDY WINES: take their name from the ancient province of Burgundy, 
France. They are much "heavier" than Bordeaux wines and contain a considerably 
greater alcohol percentage. The best varieties, those produced in the hilly lands be- 
tween Dijon and Chalons in the department of Cote d'Or, rank very high in the esteem 
of connoisseurs and are often recommended to invalids as a stimulating and highly 
tonic beverage. 

Burgundies are divided into two principal classes — "red" and "white," the red be- 
ing generally the choicer. The chief types are sold both "still" and "sparkling." 

Bed Burgundies are subdivided into three classes. The most famous, those of 
Class I, are Romance Conti, Gliamhertin, Glos de Vougeot, Richebourg and La Tdche — 
varying in retail value, according to vintage, etc., from one to ten dollars a quart, the 
last-named being for a famous old vintage of Komanee Conti. The word "clos" means 
literally "enclosure" and hence "locality" or "vineyard." 

With the exception of the Class I varieties and a few examples of Classes II 
and III, the bulk of the Burgundy imported into the United States is marketed 
under the name of the commune, or district, of production — as Beaune, Gorton, Nuits, 
Pommard, Yolnay, Vosne, Vougeot. etc. 

Prominent among the lower grade, lighter red varieties are Macon and Beaujolais. 

Though "white" Burgundy as a class is not as highly considered as red Burgundy, 
the best vintages of one variety, Montrachet, which resembles very fine Rhine Wine, are 
world-famous. Other excellent white Burgundies are Meursault and GhaMis, the 
latter in varying qualities from quite ordinary to choice. 

High grade Burgundies will keep from twenty to thirty years, and sometimes 
longer, often . greatly improving with age. The lower grades are best at from five to 
ten years. 

Burgundy should never be served as delivered from the merchant as it requires 
a considerable time, two or three weeks at least, to settle after being disturbed. It 
should be drunk at about the temperature of the average dining room or a trifle warmer. 
It should never be iced. Old Burgundies require care in decanting to be enjoyed at 
their best — see general article on Wines. 

BURNET or Pimpinel: a garden herb, the young leaves of which are used for 
salads. They resemble the cucumber in flavor. 

BUSHEL. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

BUTTER : as a food dates back to the time of the ancient Jews, but by the Greeks and 
Romans it was used only as an ointment and even now it is largely sold for that pur- 
pose by apothecaries in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean. 

The greater part of the butter sold by merchants to-day is that made by creameries 
and the result of this centralization has been to improve greatly the average quality 
and to establish uniformity so that varying qualities may be intelligently graded. 

By the old-fashioned method, cream for butter making was obtained by allowing 
the milk to stand from twenty to thirty-six hours, the cream which rose to the top being 
removed when sufficiently "ripened" or soured. 



THE GEOCER'S encyclopedia 



87 




■OPVBICnT, KETBTONE V 



Cream Separator in operation 



By tlie creamery method, the cream is generally separated from the whole 
milk while it is still sweet by running it through specially designed centrifugal 

separators. It is then treated by the addition 

of pasteurized skim milk, previously curdled by 
the addition of ''pure cultures" (see Bacteria), 
in order to bring about the lactic fermentation 
essential to a butter of good flavor. If the 
churning is to proceed at once, which is prefer- 
able, from 20% to 30% of the "starter" is added, 
but if time is allowed for ripening, an addition 
of about 5% is sufficient. Butter made from 
separator-cream, untreated, is not "butter" in 
the true sense of the term — it is better described 
as an emulsion of butter-fat. 

The great majority of the butters of com- 
merce show a water content between 12% and 
16%. U. S. "Standard" butter contains not less 
than 82.5% of milk fat. 

Denmark has for years held the reputation 
of producing the finest butter in the world. It 

can be found all over the world in shops where luxuries are sold. In South America, 
in the East and West Indies, in India, Egypt and in tropical countries generally, 
epicures pay f 1.00 a pound for it in tins of one, two and three pounds' weight. No 
other country has been able to produce butter that will stand changes of climate so 
well. Its excellence is due to the efficiency of the government system for controlling 
the output. Almost equally good results are obtained by the regulations of the Cork 
Market, Ireland, and by government control in New Zealand. Improvements in creamery 
methods and conditions promise to give equal reputation to the United States product 
before long. 

More than ordinary care is required if a merchant ^^^shes to establish and main- 
tain a reputation for selling good butter. In the first place, it generally pays to buy 
grades a little choicer than that of the average market — a half cent or a cent a pound 
additional often means something quite a little choicer than the regular run — and par- 
ticular customers are seldom averse to paying a cent or two extra for especially fine 
butter. Whether or not this is done — it is of course not advisable in every neighbor- 
hood — it is very poor policy to charge higher than the market value of any grade. Not 
one person in a thousand can judge the value of coffee, for examijle, with any degree of 
accuracy, but a big percentage have keen noses and palates wherewith to discrimi- 
nate in the matter of butter. It is very easy and very damaging to get a reputation for 
selling poor butter. 

A retailer should know how to test butter both by taste and smell. Many mer- 
chants depend on only one or the other of these senses and as a result they often find 
themselves at fault in their purchases. This is particularly true of the dealer who 
buys by taste and is addicted to the use of tobacco or liquors. At times, his sense of 
taste may be keen enough to discriminate in a remarkable manner, but if he has 
recently been smoking he will find that it cannot be depended upon. Hence it is wis- 
dom to cultivate both taste and smell to a point where, if one fails, the other can be 
relied upon. The expert buyer generally tests first by smell, breathing it well 



88 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




back into the nose, then by taste and final- 
ly by allowing a little to melt in the 
mouth and letting the flavor expand up 
through the nostrils — this last test to de- 
termine its keeping qualities. 

Butter to be especially avoided is that 
which is "lardy," "oily," or "woody" in 
flavor. It should neither be oily nor "dry" 
in appearance, nor flecked, cloudy or 
streaked. There should be no holes or 
crevices in it — as these enclose moist air 
and favor fermentation. When broken, 
it should show a rough fracture — if it 
breaks smooth, it is deficient in "grain" 
— which in a majority of cases stands for 
richness of quality. When pressed, the 
moisture which exudes should be quite 
clear — if it is milky, it possesses inferior 
keeping qualities. The highest prices are 
paid for butter hand-worked, unsalted 
and very dry — under 11% moisture. 

In buying by tub, it is well to verify 
the weight of butter obtained, instead of 
deijending only on the classification of 
the tub as "5 lb.," "10 lb.," etc. 

"Renovated" or "Process" butter is 
that produced by working over low grade or slightly deteriorated butter, by first melt- 
ing and settling it, then skimming off froth and scum and discarding the curd and 
brine settled, freshening by strong currents of air, mixing in fresh milk inoculated 
with bacterial cultures, churning and then rapidly cooling. The butter is then drained, 
salted, worked (to remove the excess of milk) and packed or made into prints. In the 
hands of a reliable manufacturer, who refrains from using improper materials, the pro- 
cessing of butter is a distinct advantage to the food supply and the product is very 
similar to "real" butter. As, however, there are differences in the nitrogenous com- 
ponents it should never be sold or represented as fresh. In several states such sales 
and representations are prohibited by law. 

An easy test to distinguish between fresh butter and "process butter," and also 
oleomargarine, is to boil a small amount, stirring thoroughly two or three times. 
Process butter and oleomargarine will boil noisily, sputtering more or less — like a 
mixture of grease and water — but will produce little or no foam. Genuine butter 
on the other hand boils with less noise and produces an abundance of foam. 

To distinguish between process butter and oleomargarine, melt a sample and 
note the odor — in process butter (and fresh butter) the "butyric acid" smell will be very 
noticeable, but it is absent from oleomargarine, a "meaty" odor taking its place. 

Butter is now generally classified as Creamery, Process, Factory, Packing Stock 
and Grease Butter — defined by the N. Y. Mercantile Exchange as follows : 

Creamery : — Butter made in a creamery from cream separated at the creamery or 
gathered from farmers. 



A modern cliurn which first converts the ripened cream into 
butter and then thoroughly works and salts it 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 89 

Process : — Butter made by melting butter, clai'ifying the fat therefrom and 
re-churning with fresh milk, cream or skim milk, or by other similar process. 

Factory : — Butter collected in rolls, lumps, or whole packages and reworked by the 
dealer or shipper. 

Packing Stock : — Original farm butter in rolls, lumps or otherwise, without 
additional moisture or salt. 

Grease Butter : — All classes of butter grading below No. 3 Packing Stock. 

Creamery, Process and Factory Butters are, in the New York market, graded as 
"Special," "Extra," 1st, 2nd and 3rd. Packing Stock is graded as 1st, 2nd and 3rd. 

The very choicest butter is thus Creamerj' Special. 

The word "Special" as applied to any of the three mentioned classifications is 
defined as requiring 90% of the butter so graded to conform to the standard, and the 
remaining 10% to be fully up to the "Extra" grade, the quality just below "Special." 

Following are the Standards of "Special" grades of butter : 

Flavor — must be fine, sweet, clean and fresh, if of current make; and fine, sweet 
and clean, if held. 

Body — must be firm and uniform. 

Color— a. light straw shade, even and uniform. 

Salt — medium salted. 

Package — sound, good, uniform and clean. 

Equally important with proper selection, is the care of butter after it reaches the 
store. A separate refrigerator should be reserved for it as it readily absorbs the odor 
of other articles, thereby losing its own delicate flavor and often acqu^iring a most disa- 
greeable odor and "twang." Meats, cheese and some fruits, as cantaloupes, pineapples, 
etc., are especially detrimental. The refrigerator must be kept thoroughly clean, as 
otherwise it Mill itself spoil the flavor — and pine wood in all forms should be kept 
away. • 

In the sale of butter, clerks should be instructed to handle it as carefully as pos- 
sible. In cutting tub butter, the aim should be to avoid "mussing" or mangling it — 
a clean cut slab is much more pleasing than when half of it looks like a collection of 
odds and ends. 

Wooden butter dishes are not used as much as formerly, but where they are in 
favor it is advisable to wrap the butter in waxed paper first. The more popular 
method now is to wrap in waxed paper, then in ordinary wrapping paper. 

If butter is ladled, all the implements used should be scalded at least once a day, 
and kept in fresh-made brine. 

When butter becomes rancid, it is due to the formation of Butyric acid. A fair 
measure of freshness can be obtained by thoroughly washing it with fresh milk, which 
readily absorbs Butyric acid, and then with fresh water to remove the milk, so that it 
will not sour in the butter. 

All this care on the part of the retailer is, however, often upset by the customer's 
lack of care after purchasing. Whenever possible, customers should be advised to 
keep butter free from contaminating influences. Very few households can enjoy 
separate refrigerator compartments for butter, but every one can have a covered china 
or earthenware vessel in which to keep it — -then, if the refrigerator is kept scoured and 
dry and the vessel clean, scalded before use. and always covered, there is a reasonable 
chance of the butter retaining its purity unless the other articles in the refrigerator 
have very strong odors. 



90 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

If a customer has no jar, the best advice is to keep the butter always thoroughlij 
wrapped in the waxed paper in which you deliver it. 

A good refrigerator and a plentiful supply of ice are, of course, desirable for 
keeping butter, hut care along the lines mentioned is to so great an extent the essential 
point, that butter will stay fresh and pure for a reasonable time without either refrig- 
erator or ice if kept in a dry, clean, covered vessel set in a cool place — the butter under 
such circumstances being preferably kept wrapped in waxed paper inside the vessel. 
A damp or "musty" room — or its vicinity — should be carefully avoided as that odor 
has as close an aifinity for butter as any other. 

Where such advice can be given without offense, it is well worth while imparting 
it, with a view to avoiding the trouble so frequently caused by customers, generally 
in perfectly good faith, bringing butter back as "bad" which had left the store in good 
condition. 

The natural color of the best creamery butter throughout the greater part of the 
year varies from almost white to a delicate light yellow or cream — it is only in the 
spring when the cows are first turned out to pasture that it naturally presents a really 
yellow color. The average consumer, however, expects butter to have a good bright 
color all the year round — and in consequence nearly all butter is brought up to that 
appearance by the use of various coloring additions. The colors used are chiefly those 
derived from vegetable sources, as annatto and carrot juice. 

In contrast to the general taste, there has developed in the larger cities a con- 
siderable demand among the customers of high class stores for un-colored and un-salted 
butter — variously known as "Fresh," "Sweet" and "French." Some of the French stores 
of the metropolis and elsewhere have always handled this for their patrons, but the 
present sale to a large number of families of other nationalities and to many high 
class hotels and restaurants is of comparatively recent origin. 

The perfumed butter used in Paris is made by taking pats of "fresh" or unsalted 
butter and placing them on a layer of some variety of flowers, according to the per- 
fume desired, a piece of muslin being laid between the butter and blossoms. Another 
layer of flowers is placed above the butter and then ice is added. 

BUTTERFISH {See Color Page III of Finn) -. a fish varying in weight from four 
to the pound up to three-quarters and one pound each, found principally along the 
northern Atlantic coasts. In appearance it suggests the pompano. It is most plenti- 
ful during the summer and fall. 

BUTTERINE: an artificial butter composed of beef oil, neutral lard, etc. See article 
on Oleomargarine. , 

BUTTERMILK: the liquid which remains after the separation of butter from cream. 
It is generally a by-product of butter manufacture. When produced under sanitary 
conditions and drunk fresh, it is not only exceedingly agreeable to many palates, but 
is very nutritious, as it contains all the cream nutrients excepting the fat. In Scot- 
land and Ireland, it is consumed in enormous quantities as an accompaniment to por- 
ridge and potatoes, and its use, principally as a beverage, has in the last few years been 
greatly extended in this country. 

A pint of buttermilk of average richness contains about as much nourishment as 
2^/2 ounces of beef. As a cheap source of protein, whicli comprises nearly half of its 




BRUSSELS SPROUTS 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 93 



percentage of food value, it is even more deserving of notice than skim millc, to which 
it is very similar in chemical components — though generally regarded as inferior, it 
ranks higher in nutriment value. It is an especially valuable addition to the dietary 
when there is a deficiency of other nitrogenous food and therefore combines well with 
a farinaceous diet, supplying the protein lacking in cereals, etc. (see Food Values). 

Though buttermilk contains as a rule Aery little milk fat, it is seldom entirely 
free from it, and it frequently happens that where milk is abundant and rich a consider- 
able quantity of fat is allowed to remain in the buttermilk in the form of butter. This 
increases its food value, but a careful skimming may be necessary if the milk is in- 
tended for special dietary. 

When made from fresh whole or partly-skimmed milk with selected or cultivated 
lactic ferments or bacteria, buttermilk contains high medical virtue — tending to 
prolong life by preventing decomposition of food in the bowels and avoiding the ab- 
normal formation of gas, uric acid, toxins and other undesirable products of excessive 
intestinal fermentation. This result is produced by the action of the serviceable bac- 
teria which flourish, to the exclusion of undesirable micro-organisms, in the lactic acid 
into which a considerable part of the sugary food elements is converted by the ferments 
introduced into the milk. The only important difference between buttermilk thus pre- 
pared and the creamery product is that the natural process is accelerated and the in- 
troduction of other and undesirable bacteria can be prevented. 

Buttermilk is best kept in glass or china vessels as the lactic acid is liable to 
affect other receptacles. 

BUTTERNUT (See Color Page I of Nuts) : the oily nut of the North American 
White Walnut, ripening in September. It is of the same order as the ordinary Black 
Walnut but is longer, and has an exceedingly rough shell. The meat is rich, oily and 
agreeable in flavor. When young and tender, it makes a delicious pickle. 

BUTTON MUSHROOM: the Mousseron of French importations. See Mushrooms. 

BUTYRIC ACID: the oily acid which under certain conditions forms in butter and 
gives it the smell and flavor generally described as "rancid." Commercial Butyric Acid, 
a colorless liquid, is obtained from numerous sources. 

BUTYRIC ETHER: a fragrant compound-ether obtained by treatment of salts of 
butyric acid, employed in the manufacture of several artificial fruit extracts, particu- 
larly apple, melon, pineapple and strawberry. 

CABBAGE: the vegetable which probably comes next to the potato in the quantity 

^^Ti;^ consumed. It is found in more than seventy varieties, of which 

several are of sufficiently distinct form, both in appearance and 
quality, to be generally known under special titles, as Broccoli, 
Brussels Sprouts, Kale, Kohlrabi and Savoy Cabbage (which see 
under their respective heads). The varieties of the common 
cabbage may be grouped in two classes, the Early and Late, 
according to their time of ripening. 
'■'''"'"''*" Only cabbages that are crisp and of bright color can be con- 

sidered desirable. If to be kept for any considerable length of time, they require a 




94 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

temperature near freezing — the average cellar is too warm to answer the purpose. 
If stored in barrels, they are best placed with the roots uppermost. 

In places where cold storage is not available and circumstances warrant the 
trouble, cabbage of any kind, and several other vegetables, as celery, can be kept fresh 
for a considerable length of time by cutting so as to leave about two inches of stem 
below the leaves, scooping out the stem for from an inch to two inches, splitting the 
core of the vegetable to prevent sprouting, then suspending by a cord attached to the 
stem and each day filling the hollow part of the stem with fresh cold water. 

A pinch of bi-carbonate of sodium added to the water in which cabbage is boiled 
will retain the green color of the leaves. It is good policy to throw away both the 
unconsumed portion and the water in which it was cooked. 

Red Cabbage is a favorite for pickling. 

See also articles on Sauerkraut and Slaw or "Cold Slaw." 

CABERNET: wine, both "white" and claret style, domestic and imported, from the 
Cabernet grape, the variety principally cultivated in the famous Medoc section of 
France. The fruit is fragrant and yields a delicate, brilliant, rather light-colored wine. 

CACTUS: an order of curious, usually prickly, generally leafless plants, with fleshy 
stems or bodies — a number of them bushy, some resembling; telegraph poles in general 
appearance and conformation, others of round or oval shape suggesting huge spiny mel- 
ons, etc. Many types are capable of extensive growth in regions so arid as to be other- 
wise unproductive. A majority of the most important edible-fruit varieties are included 
in the Opuntia genus, the fruits being best known in this country under the title of 
Prickly Pears (which see). Among other interesting examples are the Barbados 
Gooseberry, Mexican Strawberry and Strawberry Pear, and the fruit of the Melon 
Thistle, all of which are described in their alphabetical positions. 

CAFFEINE: the stimulating principle of coffee. It is chemically identical with the 
theine of tea, kola, etc. 

CAKE: is made in many varieties in modern bakeries, from the very plain to the 
extremely "rich" — as the heavier kinds of fruit cakes. If of sound materials and 
properly baked, it is as nutritious and wholesome as it is agreeable to the palate. 
Some people find the rich types difficult of digestion, but many more would be able 
to enjoy cake without any unpleasant after-effects if they were to treat it as essentially 
a part of the meal — to be eaten in place of some other portion thereof — instead of look- 
ing upon it as an "extra" and thus throwing additional work on a stomach already 
loaded with other foods. 

To keep cake fresh, put an open vessel of water in the show-case. To keep flies 
away, sprinkle cloves in it. Tin is the best receptacle. 

CALCIMINE or Kalsomine: a superior form of Whitewash. A mineral and gluti- 
nous composition made in white and colored form for tinting and decorating plastered 
and sand-finished surfaces, such as ceilings and walls. 

Calcimines vary greatly in quality, but are all furnished in powdered form requir- 
ing the addition only of hot or cold water. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 95 



CALECANNON or Kolcannon: a dish common to some parts of Ireland, which con- 
sists generally of a bit of salt pork with potatoes, cabbage and seasoning. 

CALF'S BRAINS: a meat delicacy in great popular demand. See Brains. 

CALF'S-FOOT JELLY: is made of gelatine extracted from calf's-feet. Sweetened 
and flavored with sherry, etc., it is served as a dessert. It is also a favorite item in 
convalescent dietaries. 

CALIPASH, CALIPEE: the upper and lower parts of turtle-meat. See Turtle. 

CAMEMBERT: one of the most popular of French cheeses. See Cheese. 

CAMPHOR: is a tough and crystalline stearoptene from the wood of the Camphor 
Laurel or Camphor tree, native to China, Japan and Borneo. It is generally obtained 
by chopping the wood into fragments and placing in a "still" with a certain quantity 
of water, the steam generated carrying the camphor off in vapor. After various pro- 
cesses, it resolidifies as a yellow-brown, semi-transparent mass, which is then refined 
and pressed into various shapes. 

In addition to its household use in wardrobes and clothes-trunks to keep away 
insects, camphor is employed in the manufacture of celluloid and explosives, to make 
the stars and fire of the pyrotechnists, by the varnish-maker to increase the solubility 
of copal and other gums, etc. Mixed with six times its weight of clay and distilled, it 
suffers decomposition and yields a yellow, aromatic volatile oil, smelling strongly of 
thyme and rosemary, which is much used to adulterate some of the more costly essen- 
tial oils and to perfume fancy soaps. 

Synthetic camphor is now made from fine white turpentine. It is more resinous 
than gum camphor and less aromatic, but possesses the same general merits and quali- 
ties and is equally good for medicinal and most commercial purposes. Its sale com- 
mercially depends upon the comparative market values of gum camphor and turpen- 
tine. If turpentine is high in price and gum camphor low, the synthetic is not able to 
compete with the natural product. 

CANARY SEED : the seed of the canary grass, native to the , Canary Islands, but 
long ago naturalized in many temperate climates. Its principal use in 
this country is as bird food. It is generally mixed with rape and other ,•!^^f 

seed that cheapen it, but the straight Canary seed is decidedly prefer- 
able. It should be kept in a dry place and away from vermin. 

Industrially, a flour made from Canary seed is employed in. the m •■ ■-..«> y 
manufacture of fine cotton goods and silk stuffs, and in the Canary ^ f ^^^ 
Islands, Italy and North Africa it is used as food. 

CANARY WINE: a gold colored wine i-esembling Madeira, made in the 
Canary Islands, principally on the Island of Teneriffe. When new, it 
is rough and unpleasant, but after two or three years it becomes mild 
and very agreeable. It was at one time a very fashionable wine. 

CANDIED FRUIT. See article on Crystallized Fruit. canary seed 




96 . THE grocer's encyclopedia 

CANDIED PEEL: the crystallized rinds of lemons, citrons, etc. See Citron. 

CANDLES : are now generally made by molding in metal forms, though some grades, 
notably church candles, are still made by the dipping process. The materials chiefly 
employed are stearin, paraffin and beeswax, separate and in various combinations 
and compositions. For decorative purposes they are frequently colored with aniline 
dyes. 

Talloio candles, formerly the most common, are now seldom sold except in frontier 
districts and other remote parts — they are very easily and cheaply manufactured but 
burn away so much more rapidly that other kinds are really less expensive. 

Stearin candles are also known as "Adamantine" candles because they are capable 
of sustaining a very warm temperature without bending. They give excellent serv- 
ice and are deservedly popular. Stearin is obtained from tallow by separating it from 
the oil and glycerine. Its crystalline structure at first rendered manufacture difficult 
as the crystals contracted when the candles cooled after molding, but this has been 
remedied by mixing in a little paraffin. 

Paraffin, a petroleum product which is largely employed to-day, makes a clear 
candle resembling wax and gives a good pleasant light. A little stearin is usually 
added as the pure paraffin is apt to bend or droop when warm. 

Beeswax candles are employed principally for church and decorative purposes. 

Spermaceti, from the head of the sperm whale, was formerly an important candle 
material but is now practically out of use. 

Hotel candles are merely ordinary candles of about half the usual size. 

Modern candles burn with a quiet, steady flame. If they flare, flicker and gutter, it 
is because they are exposed to drafts. The cotton wicks now used are braided and are 
chemically so treated as to be self-consuming — snuffing them is no longer necessary. 

Although petroleum, gas and electricity are improved factors in artificial lighting, 
candles are still used in large quantities on account of their adaptability for produc- 
ing a light promptly under all conditions, and, chiefly, because they have the advan- 
tage over all other forms of lighting in being both portable and absolutely safe. 

CANDY. U. S. "Standard" Candy is defined as a product prepared from a saccharine 
substance or substances, with or without the addition of harmless coloring, flavoring 
or fllling materials, containing no terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow or other 
mineral substances or poisonous colors or flavors or other injurious ingredients. 

A candy department, if properly managed, is generally a source of good proflt, and 
advertising, for the grocer. To handle it to advantage, however, proper facilities — 
in the form of glass show-cases, etc. — are absolutely necessary. A messy looking, fly- 
attracting candy-counter is worse than none at all. 

It is usually profitable to stock three distinct lines — (1) "Penny" goods for chil- 
dren, (2) moderate price candies for the average customer, and (3) "fancy" candies. 

All kinds should be handled in small lots so as to ensure a speedy turnover and, 
consequently, fresh goods at all times. They should be kept from exposure to heat 
or dampness. If the demand warrants a large stock, as much as possible of it should 
be kept in a special cooling room or cabinet of moderate temperature. 

A good supply of pretty boxes, lace paper, wax paper, candy tongs, etc., is a great 
stimulant to custom. A box of candy fixed up with all such little fancy extras 
appeals Avith special force to the feminine appetite — and pocketbook. 



THE GKOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 97 



The materials principally used in the manufacture of candy are sugar, chocolate, 
cocoanut, nuts, raisins, corn s^-rup, fruit pulps, cherries, gum ai'abic, cooking starch, 
molasses and licorice. Any desired tint can now be obtained by vegetable colors or 
harmless coal-tar dyes' (see Colors). 

Candies may be classified according to their nature or method of manufacture as 
follows : 

Hard Boiled Candy : candies cooked to a high degree of temperature, such as 
stick candy, lemon drops, hoarhoimd drops, etc. These are generally made by the 
vacuum process. 

Open Fire Candy : candies cooked in open kettles over furnace fires of coke, and 
pulled over hooks or on pulling machines, such as molasses taffy, cream taffy, etc. 

Pan Work : various forms of candy, nuts, etc., coated with sugar in revolving 
copper kettles or pans, such as sugar-coated almonds, jelly beans, cinnamon imperials, 
burnt almonds and burnt peanuts. 

Gum Work : candy cooked in large melting kettles, then molded in impressions 
made in starch, dried, separated from starch and sugared, such as gum drops. These 
are also allowed to stand in sugar syrup over night, thus forming a crystal on the 
goods, which gives them a bright, brilliant lustre. 

Chocolates : various kinds of candy dipped in chocolate, such as chocolate creams, 
chocolate almonds, chocolate chips, etc. 

Creams: sugar cooked low and beaten to a creamy consistence, molded in im- 
pressions made in starch, dried, separated from starch, and crystallized. 

Caramels : sugar and corn syrup cooked to a proper consistence in open stirring 
kettles, run out in thin sheets on marble slab tables and cut into squares when cooled. 

CocoANXJT Candy : sugar, corn syrup and cocoanut, cooked in open stirring kettles, 
run out on marble slab tables and cut into various shapes when cooled. 

Marshmallows : sugar, corn syrup and gelatine, beaten together, molded in im- 
pressions in starch, dried, separated from starch and dusted with powdered sugar. 

There are endless varieties of candy made by combinations of different materials, 
varying in wholesale value from 4c. to 50c. a pound and in retail from 10c. to |1.25. 
When eaten in moderation, it is as wholesome as it is palate-pleasing. 

The United States consumes more candy per capita than any other country in the 
world — its annual output is about 400,000,000 pounds. 

CANISTER: originally a basket of Icanna or reed, now a box or case for tea, etc. 

CANNED GOODS. The preservation of foods by sterilization and hermetical seal- 
ing is not a new process, but its present importance as an industry is of compara- 
tively recent origin. 

The list of articles which are preserved by canning is a long one, and includes a 
great variety of fish, meats, fruits, vegetables, poultry, soups, etc. — yet the industry 
is susceptible to still greater development. Current opinion in this country credits 
the United States with being the foremost exponent of canned goods and it is true that 
in several items, such as salmon, tomatoes, corn, etc., the total output is considerably 
greater than that of all other parts of the world combined, but in diversity of articles 
we have much to learn from Europe. We are all acquainted with some of the special 
French lines, but it would surprise the average reader to see the variety of the outputs 
of other continental nations. Holland, for instance, has canneries which put up from 



98 THE GEOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

two to several hundred different items. The list includes nearly every possible vege- 
table, in first and second qualities, separate and mixed — as for example, several varie- 
ties of peas, separate, and combinations of "green peas and spring carrots," etc., numer- 
ous combinations of vegetables and meat— as, "beef and onions," "green peas and veal," 
"chestnuts and sausages," "spinach and ham," etc. ; and all kinds of meat delicacies, 
poultry, game, soups, sauces, fruits, etc. The most numerous items are vegetables, 
meats and mixed vegetables, and meat. 

Many of the canned articles used in Europe, but at present unknown in this coun- 
try, are sure to become popular here in course of time if canning interests foster pub- 
lic confidence by rigid inspection of their outputs and unremitting vigilance to see 
that irresponsible or unscrupulous concerns do not foist undesirable goods on the 
market. Canned goods consisting of sound foods, put up with proper care and handled 
thereafter with reasonable precautions, are just as wholesome and nutritious as the 
fresh articles. 

To foster the trade in canned goods, which offer large future possibilities for him, 
the retailer should use every possible care to see that a customer receives nothing that 
is open to suspicion as to the quality, nor objection as to the quantity, of the edible con- 
tents of the can. A can of tomatoes, for example, should contain chiefly tomato flesh 
— it should not reveal on opening a superabundance of watery juice. 

The present method of canning is the process invented by a Frenchman named 
Francois Appert a little more than a hundred years ago, improved in detail and am- 
plified in use by modern mechanical devices and equipment. The two principal points 
to be achieved are (1) the exclusion of all air from the can by hermetical sealing and 
(2) the destruction of all micro-organisms by sterilization — cooking the can at high 
temperature and high pressure. The details of the process vary with different foods 
and cannery methods. Some items are placed in the cans in a raw condition, others 
are first partially cooked. Some undergo two cookings in the can, being "vented" 
between cookings — i. e., the tops are pierced to allow the steam to escape, the holes 
being soldered over immediately thereafter. Many modern canneries achieve the 
same purpose by means of a steam-heated "exhaust box" which extracts part of the 
air in the filled cans before they are sent to the capping machines. 

If only good grades of bright tin plate are used, the sterilization has been com- 
plete, and the can is air-tight, the food contents, whether meats, vegetables or fruit, 
will remain good and wholesome for an almost indefinite length of time. 

Any imperfection in the can or damage to it, which admits even the smallest amount 
of air, will result in fermentation and decomposition and render the contents unfit for 
food, so care should be exercised in the handling of all canned goods. A similar result 
will ensue from imperfect sterilization — i.e., if the heat employed was not sufficient to 
sterilize every portion of the contents. Fermentation of any kind will tend to make 
the can bulge more or less. Consequently, if there is the slightest swelling of the can, 
either top, bottom or sides, send it back — never on any account sell or use such a 
can as it may be poisonous enough to kill. All canned goods are returnable for this 
cause, being guaranteed by the packer to the jobber and the jobber to the retailer. 

The "swelling" is a reasonably sure test for all unopened canned goods except corn 
— which may be found sour inside a can in apparently normal condition. 

The reason that jams and other sweet preseryes maintain their wholesomeness 
without such precautions as required for the canning of meats, vegetables and un- 
sweetened fruits, is that heavy syrup is not favorable to the growth of yeast, etc. 



THE grocery's encyclopedia 99 

The "biggest sellers'' in canned goods in the United States to-day are in fish — 
salmon (a long way in the lead) and sardines; in fruit — peaches; in vegetables — to- 
matoes, corn and peas, twice as many cans of tomatoes being sold as of corn and five 
times as many as of peas. 

Grocers should never sell a can of any meat or fish in the summer without advis- 
ing the buyer to keep it on ice for a while before opening it. Meats, salmon, lobster, 
crabs and shrimps are disgusting to many people when taken out in a fiabby and warm 
condition, but the simple precaution mentioned will give the fresh, firm appearance 
desired. 

The last point in the use of canned goods — and a very important one — is the 
necessity of every consumer understanding that, as soon as a can is opened, all of the 
contents must be taken out and put in a china, glass, earthenware or similar receptacle, 
dish or plate — and covered, if held over after a meal. The very best and purest canned 
meats and fish are liable to generate poisonous ptomaines, if left standing in the can. 

It may be added that ptomaine poison is not a special poison from canned goods 
only — it may be, and often is, generated in various items of home-cooked food if un- 
duly exposed, or left long enough to permit decay to set in. 

CANTALOUPE: a general title for several varieties of muskmelon, derived from 
Cantalupo, Italy, the place of their first ciiltivation in Europe. See Melons. 

CANVASBACK: one of the most famous of wild water-fowl. See Ducks {Wild). 

CAPELAN: a small fish very abundant along the shores of Newfoundland. It is 
principally used for bait in codfishing but some of the catch is dried for human con- 
sumption. The flesh is agreeable in flavor, somewhat resembling fine herring. 

CAPERS : the flower buds of the caper bush, growing in countries along the Mediter- 
ranean. They are used as pickles and to add to sauces, etc. 

The caper crop is gathered from June to September or October, the end of July 
giving the heaviest yield. After picking, they are carefully dried to avoid fermenta- 
tion and then stored in barrels of vinegar, the latter being sometimes flavored with 
tarragon sprigs, elder flowers, cloves, peppercorns, etc. 

During the winter following the gathering, the capers are graded by size by passing 
through sieves. The seven chief classifications are — "Nonpareil" (smallest), "Sur- 
fine," "Capucine," "Capote," "Fine," "Mi-fine," and "Commune" (largest). After grad- 
ing, they are replaced in barrels of vinegar and thus preserved until sold. Before ship- 
ment, they are washed in vinegar of a standard of 12°, which renders them quite firm, 
and placed in barrels without vinegar, the finer qualities to be repacked in bottles, etc. 

A fraud sometimes attempted is to mix with the capers a quantity of nasturtium 
berries, which resemble them in size and appearance. 

CAPON : a male chicken castrated to increase its growth and weight. See Chicken. 

CAPSICUM. There are many species of Capsicum, all native to the warm parts of 
America, Africa and Asia, and now cultivated in every part of the world. The small 
fruited types, generally the most pungent, are best known popularly as "Chilies," and 
the larger as "Peppers." "Chilies" are used whole in vinegars, pickles, etc., and to grind 



100 THEGROCER^SENCYCLOPEDIA 

into cayenne pepper, and "Peppers" are eaten as a vegetable and ground into I'ed 
pepper (see Chili, Pepper and Peppers, Green). 

CAPUASSA: a yellow-fleshed, large-seeded, Brazilian fruit enclosed in a rough hard 
shell. European travelers have said in describing the crushed and diluted pulp that 
the resulting drink "is worth a voyage across the Atlantic." 

CARAMBOLA (also called the Goromandel Gooseberry in India) : a curiously formed 
fruit about the size of a large egg, with a thin, smooth, generally yellow, coat. Its flavor 
varies from sweet to acid so it is variously consumed, — raw, cooked, in chutneys, etc. 

CARAMEL : a dark-brown substance obtained by heating either "ordinary" or "starch" 
sugar. It is formed also during the roasting of all materials containing sugar, such as 
malt (which see) and coffee. It is much used for coloring wines, spirits, soups and 
other liquids and for flavoring custards, milk, etc. 

"Caramels" is the name given to a candy whose soft mucilaginous character is due 
to its large proportion of Glucose (see Candy and Glucose). 

Caramel Gereal, used as a coffee substitute, consists chiefly of malted grain. 

CARAWAY SEED: the highly aromatic seeds of a plant which grows wild in the 
meadows of Holland and Northern Germany, and is cultivated 
in many other countries, including the United States — especially 
California. They are employed in a variety of ways^ — as a culi- 
nary flavor, in confectionery, baking, etc., and in the perfumery 
and soap making industries. 

The roots of the Caraway plant were at one time eaten as 
a vegetable, and the young and tender leaves still occasionally 
serve for flavoring soups, etc. 

CARBONATED WATERS : a wide class of refreshing refrig- 
erant beverages, rendered sparkling by impregnating them with 
carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas) under pressure. The term 
does not include beverages in which the carbon-dioxide is pro- caraway 

duced by the natural process of fermentation. The carbon-dioxide is produced prefer- 
ably by the use of bicarbonate of sodium, but also frequently from limestone, marble 
dust, etc., by the action on them of sulphuric or other acid. The gas is first washed with 
water and stored in a copper bell or gasometer, being thence pumped along with water 
into copper or gun-metal vessels lined with pure tin, being made to mingle with the 
water by agitation or other means. When the pressure inside the water reaches about 
100 pounds to the square inch, it is ready to be bottled in syphons. A great variety 
of temperance beverages are made by putting a sufficient quantity of flavoring syrup 
in bottles and filling with Carbonated Water. Many spring waters carbonated by 
nature have important medicinal properties (see Mineral Waters). 

CARDAMOM: the dark wrinkled triangular seeds of a spice plant, native to India. 
They possess an aromatic and agreeably pungent flavor and are used in cookings 
especially in curries and soups, by confectioners, etc. 





CELERY 



THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



103 



CARDOON: a plant of the thistle famih', somewhat resembling the Artichoke, but 

generally larger, some varieties attaining a height of eight to ten 

feet, with leaves often three feet or more in length, light green 

in color and covered with white down. It is grown chiefly for the 

stems and leaf mid-ribs of the young plant, which are thick, 

fleshy, tender and crisp it properly cultivated and blanched. 

Cardoon is used in salads, stews, soups, etc., and as a vege- 
table, in the last-named case being served with various forms 
of dressing or with butter sauce, etc. Considerable quantities are 
imported from France to supplement the domestic product. In 
cooking, the stalk is cut into thin strips about five to six inches 
long, cooked in slightly salted water until tender, then freed 
from strings, etc., and set aside to become cold. If not properly 
prepared, it is dark in color and unpleasantly bitter. 

The main root, Avhich is thick, fleshy and pleasing in flavor, 
is also frequently prepared as a winter vegetable. cardoon 

CARLSBAD. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. \ 




CARMINE: a red coloring obtained from the female cochineal, a small insect found 
chiefly along the Phoenician coast. It is used for culinary purposes, in the manufac- 
ture of syrup, sauces, etc., and in various other industries. 

CAROB BEAN: the "Husks" of the Prodigal Son. See St. John's Bread. 

CARP: a fresh water fish spending most of its time in muddy bottoms and banks. 
It is generally of bronze appearance and the larger specimens attain a weight of fifteen 
to eighteen pounds. There are many varieties, the three best known being the Buffalo 
or "Common," in season from the middle of July to October; the German, about half 
the size of the Buffalo and distinguished by its sides being bare of scales, in season 
from October to April ; and the Salmon, a variety which by environment has attained 
a slight salmon tint and taste. The flesh of all except the Salmon is a firm white. 
The German Carp are the descendants of fry imported from Germany, but they 
have lost some of the fine characteristics of the home fish. 

CARRAGHEEN, IRISH MOSS, PEARL MOSS: a species of edible seaweed 
named after the town of Carragheen, near Waterford, Ireland, 
found on the coasts of the British Islands, the rocky shores of 
continental Europe and the Eastern shores of the Northern 
United States and Canada. Similar varieties abound also on 
other parts of the American coast line. 

The Carragheen of domestic use is obtained principally from 
New Hampshire and Massachusetts, the harvest season there 
extending from May to September. After gathering, the plants 
are washed in salt water and spread on the beach to dry and 
bleach, the process being repeated several times. 
As marketed. Carragheen is in pieces of from two to three inches to a foot in 

length, cartilaginous and flexible in texture, branching in shape, and in color from a 




Carragheen 



104 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

reddish brown to straw color or white, varying with local differences in the plant and 
the extent of the bleaching. 

The greater pai't of the supply is employed in the clarifying of beer. The re- 
mainder is retailed through druggists and grocers, etc., the best qualities packed in 
half pound and pound boxes. 

To make a nutritious beverage, which is considered also a good demulcent for 
coughs, a scant ounce of Carragheen is placed in a quart to three pints of water, 
gently heated until the liquid is syrupy in consistence and then strained, milk and 
sugar or sugar and lemon Juice being added to taste. 

In the preparation of blauc-mange or jelly, a larger quantity is required. A good 
receipt is to soak a small cupful in cold water for about five minutes, then tie it in a 
cheese-cloth bag, place in a double-boiler with a quart of milk, add a little salt and 
cook for a half hour. When done, take the bag out, flavor the liquid with lemon or 
vanilla extract and pour into a mold or small cups, previously Avet with cold water. 
When the jelly is set, it can be eaten with sugar and cream or fruit" as desired. 

CARROT: a root vegetable cultivated in both the United States and Europe, the 
^^i;-^^ ;('^ small tender varieties for culinary purposes and the larger, later types 

for feeding cattle. It is one of our most wholesome vegetables and is con- 
sumed in a variety of ways — separately and in soups, stews, etc. 

In cold storage, carrots have been held in barrels from November to 
the middle of July, but under other conditions they tend to heat and de- 
cay. If cold storage is.'not available, they are best stored on slat plat- 
forms, and covered lightly with sand. Good ventilation is an absolute 
necessity. 

When purchasing carrots, see that they are firm to the touch and 
crisp when broken. 

The juice of the red varieties is frequently employed on the farm to 
color butter. 

CARTON: a pasteboard box for holding soaps, cereals or other goods. 

CASEIN: the cheesy portion of the curd of milk, the protein constituent of milk. 
(See Milk.) 

CASHEW NUT {8ee illustration in color page of Tropical Fruits) : a kidney 
shaped nut which develops pendant-fashion on the red or yellow "Cashew apple," the 
two constituting the fruit of a large evergreen shrub, native to the West Indies and 
widely grown in other tropical countries. 

The nut, of greenish-brown color, rich in milky juice when fresh, and with a deli- 
cate almond flavor, is consumed raw, roasted and pickled. The whole raw nut should 
never be crushed by the hands or teeth as between its two shells is a thick liquid 
which is so caustic that it readily blisters the lips and skin. The acid disappears with 
heat, so the roasted nuts do not offer this objection. 

The "apple" is seldom seen in this country, but it has a pleasing sub-acid flavor 
and is enjoyed locally. 

The Cashew Nut is valuable in many branches of business, being used in the manu- 
facture of oil, ink, dyes, mucilage, cosmetics, etc. 




THE G R C E U ^ S ENCYCLOPEDIA 105 

CASSAREEP: the juice of the bitter Cassava or Manioc (whicli see) boiled to the 
consistence of thiclc syrup and flavored with spices. It is used as a basis for various 
sauces and as a culinary flavoring, principally in tropical countries. It is exported 
chiefly from British Guiana. 

CASSAVA, Cassava Starch: starch obtained from the roots of the Manioc (which 
see). 

CASSEROLE: a porous dish of clay or earthenware, much used in French cooking. 
The heat penetrates it slowly and all the juices and flavors of the meats, etc., are 
retained. 

CASSIA BARK: a variety of Cinnamon (which see). 

CASSIA BUDS: the dried flower-buds of the tree which yields Cassia Bark, to which 
their flavoring is similar. In appearance they slightly resemble cloves. The Cassia 
tree does not bear buds until from fifteen to twenty years old. 

CASTILE SOAP: a soap made of olive oil, also called Marseilles Soap. See Soap. 

CASTOR-OIL: an article of great commercial importance, made from the seeds of 
the Castor-Oil plant. In addition to its medicinal use, it is employed in the manu- 
facture of some transparent toilet soaps, as a lubricating oil, in the arts, etc. 

CATAWBA: one of the most celebrated of native American wines. It is a "white" 
wine, both still and sparkling, of fine flavor, originally produced from the Catawba 
grape, and now from their blending with other varieties, such as Delawares, etc. 

The highest priced variety is the "sparkling" — the finer grades of which compare 
favorably with imported wines. 

The sparkling variety should be served cold; the "still" at about the temperature 
of the room. 

Some red Catawba is made, but in comparatively small quantity. 

"Sweet Catawba" is a rich fortified wine. 

CATCHUP: also called "Ketchup" and Catsup (which see). 

CATFISH. Two entirely different fish — one found in salt-water and the other in 
lakes and rivers — are known as "catfish." The flesh of the salt-water flsh, which occa- 
sionally attains a weight of sixty pounds and is called the "Hogfi.sh" in some parts, 
,is very good in flavor, but the catch is nearly all cured, very little being marketed 
fresh. 

The river variety is smaller and not particularly choice in flavor, but properly 
prepared, after the removal of its coarse brown skin, it is found quite as pleasing to 
the palate as many more highly rated flsh. Catfish dinners are much esteemed along 
the Schuylkill River at Philadelphia. 

CATNIP, or Catmint: a field plant growing wild throughout the United States. The 
leaves and young shoots — aromatic, pungent and more or less bitter — are used for 



106 



THE groc]':r-'s encyclopedia 



seasoning and as a domestic remedy. The leaves are best wliile the plant is blooming. 
They may be preserved by drying a few days, being afterward kept in a dry place. 

Everyone is familiar with the pleasure a cat finds in playing with catnip, and cat- 
nip-balls, containing a few pieces, are an article of regular sale. 



CATSUP, Catchup, Ketchup: a word derived from the name of an East Indian pickle, 
which was formerly applied specifically to the boiled spiced juice from salted mush- 
rooms, but is now freely attached to various sauces (sold both bottled and in bulk) 
which consist of the pulp — boiled 
toes, green walnuts, etc. 



strained and seasoned — of various fruits, as toma- 



CAULIFLOWER: 





a variety of cabbage. It has been styled "cabbage with a college 
education," for its characteristics are the result of careful culti- 
vation — the flower buds and stalks having been exaggerated by 
seed selection, etc., into a compact white mass which constitutes 
the vegetable proper, instead of the leaves as in other varieties 
of cabbage. In addition to its use fresh-boiled, etc., great quan- 
tities are consumed as a pickle. 

The local Eastern crop is supplemented by large shipments 
from both France and California. 

Cauliflower may be kept in any way suitable for cabbage 
(which see). 

CAVIAR: the salted roe of various large fish of the sturgeon family. Nearly all the 
world's supply now comes from the Caspian Sea. 

The finest quality caviar is that from the Beluga, a Russian word meaiiing "Great 
White Sturgeon," the largest of all sturgeons, which grows to a length of twelve or 
fourteen feet and sometimes weighs con- 
siderably more than a ton — a single cow- 
fish of that size giving as much as 360 
pounds of caviar. These very big fish are 
becoming more scarce every year and the 
average Beluga now caught is much 
smaller. 

One hears and reads much of "Astra- 
khan Caviar" — yet there are no fisheries 
at Astrakhan (Russia). The name has 
clung because the City of Astrakhan is 
the greatest shipping place for caviar, 
largely via Germany. 

Again, many people speak of "Ger- Beiuga or "Gifat white sturgeon" 

man Caviar," yet none of the small German Caviar product is exported — the impres- 
sion arises from the fact that the Russian export trade is carried on principally by 
German .firms with Hamburg as headquarters. London and Paris are both "outside 
markets," drawing their daily and weekly supplies from the Hamburg houses — but all 
the caviar they receive is Russian caviar. 

After the fish has been killed, the roe is separated from the skin and fine tissues 
which envelop it by gently rubbing through a sieve. For "fresh," i. e., mildly salted. 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 



10^ 



caviar, for which only roe in the best possible condition is suitable, it is then salted 
in the proportion of two to six pounds to each hundred pounds of roe, drained and 
put up in air-tight tin packages or glass jars. 

Koe in which the eggs are too soft or too far ripened for "fresh" grades, is cured 
with 10% of salt and packed in barrels for export, to be later repacked and cooked in 
tins for retail handling. This is the sandwich and canape caviar of ordinary use. 

"Pressed Caviar" is a peculiarly Russian variety of which very little is exported. 

The size of the egg or grain varies from very small to that of peas. The color is 
generally black but may be also any one of various shades of j^ellow, grey, dark green 
and brown. The real test of caviar is its flavor and this is as often found in the small 
as in the large grain and in the black as in any other color, but the large eggs and the 
grey and yellow or "gold" colors are the most rare and therefore the most expensive. 
The gold color is considered the choicest in Russia, the greyish in Germany. 

There is verj^ little caviar produced in North America to-day, uncontrolled 
slaughter of the fish for many years having rendered it so scarce that it hardly pays 
to hunt it. Formerly, after supplying home markets, a considerable quantity of 
American caviar was shipped to Europe for sale as medium and coarse grades. 

Caviar in America is generallj^ eaten on bread or toast Avith oil, lemon juice or 
vinegar and various garnishes. It is also occasionally served on ice as a special course 
at luncheon and dinner parties. 

CAYENNE: a red pepper, named after Cayenne, a city of French Guiana. 

CELERIAC : a kind of turnip-rooted celery. It is good for salads, the root being 
boiled and sliced cold for mixing with other ingredients. 



CELERY: as we know it, is the cultivated variety of a plant of the parsley family, 
which is found wild in many parts of both this country and Europe. It is grown in 
large quantities in divers latitudes — New York, Michigan, Ohio, Florida, California and 
Bermuda being the largest producers. It was formerly obtainable only at certain 
seasons, but the finer grades are now on sale all the year round. 

Celery requires constant care and cultivation, and rich moist soft soil of saline 
character to attain its best qualities. For early celery, the seed is planted in hot- 
houses and the small plants are set out as soon as the frost leaves the ground. For late 
celery, the seed is sown in the open ground. The whiteness of the stalks is obtained by 
"banking" earth or other material up 
along the rows of plants or putting boards 
alongside for the same purpose. Some 
growers raise three crops each season, fol- 
lowing each lot by immediately setting 
out the small plants for the next. 

Every part of the celery plant can be 
used to advantage. The stalks and heart 
are served in a variety of ways — plain 
raw, with various fillings, in salads, 
cooked in numerous ways, etc. The out- 
side stalks may be cut in pieces and 
stewed. The trimmings are excellent for Blanching ceiery by boards 



3 


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108 



THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



flavoring broths, etc. The seeds are used for celery salt and many pickles and seasonings. 

Celery from Michigan and New York State is best from July 15 to Decem- 
ber 1 or later; California ships principally from Thanksgiving to March 1; Florida 
from February 15 to May 1 and Bermuda from April 15 to the middle of June. 

To keep in the best condition, celery should 
be wrapped in paper and held in a cool place. 
In refrigerated cooling rooms, it can be kept in 
good condition from one to two months. It may 
also be stored in cool cellars if packed just as 
taken from the ground, without either washing 
or trimming, heads up in long deep boxes and 
filled around the roots with sand, which should 
occasionally be moistened. 

CENTRIFUGAL MACHINE: an apparatus 
used in many different industries, chiefly for the 
extraction of moisture — to remove the syi'tip 
from sugar, to extract the honey from honey- 
comb, to dry yarn, cloth, etc. The process is, 
essentially, placing the substance or material in 
a perforated basket or case which is revolved 

..1 , • Tj. XI ij- 1- • XI X XT- Girls hoeing Celery beds, near Buffalo, N. Y. 

With great rapidity, the result being that the 

moisture is expelled from the basket and caught in the receptacle enclosing it. 




CEPES. See Mushrooms. 



CEREALS. Agriculturally speaking, the term "cereals" refers to all species of 
"grasses" which bear grain, the most important being wheat, corn, rye, oats, rice and 
barley. The world's huge crop of wheat, for example, comes under this classification. 
From the standpoint of the grocer and the average consumer though, the term applies 
specifically to preparations of grains intended for table use — such as oatmeal and the 
great variety of so-called "breakfast foods." 

The subsiding of the temporary popularity which a multitude of cereal prepara- 
tions and combinations enjoyed a few years ago, banished into oblivion a long list of 
"breakfast foods," but a number of those which remained by virtue of proved merit and 
consistent publicity have grown steadily in public esteem, and the line is well worthy 
of attention, for it is clean and easy to handle, being practically all package goods, 
and quite profitable, if the proper kinds are selected. 

Package cereals may be divided into three main classes: (1) crushed raw, (2) 
partly cooked and (3) malted. In the last named, part of the starch is converted into 
maltose and dextrin (forms of sugar — see article on Glucose) by mixing the ground 
grain and malt and keeping it for a time at the proper temperature, then passing 
the mixture through hot rollers and drying. 

It does not, however, pay to handle this line unless there is a fair margin of profit. 
Nor should too many kinds, nor too large quantities be stocked, as if held for a long 
time weevils are liable to get in and spoil the goods. 

The more general use of the double-boiler has improved the preparation of 
cereals, preventing loss by burning and scorching, but in the average household the raw 



THE GROCERY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



109 



or semi-cooked varieties are not suificient- 
ly cooked before serving. Thorough cook- 
ing increases their food value by making 
them more readily digestible. The "fire- 
less cooker" is the ideal utensil for this 
purpose. 

Cereals should always be kept in a 
dry, cool place. 

CERIMAN (sometimes called the 
"False Bread-fruit") : a sub-tropical 
fruit, varying from cone to banana sha]3e 
and often reaching a length of fourteen 
inches. The flesh is excellent in flavor 
and delightfully aromatic. The husky 
skin is tender and easily removed. 



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Ceriman blossom and immature fruit 



CERVELAT: a popular variety of smoked sausage. See general article on Sausages. 

CETTE WINES: "Burgundy," "Port," "Vermouth," etc., exported from Cette, an 
important city on the French Mediterranean coast and the principal shipping point 
for the Department of Herault. Herault produces nearly one-tenth of the total French 
wine supply, but only a comparatively small quantity is exported, the bulk being 
retained for domestic consumption. 

CHAMOIS SKIN, or LEATHER, Shammy: used for polishing, is, ordinarily, 
goat or sheep skin made soft and pliable by treatment with oil. It takes its name 
from the original use of the skin of the Chamois, a goat-like antelope, of mountainous 
parts of Europe and Western Asia. To clean "shammy," use warm water, soap and a 
little soda, rubbing the soap well in. Washing in plain water will harden it. 

CHAMPAGNE. Contrary to general impression, Champagne is made from fine vari- 
eties of black and red grapes. Its "white" color is due to the fact that the grapes are 
pressed before the skins have had a chance to color the juice. 

The grapes are sorted immediately after gathering and taken at once to the press- 
house where they are again critically inspected during the weighing and then, with the 
least possible delay, pressed to separate the juice from the pulp. 

The products of the first three pressings become first class wines. The subsequent 
pressings produce only an inferior article, generally used for local consumption. 

This virgin wine is left standing in large vats to await fermentation — the process 
being instigated by the micro-organisms ("wild" yeast cells) contained in the "bloom" 
of the grape and carried into the juice when pressing. In fermentation, the natural 
sugar of the grape juice is transformed into alcohol and carbon-dioxide (gas). The 
latter escaping by the bunghole, produces the stage commonly called "boiling." 

As the weather becomes cold, the ferments gradually lessen their activity until 
the wine finally becomes clear and is in condition to be separated from its lees. 

With the approach of the following spring comes the most critical operation — 
the one which tests the experience and ability of the wine merchant — the blending of 



110 THK GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the crude wines to suit the tastes of his clienteles in various countries. When the 
desired result has been obtained, the "cuvee" is said to have been formed and is ready 
for bottling. 

A certain amount of cane-sugar is added to the wine and it is then put into new 
and carefully cleansed bottles, which are corked as filled and taken at once to the 
cellars. 

The return of spring again sets the ferments in action, transforming any natural 
sugar still left in the wine from' the previous fall — and also the cane-sugar added — into 
alcohol and carbon-dioxide — but this time the gas cannot escape and instead mingles 
with the liquid, producing the "sparkle" for which champagne is famous. 

But the development of the wine is not yet completed, for this last fermentation 
leaves a deposit or sediment to be got rid of. To accomplish this, the bottles are held 
in racks, head downwards at an angle of 70°, for three months or longer while the de- 
posit slowly descends and collects on the corks. Every day during the entire period 
a specially trained cellarman gives each bottle a slight twisting motion to assist its 
descent. 

When all the sediment has collected on the corks, the cellarman takes each bottle 
separately and removes the cork, or undoes the iron clasp holding it, according to the 
method employed, and the rush of the carbonate gas forces the deposit out with a loud 
report. The wine is thus left absolutely clear and sparkling. 

By the most modern process, the necks of the bottles, when ready for the extrac- 
tion of the sediment, are placed to a depth of about three inches in a refrigerating bath 
to congeal the deposit and thus facilitate its expulsion. 

The second fermentation has removed all taste of sugar, and for a perfectly "dry" 
wine, the cellarman refills the empty space in the neck of the bottle, left by the with- 
drawal of the sediment, with unsT\^eetened "dosage" and recorks the bottle as it is. 
Nearly all the champagne sold is though sweetened more or less — the extent varying 
with the preferences of the different countries to which it is to be shipped — and conse- 
queuth' the dosage usually consists of sugar dissolved in "champagne" brandy and 
variously flavored. A keen palate can often clearly detect the flavors of the dosage — 
as of apricots or other fruits. 

The bottles go next to underground wine cellars to mature. The cellars or "caves" 
at Reims consist of miles of tunnels cut in and through old chalk pits. The length of 
time required to attain proper maturity depends to a certain extent on the quality and 
characteristics of each year's vintage. An average of eight years is generally con- 
sidered sufficient. 

It is a matter of common knowledge that many of the stronger "still" wines are 
improved by long life in the bottles, but that a good vintage champagne will improve up 
to the tenth year is not generally known. 

The "dryer" the wine, the more important becomes the time set apart for its ag- 
ing, and the finer the discrimination possible in comparing the merits of different vint- 
ages. In heavily sweetened champagnes, the "sharpness" of immature wine or the medi- 
ocrity of a poor vintage may be obscured to a very considerable extent by the sugar 
flavor. 

An easy test for age in champagne is found in the corks extracted. If the end of 
the ".<!tem" swells out to approximately the same dimensions as the head of the cork, 
you may be sure the wine has not been vei-y long in the bottle. If it swells only mod- 
erately, it has been to that extent better matured. If it proves to be lacking entirely in 




VINEYARDS COVERING HILLS IN THE CHAMPAGNE DISTRICT, FRANCK 



112 THE GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

resiliency and retains the straight up and down shape of the inside of the bottle's 
neck, it has been aged sufficiently for any coni^oisseur's requirements. 

This test applies only to' champagne and similar sparkling wines, — not at all to 
old ports or Rhine wines, or any other wines held longer than ten years to mature, as 
in such cases new corks are generally substituted about every ten years. 

Most of the champagne consumed in Russia, Germany and other countries of 
Northern Europe is heavily sweetened. An 18 to 20 per cent syrup addition was for- 
merly common in that shipped to Russia and 14 to 16 per cent in that for Germany. 
About 12% was quite common in France itself. The champagne consumed in those 
countries is not as sweet as formerly, but it would still be considered excessively so by 
English and American connoisseurs. 

"Sec" or "dry" champagne is wine with only a comparatively little sweetening- — 
generally from 3 to 5 per cent. "Extra dry" has still less. "Brut," which means 
"natural" or "unsweetened," signifies champagne without any sweetening or, as gen- 
erally, wdth only the minimum amount. 

In Europe, the terms "sec" and "brut" serve to distinguish the wines so labelled 
from the heavily syrupped types mentioned, but as very little really sweet phampagne 
is ever seen in this country (practically all of the importations being of the "sec," "ex- 
tra sec" and "brut" types), "sec" has come to mean "sweet" to American consumers. 
It is "dry" in comparison with the sweet European champagne, but it is "sweet" in com- 
parison with the still dryer "brut." 

A small quantity of champagne sweeter than "sec," though not nearly as sweet as 
much of that consumed in Northern Europe, is imported and sold here under special 
trade titles, but the demand for it is comparatively small. "Sec" is probably the 
typical American taste, being generally preferred both to sweeter and dryer types. 

It is necessary, however, to confine oneself to generalities in discussing this sub- 
ject, as both wines and firm policies vary considerably. It is impossible to give a conclu- 
sive idea of the sweetness of different cuvees by naming the percentage of syrup added, 
as different quantities may be required to obtain the same degree of sweetness — the 
same amount of syrup added to a fine mellow wine would make a much sweeter article 
than if added to a young sharp wine. And, as there is no absolute standard of defi- 
nition for "sec" or "brut," it may happen that one firm's "brut" is sweeter than 
another's "sec." 

Another classification, which does not so generally affect the average consumer, 
but is understood by the connoisseur, is into non-Mousseux, not effervescent (seldom 
seen) ; Cremant, moderately sparkling; MoM.^sewa?, sufficiently effervescent to eject the 
cork with an audible report, and Grand Mousseux, excessively effervescent. 

It is very important that champagne should be kept in a dark cellar where the 
temperature is cool and even. If exposed to light and variable temperature, it will 
lose much of both effervescence and flavor. The bottles should be laid on their sides, 
inclined slightly downwards so that the wine keeps the cork moist. If it has been 
shipped a considerable distance, it should be allowed to rest a few days before serving. 

Champagne should be drunk cold, but the cooling process should be gradual — it 
is detrimental to shake it or turn it violently in the cooler, as is so frequently done. 

Several styles of wine glasses are used for serving champagne. The most desirable 
are those which show the "sparkle" best and retain it the longest. The "hollow-stem" 
glass is excellent by both these standards. It is important that the glasses be perfectly 
dry before pouring the wine into them — a damp glass kills much of the sparkle. 



THE GROCER-'S encyclopedia 



11.3. 




Swiss Chard 



As the sale of imported champagne is in this country largely tiirected by adver- 
tising, it is not generally advisable to stock heavily any brand with which the public 
is not thoroughly familiar. The French government has restricted the use of the 
title "champagne" to wine made within a certain clearly defined area, covering nearly 
all of the Department of Marne — which includes, among others, the cantons of Avize, 
Ay, Chalons, Epernay and Reims — and a few communes in the Department of Aisne. 

There are several American "champagnes" now made which are excellent in quality 
and show a good profit to the retailer. See American Wines. 

CHAMPIGON: the French name for Mushroom (which see). 

CHARD, Swiss Chard, Leaf -Beet: a vaiiety 
of beet which is grown only for its leaves and 
stalks, the latter, and also the leaf midribs of 
some types, being cooked and served in any way 
suitable for Asparagus. The leaves are pre- 
pared as "greens" or may be chopped up, mixed 
with cream and served with the stalks. 

Swiss Chard is a variety with especially 
large stalks, leaves and midribs. 

The term "Chard" is also applied to the 
blanched stalks, midribs, etc., of the artichoke, 
cardoon and several other plants. 

CHARLOTTE. See list of Culinary Terms in Appendix. 

CHARTREUSE: a famous liqueur (see Color Page of Liqvevrs) originally made by 
monks of La Grande Chartreuse, France. After the exclusion of the Carthusian monks 
from France, they retired to Spain near Tarragona and there, claiming the process as 
still their exclusive secret, make a liqueur branded "Liqueur des Peres Chartreux." 
It contains the aromatic principles of a great variety of fruits, spices and herbs and is 
marketed in three colors — green, yellow and white. 

See also "Chartreuse" in Culinary Terms in Appendix. 

CHEESE: the product obtained by coagulat- 
ing the casein of milk by means of rennet or 
acids, with or without the addition of ripening 
ferments and seasonings. The casein is usually 
coagulated with rennet, the curd being then 
separated from the whey and pressed in suitable 
molds. By act of Congress, approved June 6, 
1896, cheese may contain additional harmless 
coloring matter — this generally consists of an- 
natto or other colors from vegetable sources. 

Whole-milk or full-cream cheese is made 
from milk from which no portion of the 
fat has been removed. U. S. Standard whole- 
milk cheese or full-cream cheese is cheese 




ET8TOSB TIEW OO. 



Filling cheese hoops with the chopped curd 



114 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



containing in the water-free substance not less than fifty (50) per cent of butter fat. 

Cream cheese is made from milk and cream, or milk containing not less than six (6) 
per cent of fat. 

Slcim-inilk cheese is made from milk from which part of the fat has been removed. 

Cheeses are commonly graded as Special, Fancy, Good, Prime, Common, etc. 

Italy and Switzerland supply the greater part of the cheese imported. Next come 
Holland and France. 

As an article of food, cheese is very nutritious. When eaten in quantities it bur- 
dens the digestive organs, but in small amounts, as a condiment, it stimulates and aids 
the digestion of rich foods and dessert. When talien after eating, and especially when 
rich and old, it is particularly efficacious in that respect by powerfully promoting the 
secretion of saliva and gastric juice. 

In the United States, cheese making has been transferred bodily from the realm of 
domestic arts to that of the manufacturer, and 
farm-made cheeses are hard to find anywhere. 
New York and Wisconsin together produce 
three-quarters of the entire output of the 
country. Next in order are Ohio, Illinois, Michi- 
gan and Pennsylvania. 

More than nine-tenths of the cheese made is 
of the familiar standard copied after the Eng- 
lish Cheddar. The annual consumption here 
though is only 3 lbs. per capita, which shows how 
little its highly nutritious value is appreciated. 

In manufacture, the milk is generally 
warmed in large vats to a temperature of not less 
than 84° Fahr. The rennet, or other coagulative 
mixture, is then added, a pint of rennet being 
sufficient to turn from 2000 to 3000 quarts of 
milk. As the curd forms, the temperature is 
raised to nearly 100°, until the whole mass of 
curd separates from the whey. The latter is then drawn off hy cutting the curd across 
both ways, and passing wired paddles or curd-knives through it. After the whey has 
been removed, the curd is allowed to "mat" or ferment slightly and it is then broken 
up, salted, formed and pressed. Ten days or so later, the cheese is rubbed to remove any 
mold, and perhaps paraffined to prevent such formation later. It is then kept until 
properly ripened for market. 

The storing of newly made cheese is the next point that engages the attention of 
the maker and wholesale dealer. The same princii^les which influence the maturing or 
ripening of fermented liquors also operate here. A cool cellar, neither damp nor yet 
too dry, which is uninfluenced by changes of weather or season, is commonly regarded 
as best for the purpose. The temperatxire should not be permitted to exceed 50° to 
56° Fahr. at any time — an average of about 45° is preferable when it can be maintained. 
A place exposed to sudden changes of temperature is as unfit for storing cheese as it 
is for storing beer. Roquefort, the highest grade of highly ripened cheese, owes much 
of its perfection to the dry caves in which it is stored and ripened. 

The care of cheese in the store is often neglected. In warm weather, it should be 
kept in a cool, dry place, and frequently inspected and turned over in the boxes. If 





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THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 115 



a cheese shows signs of swelling, it should be pierced with a wire to give vent to the 
gas, which can then be expelled by gentle pressure on the s'wollen portion. All mold 
or mites on the top of the cheese should be swept or neatly scraped off and the surface 
rubbed with a little sweet oil or strong brine. For maggots or "jumpers," the remedy is 
to clean tlie affected parts and keep the cheese well dusted with rice flour. If the loose 
sheets or plates which lie on the top and bottom of the cheese are found to be damp, 
they should be replaced by clean, dry ones. 

The cut cheese can be kept moist by pressing lightly buttered pieces of parchment 
firmly on the cut surfaces or by buttering them. There will also be less tendency to- 
wards dryness, and therefore less shrinkage, if each exposed surface is cut from alter- 
nately. The fresh appearance of the cheese in general can be retained by wiping the out- 
side each day with a damp cloth, soaked in salt water. 

For the important part played by bacteria, etc., in the ripening of cheese, see article 
on Bactekia. 

There are countless varieties of cheese, but those described in the following list 
may be taken as representative of all popular types. Camemhert, Cheddar, Cream, 
Edam, Limhurger, Neufchatel, Pineapple and Bioiss are depicted in the two color pages 
of Cheese — (1) the frontispiece, and (2) facing page IIS. 

Appenzell : made either of skim or whole-milk, in Appenzell, Switzerland. It is 
very similar to Emmenthaler (which see). 

Bkandied : strong old cheese, ground or rolled fine, and mixed with brandy. A full- 
cream cheese, which has become a little over-ripe, is pared and then rolled into a 
smooth dough with a rolling pin. Layers of this dough, from a half inch to an inch 
thick, are put in an earthen crock, and good brandy is poured over each layer. When 
the crock is nearly full, the cheese is covered with several thicknesses of oiled muslin, 
and, during the first few weeks, a little brandy is poured on top at regular intervals. It 
will improve with years. 

Brie : a soft French cheese, treated and ripened in much the same waj' as Camem- 
bert (which see). 

Oaciocavallo : an Italian cheese, generally of roundish-beet shape and about 
three pounds in Aveight, which after making and salting is filled into sausage skins and 
lightly smoked. It is sometimes eaten fresh, but is more often stored for several 
months and then grated to use as a flavoring for soups and as an addition to macaroni 
and similar pastes. 

Caerpi-iilly : a hard Welsh cheese generally weighing about eight pounds, made 
from very sweet whole milk. 

Camembert : a soft, rich cheese, made in the former province of Normandy, France, 
the best now coming from the districts of Orne and Calvados. It is generally put up 
in round wooden boxes or tins and is marketed in May and November. It is made 
from two separate curds, the morning and the evening, and the strength of the rennet 
mixture employed is varied with the weather, being much stronger for the winter than 
for the summer product. When the first curd is ready, it is filled into molds with 
great care so as not to break up the mass, but to fill each round hoop or form with one 
motion. These filled forms are placed on straw mats, which facilitate drainage and 
add to the agreeable appearance of the finished cheese. The morning's curd will have 
sunk considerably by the time the evening's curd is ready, and the latter, which may be 



116 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



a little richer, is added to it, the top of the under layer being slightly disturbed 
or scored to facilitate joining. On the second day, the cheeses, having hardened suffi- 
ciently to be turned, are slightly salted on the surface and set on fresh mats to remain 
till they are hard enough to be removed from the frames. In the drying room, where 
they rest for four days, the first or white fungus or. mold appears — this is essential to 
their flavor and ripening and is succeeded after about a week by the fine blue mold 
characteristic of the fully developed cheese. When the condition of the blue mold is 
fully established, the cheeses are removed to the curing room, where they are kept at 
a temperature under 60° Fahr. until ready for market. 

More Camembert cheese would be used if the ordinary consumer knew how to 
handle it. At dinner parties or hotels it is easy to dispose of an entire cheese at one 
meal, but the provident housewife hardly likes to see three-quarters of it dry up or run 
away because the family is small or the cheese is only appreciated by the head of the 
house — of whichever sex. 

Keep your Camembert cheese under a large inverted finger bowl — you can find no 
better receptacle. 

If kept in a cool place, the cheese naturally stiffens. If it is fresh and not shrunken 
it will always be soft if held for a few hours in a warm room. 

In cutting for the first time, cut a section as shown in Figure 1 below, and then 
push the two sides of the cheese together as in Figure 2 — the rind will thus continue to 
protect it. At the second meal, cut through crosswise and at the end of the meal push 




Cutting Camembert Cheese 

the parts together (Figure 3), so that the four quarter-sections again make a circle, 
exercising a little care in pasting the side joints. This process may be repeated as often 
as necessary, but it is to be hoped that the cheese will be sufficiently appreciated to be 
consumed within four meals. 

Cheddar : which takes its name from the village of Cheddar, England, the original 
place of manufacture, is, from the standpoint of quantity consumed, one of the most 
important of all cheeses. It is generally of pale color and agreeable nutty flavor, but 
the title, as now employed, applies to the essential process of manufacture rather than 
to any one type, "Cheddar" being sold in many styles, shapes and sizes. 

All Cheddar is made from sweet milk and a distinctive feature of its manufacture 
is the development of the maximum quantity of acid obtainable in the whey Avithout 
injuring the texture of the cheese — but the milk used may be either whole, partly 
skimmed or skimmed, and the cheeses may be white or colored yellow and may be mar- 
keted mild and fresh or thoroughly ripened. Those of whole milk are known as "full 
cream," others as "part skim" or "skim." The cylindrical shape is the most popular 
for the large cheeses. 



THE GROCEU^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 117 



Oheshike: is made from whole milk. It resembles Cheddar but is of stronger 
flavor. In England, Cheshire cheeses weigh up to as high as 150 or 200 pounds, but in 
this country they range from 20 to 70 pounds, generally in cylindrical shape. From 
eight to ten months is required for ripening. 

Colhommier : a small Brie cheese, five to six inches in diameter and one inch in 
thickness, weighing about one pound. 

Cottage, also called '^Dutch Cheese" and "8mier-Kase'' : a sour milk cheese ex- 
tensively made and consumed here, sold both in bulk and wrapped in tin-foil. The curd 
is broken up and held at about 100° Fahr. until sufficiently fii'm, the whey next being 
drained off and the curd placed under moderate pressure for some time. If to be held 
long, it is packed in tubs and placed in cold storage to prevent ripening. For eat- 
ing, it is generally moistened with milk or cream. 

CoTTENHAM : a rich English cheese, in flavor and consistence quite similar to 
Stilton, but flatter and broader in shape. 

Cream : is made in several ways, the two chief varieties of American manufac- 
ture being (1) sweet cream thickened with rennet or by souring, drained and salted; 
and (2) cream curdled with rennet, broken up to allow part of the whey to escape, 
then mixed or worked almost to a paste, molded into pieces weighing two to four 
ounces, wrapped in parchment paper and tin-foil and placed on the market fresh (with- 
out any curing). The second style is manufactured here on a very large scale. 

There are also a number of French Cream and "Double Cream" cheeses, of which 
Neufchatel and Gervais are the best known examples. 

Devonshire Cream: is, essentially, cooked cream. The cream is allowed to rise 
on the milk for several hours, then the milk and cream ( still together ) are scalded and 
set aside to permit the cream layer to harden. The latter is then put in small molds 
and set on straw mats to drain. It is ready for market without further preparation as 
soon as it is hard enough to retain its shape. 

D'IsiGNY : a soft, creamy American cheese, bearing a close resemblance to imported 
Brie, but made by a process similar to that for Camembert and put up in Camembert 
shape, though a little larger — about iy2 inches thick and 6 inches across, wrapped in 
paper and weighing about a pound. 

Dorset : resembles Stilton in character and manufacture. It takes its name from 
Dorsetshire, England. 

Double Gloucester. See Gloucester. 

Dunlop: a rich, white and buttery cheese, resembling Cheddar, made in round 
forms of from thirty to sixty pounds. It was formerly the national cheese of Scot- 
land, but has been practically superseded in that country by Cheddar. 

Dutch Cheese : a general name for Edam, Gouda and Cottage Cheese (which see) . 

Edam : a highly salted, red, round cannonball cheese, made in Edam, Holland, and 
its vicinity, principally on farms. The curd is pressed in molds — sometimes of metal, 
but usually of wood, cup shaped and round bottomed, with similar shaped tops to com- 
plete the spherical form — going next for a few days to "salting" cups of similar shape. 
In the curing room, the cheeses are placed on shelves with holes in them to prevent 
them rolling off, and are turned and rubbed each day. At the end of a month they 



118 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

are washed, dried aud rubbed with flaxseed oil till they shine and are then ready to be 
loaded into carts — which are generally dragged by dogs to the market town. 

The red color of the outside skin is obtained by carmine or a weak solution of 
litmus and Berlin red. 

The shells of Edam or Pineapple cheese are useful for serving macaroni. Heat 
the shell in a moderate oven and pour in the' (cooked) macaroni. If the macaroni is to 
be browned, set the filled shell in the oven again — this will, however, destroy the shell 
after three or four times. 

Emmenthaler ( commonly called /Sitt/tSA' Cheese, or Schweitzer) : a rennet cheese 
made from whole milk, of mild rather sweet flavor and generally distinguished by holes 
or "eyes" of various sizes and frequency. It was originally made in Emmenthal, Switzer- 
land, and that country is still a large exporter in spite of the fact that similar cheese 
is now manufactured in nearly every country. The French product is known, both in 
Prance and by export, as Gruyere. That made here is known as "Domestic Swiss." 

The cheeses are often very large — from 60 to 220 pounds each, sometimes in blocks 
about twenty-eight inches or so long and eight inches square, but generally circular, 
the larger ranging up to four feet in diameter and six inches in thickness. 

The genuine Emmenthaler, when exported, is never less than four months old. It 
keeps, under favorable conditions, for many years. It should be nutty in taste, and 
rather dry, but tender. The "holes" or "ej^es," though generally characteristic, are 
not necessary to Its quality, for many good Swiss cheeses are "blind," as dealers 
describe them. 

English Dairy : a very hard cheese, prepared in about the same way as Cheddar, 
but cooked for a longer time. It is made quite extensively here, principally for culin- 
ary purposes. 

Gedort : a Norwegian cheese, small in size and solid in form, wrapped in foil. 

Gervais : a French cheese made from a mixture of whole milk and cream. It is very 
lightly cured and is generally consumed fresh. 

Gloucester ("single" and "double") : is mild, somewhat buttery and not friable. 
It comes in large, round, flat forms. "Single Gloucester" is made from milk deprived 
of part of its cream. "Double Gloucester" contains all the cream. 

GORGONZOLA : a rich cream cheese, akin to Eoquefort and made in a somewhat 
similar manner, but milder in flavor and cheaper, produced in the mountain villages of 
Italy. The clayey outside surface of the whole cheese is a mixture of gypsum, tallow, 
etc., and is designed to aid in preserving it. Well-made Gorgonzola can be kept in good 
condition for a year or longer. 

Gouda: a Holland cheese made from whole or partly skimmed milk, coagulated 
with rennet and colored with saffron. It is pressed in round molds and weighs from 
ten to forty-flve pounds. As marketed, each cheese is contained in a bladder or other 
covering of animal tissue. 

Grated Cheese : any hard cheese grated for use with macaroni or other appropri- 
ate dishes. See also Parmesan. 

Green Cheese. See Sage Cheese. 

GRUYiiRE : the French make of "Swiss Cheese." See Emmenthaler. 




Cream 

Cheddar 




A part of the golden field as seen from a window in -the weigh-liouse tower. Each of the piles 
contains from 500 to 900 cheeses 



1 


PpH^ 




TMPi^ jSH 


jL^h^HQ^^I^H 


r'^'^i^s 


'^''i \ 




^-- ^^zll 


Wk^* ^ ' 








v'^^^Hl > * 


^ 


y -^idi 




r 


-'I 


m4 


■^fl^^^SC^^Hf ''■ & 




^ 






^ 





A pair i»f official puittTs taking a tray-load ni t■hL't'^t^■s In Ihu w t-ij^h-liuusc. Ihc picture 
tile pilt?s are covered until and after tlte Iiour of the market 



sluiws how carefullj- 



THE CHEESE MARKET AT ALKMAAR— the most important distributing point in North Holland for the 
round cheeses known in America as " Edam." The market is held every Friday, the cheeses being brought into 
town in great quantities, by boat and wagon, from the dairies of the surrounding districts. Before shipping, they 
are colored red or a brighter yellow, generally the former. 




fiopvitiiinr, DMiERWdOD & osdebwoou, h. v, 



Ihindrc'ds of cheeses curing in a dairy at Haslev, Denmark 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 121 



Kosher : a cheese made especially for Jewish trade. Its manufacture resembles 
that of Limburger, but it is eaten fresh. 

Kosher Goud.v : made for Jewish trade and bearing a special stamp for identi- 
fication. It resembles Gouda, but has no bladder covering and is smallei' — about SV2 
inches in diameter and three inches thick, weighing four to six pounds. 

LiMBUEGER : was originated in the town of Limburger, Belgium, but little is im- 
ported nowadays as that of domestic manufacture is fully equal in quality to the Euro- 
pean and is made at a cost of less than half that of the imported article. Literally thou- 
sands of tons of Limburger are now produced here every season — principally in the 
States of New York and Wisconsin and chiefly for consumption by our German-Ameri- 
can population. 

The process of manufacture in its first stages does not differ from the usual method 
of cheese making, except that a lower temperature than for most varieties is kept while 
the curd is forming, the animal heat alone in summer being often high enough. Great 
care is taken to use pure milk, free from taint, and cleanliness is requisite in every stage 
of the making. Upon the curd being formed, it is slowly and carefully cut into square 
pieces the size of dice, careful handling being necessary to avoid breaking the butter 
globules upon which the richness of the cheese depends. It is next slightly scalded 
and stirred, and most of the whey drawn off, then, without being salted, it is dipped 
out in perforated wooden boxes or molds, about five inches square, and left to drain 
without any pressure being applied. In a few hours the j)ackages are carried into 
the curing cellar and placed edgeways on shelves, like bricks set to dry. Every day 
thereafter they are rolled in salt and replaced when they have absorbed enough. They 
are also turned almost every day, and the slimy moisture which exudes is rubbed even- 
ly over the surface, serving the double purpose of keeping the cheese moist and closing 
all cracks in which flies might lay their eggs. This outside moisture decomposes 
while the cheese ripens, and being composed chiefly of albumen, like fresh meats, etc., 
the same results follow its decomposition, and the "Limburger odor" is developed — 
which never forsakes it and sticks closer than a brother to all who touch or eat it. 
After eight or ten weeks it is packed in paper and tin-foil, and is ready for market — 
in consistence, contents and nourishment the richest cheese that can be made, but to 
the uninitiated a malicious and premeditated outrage upon the organ of smell ! 

LiPT.\u : a Bohemian cheese, made from goat's milk and usually heightened witli 
red pepper or other condiments. It generally comes in small tin-foil packages, is rather 
greasy and has a sharp taste. 

Menauta : a rich soft French cheese, imported generally in small round tins. 

Neufchatel : a soft French cream cheese, sold in tin-foil cylinders about three and 
a half inches long and weighing about five or six ounces. 

Parmesan : a hard Italian varietj', used in grated form. It is made from skimmed 
milk, and hardened by slow heat. The rennet is added to the milk at about 120° Fahr., 
and after about an hour the curdling milk is set on a slow fire and heated to about 
1.50°, when the curd separates into small lumps. A few pinches of saffron are thrown 
in to produce the desired color. About a fortnight later, the outer crust is cut off and 
the new surface is varnished with linseed oil, one side being painted I'ed. Parmesan 



122 THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

cheese is an excellent accompaniment for macaroni and similar pastes and is frequently 
added to soups, etc. 

Pineapple : a hard, highly colored cheese, made in various sizes and so named be- 
cause the curd is pressed in pineapple shape. The diamond-shaped ridges are caused 
by the cord nets in which the cheese is hung up to cure. It resembles Cheddar in manu- 
facture except that it is cooked much harder. 

Pont L'EvSque : a soft French cheese, about 4i/^ inches square and li/4 inches 
thick. 

Port du Salut : a French cheese, seven to ten inches in diameter, with firm, tough 
rind but soft homogeneous interior. 

Potted Cheese : a domestic cheese generally made by grinding well ripened cheese 
very fine, mixing it with butter, condiments and brandy or other spirits, etc., and put- 
ting up in small porcelain jars. See also Beandied Cheese. 

Peovole: a round or oval Italian cheese, weighing from four to six pounds, and 
resembling "Caciocavallo." Smaller cheeses, about two pounds each, are styled Provo- 
loni. 

Roquefort : a famous cheese, named after the French village of Eoquefort, where 
great herds of the sheep that supply the milk are pastured on an immense plain of rich 
velvet-like herbage, which is stringently protected by both law and custom. Remark- 
able care and skill are employed in its manufacture. The herbage is supplemented by 
a diet of prepared food; the water supplied to the herds is whitened with barley flour 
and the yield of milk is stimulated in every possible way, even to beating the udders 
with the hands after milking. 

There are many thousands of these sheep and very picturesque are the milking 
hours, morning and evening, when the army of • pail-bearing maidens hurry over the 
fields, each in search of a favorite animal. 

Every morning, in the farmhouse, the milk is skimmed, strained, warmed almost 
to the boiling point, emptied into enormous pans, stirred well with willow sticks, a 
portion of rennet added, and then covered and left to gather into curds — M^hich an 
hour or so afterwards are cut up into pieces about the size of walnuts. Half a dozen 
other operations follow, then comes the "moldy bread" process, which produces the 
special characteristics of Roquefort. 

The bread used is made of the finest wheat, or of winter barley, leavened with a 
large quantity of brewer's yeast, kneaded to excess and thoroughly baked. The crust 
is removed after standing a day and the crumb is pounded in a mortar and put away in 
a damp place till it is covered with mold. When it is ripe enough, the new cheeses 
are thoroughly rubbed with this moldy bread and layers of it are put between the 
layers of curd so that they may absorb still more of the mold. 

After several days' pressing, the cheeses are wrapped in linen and dried, and then 
taken by the shepherd-dairymen to the village and sold to the owners of the vaults or 
caves — natural clefts or artificial excavations in the limestone rocks — hard by the town. 
In these caves, the cheeses are piled up and salted, being frequently rehandled and 
rubbed so that the salt may thoroughly impregnate them. They are next scraped and 
pricked with long needles so that the mold may run entirely through them, and then 
they are again piled up and left till they are perfectly dry, in this process developing 
a long white mold which is scraped off from time to time. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 123 



Very few, even of those who know the cheese well, are acquainted with all the 
pains taken to please their palates. 

The best season in the United States for serving Roquefort is from October to 
May, but if kept in cool cellars it may be enjoyed all the year. It is generally eaten 
in small quantities at the end of a dinner. It is especially delightful if rolled with 
half its bulk of butter, sprinkled liberally with cayenne pepper and spread on toasted 
biscuits. It is also used to fill the hollow parts of stalks of celery, etc. 

Sage Cheese : is made by the Cheddar process and in many shapes and sizes. Its 
distinguishing characteristic is its flavor of sage and its green mottled appearance when 
out. The color is obtained either by mixing green sage leaves in the curd before press- 
ing, or by the addition to the main curd of "green curd" obtained by the aid of the 
juice of green corn — in the latter case, the sage flavor being obtained by the use of 
sage extract. Parsley, spinach and marigold leaves, bruised and steeped before use, are 
sometimes employed in place of sage leaves. 

Sap Sago Cheese : a small, hard green cheese, flavored with the leaves of a kind of 
clover, made in Switzerland. It is shaped like a truncated cone — four inches high, 
three inches across at the base and two inches at top. It is chiefly used for grating. 

Smier-Kase. See Cottage Cheese. 

Stilton : manufactured in Leicestershire, England, and the richest and finest of 
English cheeses. It is of a pale color, with veins generally marked by green, or bluish- 
green, fungus. It is made of raw whole milk to which cream from other milk has been 
added. It is greatly improved by age, and, to be enjoyed at its best/ should not be 
eaten before it is two years old. A spurious appearance of age is often given it by 
placing it in a warm damp cellar, or by surrounding it by fermenting dung or straw. 

Stilton cheeses are generally twice as high as they are broad, with surfaces brown 
and crinkled and weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds. 

Ripened Stilton cheese is also sold finely ground and put up in jars holding ^rom 
one to two and a half pounds. 

Swiss Cheese or Schweitzer Kase : as understood in this country, is another 
name for "Emmenthaler" (which see) or "Gruyere." In Switzerland, the original 
place of manufacture, it indicates a minor grade, being made of half-skimmed milk 
instead of the full cream milk of Emmenthaler. 

Troyes : is the name of two varieties of cheese — one known also as "Ervy," a 
washed cheese with a yellow rind; and the other called "Barberey" and closely 
resembling Camembert. 

Vacherix. "Vacherin a la main," is a very soft cheese — the rind is hard, but the 
interior is spread on bread or eaten with a spoon. "Vacherin fondu" is made in about 
the same way as Emmenthaler, but the cheese after ripening is melted and spiced. 

Westphalian : comes in small balls or rolls of about one pound each. It derives 
its peculiar flavor from the curd being allowed to become partly putrid before being 
pressed. 

Westphalia Sour Milk: a hard sour-milk cheese, flavored by the addition of 
butter and caraway seed or pepper. 

Wiltshire: resembles poor Cheshire or Gloucester. The outside is geneally 
painted with a mixture of reddle, or red-ocher and whey. 



124 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CHEESE CAKE: a cake or open i^ie with curd or cheese as the principal "filling" 
iuoredient. 



CHEESE SAFE: a wire cover framed in wood and hinged in the center. It excludes 

flies and mice and ; 

burglar-proof safe is one of the greatest needs of the trade ! 



flies and mice and vet admits air. It does not exclude the "tasting customer" and a 



CHERIMOYA: the fruit of a tree cultivated in Mexico, Central America and parts 
of South America, especially Peru. It varies from the size of an average apple up to a 
weight of fifteen pounds. The pulp is white, juicy and of exceedingly fine flavor. 

It is probable that the Cherimoya will in the near future become very popular as 
with scientific culture there seems to be no limit to the excellence it may reach and, 
cut when fully developed but not ripe, it stands transportation well. With only very 
ordinary and careless methods, the tree averages annually a crop of a hundred or more 
fruits which are so delicious that they retail in Mexico at from three to eight (Ameri- 
can) cents each. 

CHERRY: a fruit which is believed to have originated in Persia. In this country, it 
is most popular raw, canned and otherwise preserved, and put up in liqueurs (as 
Cherries in Maraschino and Brandied Cherries). It is also stoned and dried, becoming 
then the "pitted" cherry of commerce and is the source or essential ingredient of various 
liqueurs, etc. — notably Maraschino and Kirschwasser. 

The variety most esteemed as a des- 
sert fruit and for canning, is the Wax 
Cherry, of light color with rosy cheeks, 
named for its beautiful waxy appearance. 
For purposes of distillation, preference is 
given to the wild cherry, which is smaller 
and less fleshy than the cultivated, but 
in the best types is very sweet and often 
decidedly aromatic, the most noted being 
the black Marasca cherry, of Dalmatia. 
In the forest regions of France, the 
wild cherry is an important item of the 
local food supply, large quantities being 
consumed fresh during the ripening sea- 
son and the balance of the harvest being 
dried for winter use, in jams, etc., and in 
the form of Cherry Soup — which consists 
substantially of bread and water with a 
little butter and dried cherries for flavor. 
In the valley of the Rhine, the schools 
often close when the cherry crop is ripe, 
so that both children and parents may 
gather the luscious harvest. 

In this country, California and Ore- 
gon are constantly increasing their i^ro- 
duction as the drv climate of the orchard 




LWOOD A UNDEHWOOD, :., 1. 

Picking the Cherries alonj,^ the road, Westerhausen, Germany 




CHERRIES 



THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



127 



regions of those states permits tlie fruit to reacli there its very higliest perfection. 
Recorded evidence does not go bacli far enough to say Avheu -wild clierries first became 
au object of the gardener's care. The early Romans were familiar with eight varieties 
and quantities of cherry stones have been found in the lalie dwellings of Switzerland. 

CHERVIL: a highly esteemed garden herb grown in all temperate climates and very 
popular in the South. It is similar to parsley, the Curled being even handsomer. 

Chervil Bilbiir, or Turnip-Rooted Chercil, is a French variety' grown for its roots, 
which resemble the Parsnip in shape and color. It is a very desirable vegetable, the 
flesh being sweet and delicate in flavor and almost floury in texture. 

CHESHIRE: a cheese akin to Cheddar. See general article on Cheese. 

CHESTNUT (/See Color Page II of Nuts) : the fruit of a tree which is found in sev- 
eral varieties in different parts of the world. The name is derived from that of the town 
of Kastana in Asia Minor, which is also more or less closely preserved in several other 
languages — as the French "Chataigne" and the German "Kastanien." The nuts grow 
inside a pricklj- husk, generally two in each husk, ripening with the first frost. 

The American chestnut is usually smaller, but generally sweeter, than the Spanish. 
The Chiucapiu is a very small dwarf variety of the American. The Japanese averages 
larger than the American and in sweetness may be generally classed between it and 
the Spanish. 

In this country, chestnuts are eaten in various forms — raw, boiled, steamed and 
roasted. They are very nutritious, the dried nuts containing an appreciable quantity 
of protein, fat and sugar to supplement the starch which is their chief component. 
The sugar content frequently reaches as high as 15%, the fermentation of the juice 
yielding a fine granular sugar. They should though be well roasted or boiled for a 
long time, as raw thej' are exceedinglj^ indigestible. See also Maerons. 

In some movm- 

tainous districts of 
Europe where cere- 
als cannot be raised, 
the chestnut takes 
the place of grain 
to a considerable 
extent. The chest- 
nut harvest is the 
event of the year on 
the slopes of the 
Apennines and P3'- 
renees — the gather- 
ing of the nuts be- 
ing for three or 
four weeks the lead- 
ing occupation of 
every mountain vil- 
lage. When all the 

trees have been Cl.estnut Burrs bursting 




128 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

stripped, the fruit is spread on frames of lattice-work and dried by keeping a fire 
burning underneath. It is then steamed, roasted, made into pudding — the original 
"Polenta" — or ground into flour for bread making. 

In some parts of Italy the peasants use a cake made of chestnuts as a substitute 
for potatoes. 

CHEWING GUM. The original "chewing gum" was spruce gum, the exudation of the 
cut branches of the spruce or fir tree. Later, pure white paraflin wax, variously flavored, 
took its place — but only in its turn to give way to the "chicle" now almost exclusively 
employed. Chicle is a gum which is obtained from a tropical tree botanically known 
as the achras sapota, a member of the family which gives the Sapodilla fruit (see Sapo- 
dilla), and variously called the Naseberry and Sapodilla, growing most freely in 
Mexico, Central America and parts of northern South America. 

Though its employment in the manufacture of chewing gum is of comparatively 
recent date, chicle was used by the Indians prior to the days of Columbus as a means 
of quenching their thirst. It was first commercially imported as a substitute for 
rubber, but its peculiar suitability for chewing gum has resulted in the entire product 
being consumed by that industry. In the year ending June 30, 1910, nearly five and 
one-half million pounds were brought into the United States. 

The trees are "tapped" during the rainy season. The sap or juice as it exudes 
has the appearance of milk, gradually changing to a yellow color and about the thick- 
ness of treacle. The tree drains rapidly, the full supply of "milk" being generally 
obtained within a few hours, but an interval of several years usually elapses before it 
will yield a fresh supply. The milk differs from the juice obtained from the sugar 
mapl.e, for example, in that it is not the life sap of the tree and the flow varies greatly, 
some trees which show full life yielding much less than apparently poorer speci- 
mens. "Crude chicle" is obtained by simple boiling and evaporation of the milk 
accompanied by frequent kneading, the product as pressed in rough molds being of a 
light gray color. 

The bulk of the crude chicle manufactured is shipped in blocks to Canada, where 
it is further evaporated and carefully refined prior to importation into the United 
States. 

In the chewing gum factory, the refined chicle is chopped or ground fine, screened 
and boiled to the right consistence in steam-jacketed kettles. The flavoring and sugar 
are then added and the whole is transferred to large centrifugal receivers in which it is 
whipped and kneaded into a dough. It goes next to the kneading tables where it is 
thoroughly "worked" with powdered sugar and then passed between rollers set with 
numerous small knives which roll it into sheets and cut it into marketable size. After a 
final drying, the pieces are ready for wrapping — generally performed by machinery, a 
single modern wrapping machine being capable of turning out an average of 20,000 
packages a day. 

It is estimated that chewing gum to a value of 140,000,000 was used in the United 
States during the year ending June 30, 1910, and present indications are that it will 
before long have attained almost equal popularity in Europe. 

Some manufacturers of patent medicines are now successfully combining digestive 
and antiseptic ingredients with chewing gum. 

CHICK PEA: the "pulse" of the Orient. See Garbanza. 




1— Barred Plymouth Rock 
4 — Silver Wyandotte 
7— White Lejrhorn 
10 — Silver Spangled Hamburg: 



WELL-KNOWN VARIETIES OF CHICKENS 

2— Black Minorca 
5-White Wyandotte 
8— Buff Cochin 
11— White Langshan 



3 -White Plymouth Rock 
6— Light Brahma 
9— White Orpington 
12— Black Houdan 



130 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

CHICKEN. The word "chicken" formerly meant "young fowl," but usage has applied 
it to fowls of all ages, the young birds being designated as "spring chickens," 
"broilers," etc. 

The fowl has been reared for food for so many centuries that its first conversion 
from its wild ancestors is lost in tradition. Poultry raising has been practiced in 
Europe from the earliest recorded times, and domestic fowl were plentiful in Great 
Britain long before the lioman invasion. 

The best known types of chickens especially suitable for table purposes are the 
many varieties of the Brahma (very large birds). Cochin, Langshan, Dorking, Orp- 
ington, Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte and Houdan. Representative examples of all of 
these, except the Dorking, are shown on the page illustration preceding. Attention is 
also directed to the consideration of fowls from the standpoint of egg production in 
the article on Eggs. 

To the general rules for selection given in the article on Poultry (which see) may 
be added that, thick scales on the legs, thin necks and dark colored thighs are signs 
of toughness in chickens. A good table bird should have a large full breast and, at other 
points also, a large proportion of meat to the size of the bones — long thin legs and wings 
are especially undesirable. 

Many heated controversies have been held over the question as to whether drawn 
or undrawn poultry keeps better. The advocates of the "undrawn" method appear 
to have the best arguments on their side. 

Chickens should be starved for at least twenty-four hours before killing. Those 
that have been killed with partially filled crops should be avoided, as the disintegra- 
tion of the grain quickly discolors the flesh. In common with all other meats, chickens 
should be thoroughly cooled for a couple of daj's before cooking. 

Dry-picked chickens will keep longer than scalded birds. The plucking should be 
performed immediately after killing. 

Capons are considered a little choicer — more tender and of higher flavor — than 
ordinary fowl. They can be distinguished by the pale and shriveled appearance of the 
combs, the undeveloped condition of the spurs and especially round well-fleshed bodies. 

Poulards, or Spayed hens, are in France considered particularly delicate also, but 
in this country they are not rated as much, if am^, better than first-class pullets. 

Milk-fed Chickens are those fattened for market chiefly on milk-soaked bread. 
Properly regulated, the diet gives birds with very delicate flesh. 

A "Squab Chicken" should average % pound to 1% pounds in weight; a "broiler" 
lyo to 2; one to "sauter," about 2^/2 pounds; for "roasting" 3 pounds or so; and for 
fricassee, 4 pounds. 

' The meat of well fattened chicken of young and medium age has about the same 
nutritive value as beef, but it is generally considered easier of digestion and therefore 
especially suitable for invalids and convalescents. 

American custom generally discards as refuse various parts of the bird which are 
considered of value in some other countries. The head of the chicken, for example, is 
in Europe often left on the bird when it is cooked, as the brain is considered a tit-bit; 
cocks" combs are everywhere recognized by French cooks as a delicacy worthy of prepa- 
ration as a separate dish or especially desirable for garnishing; and the feet, skinned 
and dressed, are used for making broths, etc. 

CHICKEN HALIBUT: a term generally applied to young Halibut (which see). . 



THE G R C E R ^ S E K C Y C L T E D I A 



131 



CHICORY. There are two main varieties of the Chicoi'y family under general culti- 
Mi'tion — Ciclioriiim Intijhus, native to Europe and Ciclioriiun Endicia (see Endive), 
native to the East Indies. 

"Cichorium Intybus" is broadly divided into "Large-rooted Chicory," of which 
the two best known types are the Brunswick and Magdeburg, and "Common Chicory." 



Large-rooted Chicory is cultivated chiefly for the sake of its root, which attains a 
length of ten to fourteen inches and a diameter of about two inches and produces the 
"chicory" consumed in large quantities as an addition to coffee (which see). It is 
kiln-dried, sliced, roasted with a little oil and ground into different sizes, from pieces 
the size of a coffee bean down to "fine pulverized." When raw it is white and fleshy in 
appearance, but when roasted it resembles roasted coffee. Unlike coffee, it contains 
no caffeine, but it has a bitter principle and a volatile oil and the roasting brings out an 
aroma. 

Roasted chicory is highly absorbent of moisture, and should therefore be always 
kept in closed bottles or canisters, etc. 
Chicory root is also used in Europe as 
a vegetable and the young blanched 
shoots, forced in dark cellars, principally 
in winter, are the Barhe de Capuciii. 
"Monk's Beard," of the famous French 
salad of that name. A similar, though 
not quite so delicate, product is obtained 
by similar treatment of Common Chicor.y. 

For Witloof Chicory see Endive. 

Common Chicory is the salad plant, 
grown for the young plant's narrow curly 
leaves, which are generally partly or 
wholly blanched in cultivation. It is also 
cooked sometimes as "greens.'' The title 
"Succory" is a corruption of "chicory." common ci,ieo,y 




CHILI, or Chilies: the Mexican, and quite generally the popular, name for the pods 
of several species of small-fruited, specially pungent capsicums (which see), put up as 
a separate pickle or added to "mixed pickles," etc. They are largely consumed in hot 
countries. The two ilexican dishes containing them \^hich are best known here are 
cMU con came and the chicken tamale. The word is also used as a group name for 
many articles highly seasoned either with whole capsicums or cayenne pepper, etc. 

CHILI COLORADO SAUCE: a bottled sauce made of Mexican sweet red pepper 
pods finely minced in a vinegar pickle. 

CHILI SAUCE: a bottled sauce made of peppers (green or red), ripe tomatoes, sea- 
soning, etc. 



CHILIAN MYRTLE: one of the best varieties of tlie Mvutle (which see). 



132 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CHINCAPIN or Dwarf Chestnut: a low tree, bearing fruit the size of a hazel nut. 
A number of species are native to the East. It does not grow south of Maryland. See 
Chestnut. 

CHINESE FIG: one of many titles for the Japanese Persimmon (see Persimmon). 

CHIPPED BEEF: a term applied to thin-sliced Dried Beef (which see). 

CHITTERLINGS: sausages made of pig intestines (see Sausages). 



CHIVES, or Cives: a plant of the onion 
family, cultivated principally for its leaves, 
which grow in thick tufts resembling grass 
in appearance but hollow like onion leaves. It 
is a good substitute for onions, especially in 
soups and stews. 



CHLOROPHYLL: the natural pigment 
which imparts the green color to leaves and 
plants and enables them to obtain nourishment 
by converting to their use the chemical com- 
ponents of the soil. Plants not endowed with 
Chlorophyll are unable to nourish themselves 
and must feed on vegetables or animal matter 
(see Fungi). 

Chlorophyll is commercially used to give 
a green tint to oils, etc. 

CHOCOLATE. See Cocoa and Chocolate. 







. :.Agg^ 



A tuft of Chivt 



CHOP : as applied to tea, etc., signifies either the grade — "first chop" then signifying 
"first quality" — or a special brand or lot. The word originally signified a Chinese 
custom-house pass or mark. 

CHOP SUEY: a thick stew typical of the Chinese restaurant in the United States. 
The ingredients vary greatly in different establishments, among the many possibilities 
being chicken trimmings, other meats of any kind, bamboo shoots, mushrooms, rice, etc. 

CHOW-CHOW: a mixture of pickles of various sorts in mustard. Also, and origi- 
nally, a Chinese sweetmeat consisting of pieces of orange-peel, ginger, etc., in syrup. 

CHOWDER: a dish composed of fish, pork, onions, biscuit, etc., stewed together, popu- 
lar in all parts of the country, but especially appreciated on the New England coast. 
where "clam chowder"' and "fish chowder" parties are very common. In New England, 
cider is sometimes added to the stew. The name comes from the coast of Prance, where 
the Chaudiere is a large cauldron in which the fisherfolk cook a very similar mixture of 
fish. Chowder is now sold canned. 



THE GEOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA " 183 



CHUFAS, Earth Almonds, Rush Nuts: the tuberous roots, about the size of beans, 
of a sedge common to Southern Europe. They rank high in nutrient qualities, and 
are equally acceptable fresh and dried. 

CHUTNEY: a pickle originally made in India, that country still being the source of 
a number of the finest grades. It is generally based on mangoes with the addition of 
many other items, such as tamarinds, raisins, ginger, spices, etc. The formula varies 
greatly ^yith different manufacturers. The Ceylon product is frequently flavored with 
garlic. Domestic ftroducts include Apple Chutney and similar types. 

CIBOL: another name for the Welsh Onion (Avhich see), 

CIDER: is the juice of apples, both fermented and unfermented. "Sweet Cider" may 
be either unfermented or with fermentation checked at an early stage so as to leave 
unchanged a considerable amount of the sugar in the juice. "Hard Cider" is that in 
which fermentation has continued until all the sugar has been changed into alcohol 
(and carbon-dioxide) and is consequently sour to the taste. Unfermented cider is fre- 
quently styled "apple juice" to distinguish it from fermented "sweet cider." 

Cider is obtained by chopping and grinding apples to a pulp, and then pressing in 
a mill. A dark liquid is obtained which, unless sterilized for "apple juice," will at once 
begin to ferment and in a few days become the liquid known to commerce as fermented 
"sweet cider." Great care is again necessary to preserve it in that condition or it quickly 
develops into "hard cider." 

Fermented sweet cider contains from 4% to 8% alcohol and also malic and acetic 
acids, sugar salts and extractives. Among the most popular, are clarified types such 
as Champagne Cider, Sparkling Cider and similar imitations of Champagne, generally 
put up in champagne bottles, with the corks wired down and covered with tin-foil. It 
should be stored in a cool place, and it greatly improves with age. 

Bulk Cider should be kept especially cool, as otherwise it is apt to sour after 
being tapped. At a temperature of about 75° Fahr., it will gradually become vinegar. 

If the head of a cask is swollen by pressure from within, a hole should be bored in 
it to relieve the pressure and prevent leakage. 

Cider for bottling should be of good quality, sound and piquant, and at least 
twelve months old. Before bottling, it should be examined to see if it is clear and spark- 
ling. If not, it should be clarified (see Clarification) and left for a fortnight. The 
bung should be taken out of the cask the night before the bottling day, and the filled 
bottles should be held a day before being corked down — these precautions are necessary 
to save the bottles from being burst by pressure. Only the best corks should be used. 

When cider is wanted for immediate use, or for consumption during the cooler 
portion of the year, the bottles may be corked within two or three hours after being 
filled, but in summer, or for long keeping, this practice is inadmissible. 

To keep new cider from fermentation, powdered wood charcoal in the ratio of a 
pint to a barrel is recommended. Place in a cotton bag and suspend in the barrel. 

A small quantity of cider is annually imported, chiefly from Spain and Germany. 

CIDER VINEGAR. See general article on Vinegar. 

"C. I. F." : signifies charges or allowances for Cost, Insurance and Freight. 



ISi 



THE GROCER ^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CIGARS. A cigai' department, if pi'operly managed, generally pays good profits to 
the grocer. Tobacco in every form has always been sold by grocers in the smaller 
towns — and there is no good reason why cigars at all events should not take their place 
among other staples in the larger cities also. The purchase of cigars is not a general 
household expense, but it often falls to the lot of the housekeeper to supply them, and 
it is a convenience to her to be able to buy in a store to which she is accustomed and 
in which she feels confidence. 

Further, a clean, up-to-date grocery store selling a good class of wines and liquors 
and a good line of cigars, quickly attracts a very profitable trade from the men them- 
selves. First one and then another will drop in to order some wine or some spirits 
sent "up to the house" and if the cigar case is attractive, a purchase follows almost as 
a matter of course. Proper treatment and first-class goods will mean keeping a large 
proportion of them as steady customers. 

To retain men's trade for the cigar department, a grocer must, however, give it even 
more careful attention than if he were a cigar dealer exclusively. A man getting a 
bad cigar at a regular dealer's, may attribute it to chance or even to himself as be- 
ing oft' taste — but if he has purchased it from his grocer, he is immediately confirmed 
in his previous general impression that you "can't expect to get a good cigar in a 
grocery store." Eternal vigilance is decidedly the requirement for obtaining and keep- 
ing this line of custom — but it is worth it! 

The merchant adding this line for the first time will do well to avoid the rather 
general error of putting in too large a stock. The result is liable to be that cigars 
are held in the show-case longer than is good for them, with a consequent loss either of 
money invested or of your reputation as a j)urveyor of good cigars ! A small stock of 
a few well-selected lines of moderate price is the best plan. Cigars improve with age 
to a certain point in especially equipped establishments — but not in the average 
retailer's store. 

The next essential is to see that the cigars are kept in good condition. The 
method depends upon circumstances and localities. In summer, for example, the prob- 
1-em in coast towns is to keep them from becoming too moist — whereas in inland states 
it is to prevent them from drying out. 




A Havana Cisar Factory 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



r.i^^ 




Putting the bands on Cigars 



In winter, -with artificial heat, artificial moisture is essential nearly everywhere. 
An open pan of water in the case, with rolls of blotting paper reaching to the tojj of the 
case, will answer the purpose if you do not possess one of the several styles of cigar 
moisteners. 

Too much moisture — keeping cigars in a clamp place — is as bad as drying them 
out, for even the best varieties will become heavy, soggy and rank-flavored. 

They must also be kept away from any articles of strong odor, such as cheese, 
fish, spices, coffee, tea, etc. — and place fine cigars in a separate case, as contact with 
coarser grades will tend to spoil their flavor. 

The principal divisions of cigars are into (1) those imported from Cuba, (2) 
clear Havana cigars manufactured in a climate as nearly as possible like that of Cuba 
(as Key West, Tampa, etc.), and (3) domestic. To these may be added a growing 
demand for the Porto Eico and Philippine products. 

For commercial purposes, cigars are again divided into three grades of tobacco 
— dark, medium and light — these including forty or fifty shades grouped under the 
seven following sub-headings : — 

Oscuro, very dark. 

Madnro. dark. 

Colorado maduro, dark brown. 

Colorado, medium dark brown. 

Colorado claro, light brown. 

Claro, very light colored. 

Doithle claro, or ainarUlo, lightest of all (this grade seldom seen). 

A light-colored Avrapper does not necessarily signify a specially "mild" cigar. It is 
the "filler" which determines the strength — -and both light and dark tobacco is liable to 
be bitter and strong if it has not been properly ripened and cured. 

There is practically no limit to the number of sizes or shapes in which cigars are 
made, as any manufacturer may briug out as many stvles as he pleases and name them 
to suit his own particular fancy. The prevalence of Spanish names and terms is due 
to the fact that for many generations all the best cigars were manufactured in and 
exported from Cuba and other Spanish-speaking countries. 

It is impossible to give any fixed set of I'ules for judging the quality and value of 
cigars and tobacco. The best and only conclusive test — that used by manufacturers 



136 



THE GROCEE'S encyclopedia 



themselves — is smoking one or two samples to ascertain the virtues or defects of 
any particular variety. Consequently, unless a merchant is personally a critical smoker 
and a good judge of cigars, he can be guided only by the reputation of the importer, 
manufacturer or jobber, and the comments of his customers. The safest plan is to 
confine orders to houses of long-established and irreproachable reputation. Many a 
promising cigar department has dwindled to an ignominous finish in the effort to make 
bigger profits by purchases of cigars "just as good and |10.00 a thousand cheaper" 
from plausible manufacturers of the opposite type. 

The merits of color, size and shape as a "selling" proposition must be gauged by 
the popular and individual tastes of consumers. 

(See also article on Tobacco.) 



CINNAMON {See Color Page of Spices) : is the spicy bark of young branches of the 
Cinnamon Tree, cut off in strips and dried in the sun, curling during the process into 
the quills with which the consumer is familiar. Ceylon Cinnamon is obtained from 
Ginnamomum Zeylanicum, native to Ceylon but also cultivated to some extent in the 
East Indies. Cassia Cinnamon is from Cinnamommn Cassia, the chief East Indian and 
Chinese type. Both kinds are sold both in quills and ground, their fragrant aromatic 
flavor making them a popular adjunct in cookery, confectionery, etc. 

Ceylon Cinnamon is the variety referred to in the general article on Spices as, in 
earlier days, a commodity of great value and the cause of many wars and 
much bloodshed. It was first carried to the world's markets by Arabsi, who 
kept its source a close secret for a number of centuries and contrived to discourage 
possible investigators by stories of fabu- 
lous monsters inhabiting the country 
from which they were supposed to obtain 
it. That the tree grew wild in Ceylon, was 
not generally known until the 14th cen- 
tury, in spite of the fact that the spice 
had been continuously in use since the 
early days of Israel, Greece and Rome. 

Ceylon Cinnamon is of a pale yel 
lowish-brown color and generally of 
lighter, cleaner and smoother appearance 
than Cassia. The quills (the smaller en- 
closed in the larger) are also usually 
thinner and more tightly rolled, but these 
distinctions are not absolute, as there are 
many different grades of Cassia. 

Cassia Cinnamon was until recent 
years decried as an inferior imitation, 
principally because the greater part of 
the supply consisted of the inferior and 
poorly prepared China product. It has 
however just as good botanical title to 
the general name of "Cinnamon" as the 
Ceylon type, and, as the result of the fine 
quality now exported from French 




corvinciiT, ((vrrrnwoon & iimierwooi>, t 

A pile of peeled Cinnamon sticks, Ceylon 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 137 




Cocliiu-China and the Dutch East Indies, it is to-day given the preference in the 
United States and in several European countries, because its flavor is more pronounced 
and more hasting — the Ceylon is milder and so much more volatile that it loses readily 
on exposure to the air. The demand for Ceylon Cinnamon has indeed so lessened that 
commercial interests are urging the cultivation of Cassia in Ceylon in order to main- 
tain the island's position in the trade. In analytical circles the Ceylon variety is still 
conservatively described as "True Cinnamon" instead of by the commercial term "Cey- 
lon Cinnamon." 

The lower grades of Cassia are cheaper than any of the Ceylon generally mar- 
keted, but the best qualities are more expensive. The four main grades are those 
known as Saigon, or Saigan, from French Cochin-China (the choicest) : Corintje and 
Batavki of the Dutch East Indies, and China (the cheapest). Saigon Cassia is 
generally used for blending with lower grades. 

CISCO: a small lake fish resembling in size and appearance 
the fresh-water herring. In some localities it is known as-^ 
"whitefish." 

Cisco 

CITRANGE: a new member of the citrus family (which includes oranges, grape fruit, 
lemons, etc.), produced by cultivation. It resembles an orange in general character- 
istics but is more tart in flavor. It is also described as a "hardy orange," because the 
trees which bear it can withstand lower temperature than the ordinary orange tree. 
The fruit is used for making summer beverages, for cooking, etc. 

CITRIC ACID: is obtained chiefly from lemons and other citrus fruits but is present 
in a majority of acidulous fruits such as currants, cranberries, etc. 

CITRON: a fruit which is cultivated chiefly for its thick, spongy rind, which in can- 
died form — then thick, tender and of delicious flavor — is popular for use in cakes, pre- 
serves, etc. It is also employed in the making of fruit syrups, liqueurs, etc. There 
are many varieties of the fruit, which is generally warty and furrowed in appearance, 
with pulp similar in flavor to that of a lemon but less acid, in the largest types attain- 
ing to a length of nine inches and weighing up to twenty pounds. It grows freely in 
sub-tropical climates but is seldom seen by the average consumer in its fresh condition. 
A small quantity is produced in California but the bulk of the supply is imported. 

The variety known as Leghorn Citron comes from Corsica and Sardinia, where the 
fruit is cut up, barreled in salt pickle and shipped to Leghorn. After remaining for a 
month or more in the pickle, the rind, freed of seeds, etc., is boiled until tender and 
then set to soak in slightly sweetened water in order to extract some of the salt. The 
following day it is removed to a second solution and the next day to another, the pro- 
cess being repeated for a week or more, each new solution being a little sweeter than 
that preceding. The rind is finally boiled for a short time in heavy syrup and thence 
goes to racks in a heated room to dry and crystallize. The following day it is ready 
for packing, being put up in various styles for different markets. 

The unripe fruit of the ungrafted citron tree is the "Citron of the Law" used by 
many Jewish communities in the ceremonies during the Feast of the Tabernacles. 

CITRON MELON : used for preserving. See article on Melons. 



138 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



CITRUS : a genus of plants which produce a great number of useful fruits. Citrus 
Aitrantium is the family name for the trees which give us sweet oranges; Citrus Biga- 
radia is the bitter or Seville orange; Citrus Limonum, the lemon; Citrus lAmetta, the 
lime; Citrus Meclica, the citron; Citrus Paradisi, the grape fruit; and Citrus Japonica^ 
the kumquat. 




CLAM: the most common American shellfish, eaten fresh in enormous quantities and 
also extensively consumed in canned form, especially in the West. Its great popularity 
has resulted in a demand that has in 
some sections exceeded even the bountiful 
natural supply, and many of those who 
make a business of supplj'ing the market 
have turned to "clam farming" on tlu^ 
tidal mud flats. 

The Hard Clfun — called "quohaug" 
in some parts of the East and "poorquaw" 
in Nantucket — is the variety generally 
offered in city markets. The small or 
young clam is the more tender and in 
most demand for eating raw, the larger 

11. n T £ Clams imbedded in the mud — as exposed by digging 

clams being generally used for soups, 

chowders, etc. Where quality is paramount, the hard part of the large clam is often 

cut off and discarded. 

Hard Clams are also generally known 
as "Little Neck" clams in contrast to the 
Soft Clam, which has a long distendible 
neck. 

Soft Clams, also called "Soft Shell 
Clams," have shells which are thinner, 
flatter and less round in shape. They are 
used in a similar diversity of ways — on 
the shell, broiled, fried, stewed, steamed, 
etc. Small, inferior grades are strung on 
cords and sold at a low jirice by the 
"bunch" for soups, etc. 

Tlie eastern supply of clams comes 
from Long Island and the New England 

Digging Clams at low tide COast. 




COPYaiGUT, UNDERWOOD Sc I 



CLAM BOUILLON, or Clam Broth: an excellent article when put up by reliable 
firms. Drunk hot, it is a good remedy in many cases of indigestion. 

CLAM CHOWDER: a stew of clams and various other items. See Chowder. 



CLARET. What we call "claret" is known in France as Yin de Bordeaux, " (Bed) Bor- 
deaux wine," sub-divided by the names of cantons or communes, as "St. Julien," etc. 
The term "claret," an Anglo-Saxon name originally applied only to red Bordeaux wines, 
is a corruption of cluirct, a French word applied in France to any light pale wine 




Ton£ln$ for Hard Oams 



Discing 5oft Clams 



THE G U C E K - S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



141 



aud also to various infusions of aromatic plants witli wine, honey or sugar, etc. 

In France, the term ''Bordeaux wine" is applied generally to tliat produced through- 
out the entire southwest, but the best comes from the Department of the Gironde, of 
which the city of Bordeaux is the capital, and of the Gironde Avines a large majority 
of the finest red types, are from the Medoc section, which includes the communes of 
Arsac, Cantenac, Labarde, Ludon, Macau, Margaux, Pauillac, Pessac, St. Estephe, 
St. Julien et Beychevelle and many others of note. Less in quantity, but almost 
equally famous, are the red wines from the vicinity of St. Emrlion. 

Ived Bordeaux wine, or Claret, is famous both for its bouquet and as a table bever- 
age generally acceptable even to the poorest digestion. Its tonic effect is attributed to 
the characteristic combination of tannin with a certain low percentage of alcohol. It 
vai'ies greatly in price according to the special vintage, etc., but its general useful- 
ness is enhanced by the fact that, though the fine bouquet of the expensive types is not 
found in the cheaper grades, the food value of all grades is practically the same — the 
composition shown by analysis varies little, no matter what price is paid. 

Clarets are broadly classified as "Chatjau," "Bourgeois" and "Ordinary" or "com- 
mon." Chateau, are those bearing the name of the chateau or estate on which they were 
produced. Bourgeois, represent the great bulk of medium grade wines and are gener- 
ally named according to the district of production. "Ordinary" or "common," are those 
made by peasant growers, etc. The last-named are seldom exported. 

The best Chateau wines, the Vins classes, the total product of which is small in 
comparison with the great bulk of Bordeaux wine, are divided into the five representa- 
tive "cms" — classes or "growths" — given below. No formal revision of this classi- 
fication has been made for many years, but it is still essentially correct, in spite of 
inaccuracies in the nomenclatiire of a few of the Chateaux of the second to fifth crus. 





FIRST CRU. 


COMMUNE. 


Chfiteau 


Margaux 


Margaux 




Lafite 


Pauillac 




Latour 


'* 


*' 


Haut-Brion 


Pessao 




SECOND CRU. 




Chateau 


Erane-Cantenac 


Cantenac 




Durfort-Vivent 


Margaux 




Lascombes 


;; 




Rauzan-Gassies 






Rauzan-Segla 


" 




Lalande 


Pauillac 




Mouton-Rothschild 


" 




Picbon-Longueville 


" 




Cos d'Estournel St. EsUphe 




Montrose 






Ducru-Beaucaillou 


St. JuJien 




(Oriiaiid^ Larose 






Gruaud-Larose-Sarget " 




Leoville 






L«ovllIe-Barton 


'■ 




r.f^oville-Poyferr^ 





THIRD CRU. 







COM.MUNE. 


Chateau 


Cantenac Brown 
d'Issan 
Kirwan 
Palmer 


Cantenac 




Giscours 


Laharde 




La Lagune 


Lndon 




Becker 


Mair/aux 




Desiuirail 






Ferriere 


'* 




Slalescot-St.Exu 


p6ry 




Calon-S§gur 


St. Est&phe 




Langora 


St. Julien 




Lagrange 






FOURTH CRU 




Chfiteau 


Poujet 
Prleurf 


Cantenac 




Marquis de Ter 


me Margau.7) 




Duhart-Milon 


PauiUac 




Rochet 


St. Est^.plie 




Beychevelle 


St. Julien 



Brnraire.Pnliir 



FOURTH CRU— Cont'd. 

COMJrUXE. 

Chateau Saint-Pierre St. Julien 

Talbot 
Latour Carnet St. Laurent 

FIFTH CRU. 
Chfiteau Du Tertre .irsn'; 

Dauzac Laharde 

CanteDierle Macau 

Bataillev Pauillac 

Clerc-Milon 
Croizet-Bages 
Ducasse-Grand-Fuy 
Grand-Puy 
Haut-Bages 
Lynch-Bages 
Lynch-Moussas 
Mouton-d' Armailhacq '" 
PMesclaux " 

Pontet-Canet 

Cos-Labory St. Estdphe 

Belgrave St. Laurent 

Cnmcrsnc " 



Cachet du Chateau wines are those bottled on the Chateau or estate aud bearing 
its crest or trade-mark. Other exported Chateau wines are generally matured and 
bottled by wine merchants, many of them of long standing and international reputation. 

Some Cachet du Chateau wines command very high prices, but it must be re- 
membered that though the chateau bottling guarantees the genuineness of a wine, it 
does not necessarily vouch for its being of high value, as its merit depends upon the 
quality of the year's vintage. A Chateau claret of an especially good year is often a 



142 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

great deal more expensive than the same Chateau's production of the year before or 
after. 

Also, some of the finest wines are those matured and bottled by high class wine mer- 
chants, who buy largely in bulk when a vintage — either or both Chateau or Bourgeois 
— promises to be desirable. In such cases, the reputation of the wine merchant takes 
the place of that of the Chateau as a guarantee of its quality. 

The high repute of the fine Chateau types is due to the extreme care exercised at 
every stage — in the selection of the vines and their cultivation, as well as in the mak- 
ing and maturing of the wine itself. 

Bourgeois wines are generally divided into "first," "second" and "third" grade. 
The types best known here are the various grades of Medoc, St. Julien, St. Emilion, 
St. Estephe, Margaux and Pontet Canet. 

To understand the wide variation in price of clarets bearing the same general name, 
it is only necessary to remember that French claret titles are chiefly geographical and 
that, quite naturally, many grades may be found in the same locality. For example, 
one of the cheapest grades of French clarets imported is generally known here as "Me- 
doc" — and correctly so if the wine comes from the Jledoc section — but, as noted in the 
second paragraph, the same section produces also nearly all the very finest French 
clarets — those of the first "cru" or grade being in France specifically known as Yin 
du Medoc. or "Medoc wine." Similarly, a St. Julien may be a moderate-priced wine 
bearing only the name of a district, or an expensive one with a Chateau title. In 
addition, is the variation from year to year in the quality of the wine produced. 

The purchaser who is not a connoisseur is consequently guided either by the 
reputation of the firm selling or by that of the Chateau, if buying Chateau-bottled wine. 

Fine clarets will keep and improve for about fifteen years or a little longer. After 
that, they generally deteriorate very rapidly. They should never be used immediately 
after delivery, as they require at least two weeks to settle and become clear. They 
should, like Burgundy, be drunk at the temperature of the average dining room. 

The best grades will contain about half a wine-glass of thick wine and sediment in 
each bottle, and care must be exercised to avoid mixing this up when carrying from 
the cellar and when pouring into the glass or decanter, or the wine will appear dull 
and have a rough, bitter taste. See general article on Wines {decanting, etc.). 

The lower priced clarets form an especially refreshing summer drink, served either 
undiluted or liberally mixed with water. 

America produces a large quantity of excellent wine of Claret type, variously 
labelled according to the fancies of the makers. Some varieties masquerade under 
French claret names, as "St. Julien," "Margaux," etc. Others bear the more honest 
titles of the grapes principally employed, as "Norton," "Ives," "Concord," etc., in the 
East and South, and "Cabernet," "Zinfandel," etc., in California, or special trade or 
locality names. The bulk of American claret is produced in the coast range district of 
California (see American Wines). 

The practice of diluting witli water is particularly suitable for American claret 
when consumed as a general table beverage, as it is usually stronger in alcohol than 
French claret. 

See also Bordeaux Wines (white). 

CLARIFICATION, or Fining : the act of making "clear" or "bright," applied especi- 
ally to "clearing"' or "fining" liquids by the addition of albumin, gelatine or isinglass. 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



143 



etc. The substances used iu the process are known as "finings" and their operation is 
simihir to the "settling" of coffee ]3j the addition of egg-albumen (egg-white). When 
added to wine, for example, the result of the "fining" is to remove part of the tannin 
— the latter coagulates the fining and the mass drops to the bottom, leaving the liciuid 
clear. Clarification is a very delicate process, because the removal of too much tannin 
injures the liquid, yet if too much is left, it becomes cloudy again. 

Boneblack, Charcoal, Bullock's Blood, etc., are still largely used in the clarifica- 
tion of sugar, but centrifugal force is the principal agent in modern refineries. See 
general article on Sugar. 

Many liquids are clarified by filtering through cloth, silk, etc. 

CLOVES {see illustration in Color Page of Spices). Cloves, widely used for flavor- 
ing desserts and confectionery and medicinally, are the dried flower buds of the clove 
tree. As plucked, they are reddish in color, but this changes to the familiar dark 
brown in the process of drying, performed either by the smoke of wood fires or by 
exposure to the sun. 

The clove tree, an evergreen, grows to a height of forty feet, bears its developed 
clove buds in its seventh year, and gives two crops annually, increasing its produc- 
tiveness up to an age of nearly a hundred years. 

The clove industry was for many centuries confined to very narrow limits. A few 
islands of the IMolucca group furnished the world's supply up to the beginning of the 
seventeenth century ; then the Dutch, having driven the Portuguese out of the "Spice 
Islands," tried to destroy all the clove trees except those on the Island of Amboyna, to 
perfect their monopoly. 

Later, the Island of Zanzibar became 
an important producer, but for a number 
of years following 1872 it was again un- 
productive as the result of a cyclone 
which uprooted nearly all of the mature 
fruit-bearing trees. 

An interesting result of the cyclone 
was the release from the Dutch govern- 
ment warehouses at Amboyna of surplus 
cloves that had been accumulating there 
for generations — no sales having been 
permitted except when the bids reached 
the prices set by the government. The 
markings on some of the barrels received 
at that time in New York showed that 
they belonged to the surplus of crops 
reaching back nearly a hundred years — 
some of the barrels were ready to fall to 
pieces, but the cloves were in excellent 
condition. 

The principal sources of supply to- 
day are the Islands of Zanzibar and 
Pemba (British East Africa) and the 
East Indies (both Dutch and British). 




A Clove plantation in Zanzibar 



144 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The best grade of British is that known as Penang ; that of Dutch is Amboyna. Dark, 
well-formed cloves are the best. 

Mother Gloves is the dry ripe fruit. It somewhat resembles the qlive in appearance. 
Its flavor is similar to, but much weaker than, that of the ordinary clove. 

CLYSMIC. See general article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

COAL TAR: a by-product of the manufacture of coal-gas and coke, was first noted 
in the latter part of the sixteenth century by a German chemist named Johann Joa- 
chim Becher. For a long time it was though practically a waste substance, ill-smell- 
ing, black and sticky, of no market value and difficult to dispose of in any way, as it 
polluted rivers and destroyed vegetation. 

Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, the pitch and lighter oils obtained 
by distilling it became of importance in the roofing, paving and chemical industries, 
eventually being used for making briquets and for wood preservation, waterproofing, 
preservative coatings, etc., but its real history commences with the founding of the Coal 
Tar chemical industry by Sir Henry Perkin in 1856. Since that date science has pro- 
duced from it an innumerable variety of chemical compounds of the most diverse char- 
acters and uses — comprising dye-stuffs, antiseptics, explosives, medicines, some of the 
most fragrant of perfumes, saccharin (a substance 300 times sweeter than sugar), flavor- 
ing extracts, etc., etc. 

The flavoring extracts produced include vanillin or artificial vanilla, cinnamon oil, 
oil of bitter almonds, coumarin, oil of wintergreen, essence of orange blossoms, essence 
of rhubarb, etc. The list might be indefinitely extended, for it has been stated by a 
prominent chemist that a majority of the foods listed on the average bill of fare, could 
be counterfeited in fiavor by the use of Coal Tar preparations. 

COCA: the leaves of the coca plant, Erythroxylon, a bush resembling the blackthorn, 
which grows to a height of five to eight feet. They are thin, opaque and oval, tapering 
somewhat like tea leaves in the best types, a light olive-green above and whitish-green 
on the under-surface. When dried, they have an odor resembling that of tea leaves 
and an aromatic bitter taste. They are employed medicinally and in the manufacture 
of various tonic beverages for their stimulating property — which is akin to caffeine 
or theine but is held in the leaves in larger proportion than caffeine in coffee or theine 
in tea. The natives of various parts of South America, particularly Peru, chew the 
dried leaves, generally together with a little pulverized unslacked lime, for the ability 
they give to resist fatigue. Though this use has apparently been a daily custom for 
uncounted generations, it is seldom that any ill effects are noted. The principle 
chemically extracted is the drug Cocaine. 

COCHINEAL: the best example of coloring from animal sources. See Carmine. 

COCKIE-LEEKIE: a Scotch soup of which the "character" ingredients are fowls, 
leeks and seasoning. 

COCKROACH: an orthopterous insect which may be classed among the most offen- 
sive and objectionable of domestic pests. It is extremely voracious, not only devour- 
ing all kinds of provisions, but destroying silk, flannel and even cotton fabrics in the 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 14o 

absence of anything more edible. It is nocturnal in its habits and exceedingly active 
and swift of movement, its flattened form enabling it to insinuate itself easih^ into crev- 
ices and thus escape detection. It is found in many varieties and in every part of the 
world — from the Frozen North, where it is often responsible for the destruction of 
the winter's supply of dried fish, to its most favored habitat, the tropical zone. 

The three chief domesticated species found here are, Blatella Germanica, the small 
variety known as the German Cockroach, Water-bug, Croton-bug, etc.; Blatta Orient- 
alis, the Common Cockroach or "Black Beetle"; Blatta Americana, the American Cock- 
roach, which averages the largest of the common varieties, and Periplaneta Austra- 
lisae, or Australian Cockroach. In spite of their geographical titles, these four are 
now international in distribution. The Australian Cockroach is not so frequently seen 
in northern states, but it is the most plentiful and obnoxious in Florida and other 
parts of the South. 

Except for differences in size, the domesticated roaches of temperate climates 
resemble each other in general characteristics, but the wild roaches of the tropics pre- 
sent a wonderful diversity of size, color and shape, one species attaining the enormous 
length of six inches. Another large, partially domesticated variety found in the West 
Indies is locally known as the "drummer,'' from the tapping noise it makes on wood — 
the sound thus produced, when joined in by several of the creatures, as it usually is, 
being sufficient to destroy the slumbers of a household. 

The only certain way of ridding an apartment or store of roaches is by fumiga- 
tion, the two most widely approved agents being hydrocyanic acid gas and bisulphid 
of carbon, but this method is not always practicable or convenient. If the warfare 
against them is conducted persistently and systematically, they can generally be driven 
away or destroyed without fumigation, by the distribution of small pills of Phosphorus 
Paste, or by the use of Flowers of Sulphur, fine powdered Borax or Persian Insect 
Powder, blown by bellows into cracks and crevices in the floor, woodwork, walls, etc., 
and distributed in all corners and obscure parts of rooms and closets. 

Another method is to smear a piece of wood with syrup .and float it in a broad 
basin of water before retiring. When fires and lights are extinguished, the roaches 
come out of their holes and drown themselves in the water in their efforts to reach the 
bait. The chinks and holes from which they have come should be filled with uuslacked 
lime. Traps of this — or any other — character are though seldom efficacious against the 
very astute Water-bug. 

COCKLES : an English shellfish, imported cooked in small fiat cans. When taken 
from the can, they are washed thoroughly in cold water, frizzled in butter and served 
hot on toast — or in rice, curried, etc. Cockles are new to the American public, and, 
unless the housewife is warned to wash them thoroughly, they will not be appreciated. 

COCKSCOMBS: the crests of the male domestic fowl, cut off and blanched. They 
are retailed in bottles by fancy grocers, for use chiefly as a garniture. 

COCKTAIL: a "mixed drink" now largely sold in bottles. The best known are the 
Manhattan and Martini — the former being composed of whisky and vermouth, and the 
latter of gin and vermouth — in addition to bitters, syrup, etc., in each case. A "dry" 
cocktail is one made without syrup. 

The word is also applied to a service of oysters, etc., in a glass with a special sauce. 




DRYING COCOA BEANS ON BAMBOO FLOORS, LA CLEMENTINA, ECUADOR 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



147 



COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. The word "Cocoa," uow universally used in 
English-speaking countries, is a corruption of "Cacao" — the full botanical title being 
"Theobroma Cacao," which, translated, is "Cocoa, the food of the Gods," clearly 
demonstrating the early recognition of its high food value ! 

Cocoa beans were used as food in Mexico, the West Indies and elsewhere long 
before the discovery of this hemisphere by Columbus. The earliest references to it are 
found in the writings of the explorers who followed him — tradition has it that the 
first to tell of the new beverage was Bernal Diaz, one of the Spanish officers with 
Cortez, who observed Montezuma quaffing a concoction of it from a golden cup. 
Its use was soon an established custom in Spain and Portugal, which are to this 
day large per capita consumers of cocoa and chocolate, and as early as 1550 chocolate 
factories of considerable size existed in the south of Europe — in Lisbon, Genoa, Turin, 
Bayonne and Marseilles. 

The cocoa-tree grows to an average height of twenty to thirty feet and is of 
spreading habits and healthy growth. Bu care-trees, tropical trees of rapid growth, 
ai'e set between the rows to shade the young trees until thej have attained maturity. 
A minimum temperature of 80° Fahr. and plenty of moisture, both of soil and atmo- 
sphere, are required to bring out their full bearing possibilities. 

The trees begin to bear fruit at three or four years, continuing to the age of about 
forty years. Some fruit is ripening all the year round, but two main crops are 
gathered, generally in June and December (or January) — the latter being the more 
important. 

The cocoa beans or seeds are found in pods of varying shapes from seven to 

twelve inches long and rather more 

than a third as much in diameter at 

the thickest part. The ripe pod is 

dark yellow or yellowish-brown in color 

with a thick, tough rind enclosing a 

mass of cellular tissue. The beans, 

about the size of almonds, but more 

suggestive of vegetable beans in shape, 

are buried in the tissue, each in a thin 

shell varying from the papery texture 

of the Ceylon and Java beans to the 

hard skin of the other varieties. When 

fresh they are bitter in taste and of a 

light color, turning reddish-brown or 

reddish-grey during the processes of 

sweating and curing. 

A curious fact is that the pods 

grow most freely on the older branches 

and the trunks of the trees, often on 

those entirely bare of foliage, instead 

of among the fullest foliage as with 

the majority of other fruits. 

In gathering, only fully ripened 

pods are taken. They are first left on 

the ground for twenty-four hours to 




OOPTBIOnT, UNDEIIWCIOD * OXriEEWOOD, 1 

Cocoa Pods on Trunk of Tree 



148 



THE G K C E K - S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Eccentric Growth of Cocoa Pods 



dry and are then cut open and the beans taken 

out (the beans still remaining in their shells). 
The nest operation is the "sweating" or 

curing. The acid juice which marks the beans is 

first drained off and they are then placed in a 

sweating box, in which they are enclosed and 

allowed to ferment for some time, great care 

being taken to keep the temperature from rising 

too high. The fermenting process is in some 

cases effected by throwing the seeds into holes 

or trenches in the ground and covering them 

with earth or clay. The seeds in this process, 

which is called "claying," are occasionally stirred 

to keep the fermentation from proceeding too 

violently. 

The final plantation process is the drying of 

the mass in the sun — the beans of good quality 

which have been carefully fermented there assuming the warm, reddish tint so highly 

prized. They are then ready to be put into bags and sent out into the markets of the 

world. In the cocoa and chocolate manufacturing establishments the beans are cleaned, 

sorted and roasted — the roasting being most important, for upon it depends to a great 

extent the flavor of the finished cocoa. Too little, leaves the beans crude and un- 

flavored, and too much will make them 
bitter. 

The roasting machine keeps the 
seeds in constant motion over the fire or 
hot pipes for about twenty-five to forty- 
five minutes. They go next to the 
"cracker," which cracks the shells and 
breaks the beans into small fragments. 
After the "cracker" comes the "fanner," 
which separates the shells from the bean 
fragments and sorts them later by 
screens into six different sizes, the last 
being as fine as dust. The cracked 
beans are known as "cocoa-nibs." 

The next step is the "blending." 
Cocoa beans of different plantations 
and countries vary in fiavor and 
strength very much as do tea-leaves or 
coffee beans, and it is the aim of each 
manufacturer to make a blend which 
vN'ill produce the best possible fiavor, 
aroma, etc. 

The cracked beans designated for 
each blend go first to the "mixer" and 
then to the "grinders," wliich reduce 
them to a thick, oily liquid. 







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Harvesting Cocoa Pods 



THE GROOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



149 




Drying Cocoa Beans on cement floors in Dominica 



If "plain" or "bitter" chocolate is being made, 
the manufacture is then complete. The liquid 
is cooled to the proper temperature and run into 
molds where it remains until cooled to hard cakes 
by refrigerating machines. 

For "sweet chocolate," cocoa-butter and 
sugar are added to the liquid which comes from 
the grinders, and mixed in the "melanger" or 
mixer, and the resulting paste is sent through 
the "rollers," coming from them smooth, even 
and with all the air pressed out. 

For "Vanilla Chocolate," some high-grade 
vanilla beans, and in some cases a small quantity 
of spices such as cinnamon and cloves, are added 
at the same time as the sugar. 

In "Spanish Chocolate" and similar varieties, 
almonds are often used instead of vanilla and 
with the addition of cinnamon and cloves. 

The paste which comes from the rollers is next weighed off and placed in molds- 
being thoroughly shaken down in them by automatic agitators. 

For "Cocoa" or "breakfast cocoa," the liquid which comes from the grinders is 
deprived of some of its oil or butter, leaving a comparatively hard dry substance 
which is ground to powder and bolted through very fine silk screens. Only the fine 
powder passes through, the remainder 
being held to grind over again. This 
iS'' put up for the market in various 
sizes of cartons and cans. 

One of the distinguishing char- 
acteristics of absolutely pure cocoa 
when ready for the market is a rich, 
reddish color, commonly known among 
artists as "cacao-red." When the powder 
is so dark as to appear almost black 
it is generally a sign that it has been 
artificially colored, or that it was made 
from imperfectly cleansed beans of a 
poor quality. 

Cocoa contains a percentage of 
theobromine which corresponds to the 
stimulating properties of tea and coffee, 
but its high merit lies principally in its 
very large proportion of nutritive sub- 
stances — roasted cocoa beans contain 
an average of 49% pure oil, 18% protein 
matter, 10% starch, and 7% other car- 
bohydrates, etc. — contained in a form 
which is very palatable, however it is 
taken into the system — whether as a ^^^^ 

Removing Cocoa Beans. Curing and Drying 




150 



THE grocer's E N C Y C I; P E D I a 




1 HARD OUTER SHE.LL 4 SLIME TISSUE DRAWN BACK TO EXPOSE BEAN 

2 SOFT INNER LAYER 5 BEAN SHELL OR ENVELOPE 

3 BEAN IMBEDDED IN SLIME TISSUE 6 COCOA BEAN OR KERNEL 

COCOA POD, two-thirds average size, half of outer sliell removed 

beverage or confection, in puddings, cakes, etc. Its value is highly regarded by all 
civilized governments — in Europe and the United States, chocolate is a part of the 
army ration as a food and of the navy ration as a beverage. 

The United States is to-day the largest cocoa consuming country in the world. 
During 1910, more than 115,000,000 pounds of cocoa beans were imported into the 
United States — nearly one-third of the entire world production. The chief sources of 
the crude beans received here are the British West Indies (chiefly Trinidad), Brazil, 
Portuguese Colonies, Ecuador, San Domingo, Venezuela, East Indies, Dutch Guiana, 
Cuba, etc. 

Some prepared cocoa and chocolate is imported from Germany, Holland, France, 
Spain, Switzerland and other European countries, but, on the other hand, the United 
States is beginning to figure as an exporter of the prepared article. 

Dutch cocoas are distinguished by their treatment with sodium carbonate or 
ammonium hydrate. The reason given is that the process makes a greater percentage 
of protein available as a nutrient by destroying the cellular tissues. The objection to 
the process is that it increases the proportion of mineral salts. The apparent result 
is to make the cocoa darker in color and more frothy when prepared for drinking. 

By U. S. standards, Plain or Bitter Chocolate is the mass obtained by grinding 
cocoa nibs without the removal of any constituent except the germ, and contains not 
more than 3% ash, insoluble in water, 3.5% crude fibre and 9% starch, and not less 
than 45% cocoa fat. Siceet Cocoa should not contain more than 60% sugar. No choco- 
late or cocoa preparation should contain in the sugar-and-fat-free residue a higher 
percentage of ash, fibre or starch than found in the fat-free residue of Plain Chocolate. 

The principal commercial classifications as they interest the consumer are : 
Cocoa: the ground cocoa bean, from which part of the oil or fat has been 
extracted, sold in powdered form. Because of the smaller quantity of oil, cocoa is 
more acceptable to many digestions than the richer chocolate. It may be added that 
the fact that the cocoa tin is not full when opened does not necessarily imply short 
measure. The tins used by manufacturers are larger than required for the weight 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 151 



called for, as cocoa fresh from the machines bulks a little larger than after it has been 
shaken down in commercial handling. 

Chocolate: the ground cocoa bean, generally in cake fornj, sweetened and un- 
sweetened, flavored and unflavored, for cooking and eating. 

The "white" appearance sometimes noted wlien cake chocolate has been kept in stock 
for a long time is not attributable to age — it probably indicates that it has at some 
time been exposed to excessive heat. When pure chocolate is subjected to a tem- 
perature of 96 degrees or thereabouts, it begins to melt and allows part of the oil or 
butter to rise to the surface. When the temperature is lowered, so that the choco- 
late again becomes solid, the outside of the cocoa will show a thin covering of 
congealed cocoa-butter, which being of a yellowish color looks '"white'' in contrast to 
the brown of the chocolate itself. It is also erroneous to suppose that this is an 
indication that the chocolate is of inferior quality or is injured for practical use, 
for if it should be melted again and poured into molds and cooled at the right tem- 
perature it would resume its original color. 

Powdered Chocolate: sweetened chocolate of varying styles and compositions, sold 
in a i>ulverized condition. 

Milk Chocolate: a compound of milk powder and the ground cocoa bean, sweetened, 

flavored, etc. 

Cocoa Nibs: the cracked cocoa bean, without further treatment than the clearing 
of chaff, shells, etc. This is often recommended by physicians who wish their patients 
to receive the full nutriment of the cocoa bean, without the extraction of any of its 
oil and without the addition of any flavoring or sweetening ingredients. The beverage 
is prepared by steeping the nibs in boiling water, very much as for tea or coffee. 

Cocoa Shells: the shells separated from the cracked beans. They contain a very 
small percentage of the food properties, but quite a little of the flavor of the 
cocoa bean, and make a cheap and pleasant drink. They , are usually bought as a 
matter of economy, but they are also popular among some well-to-do people of weak 
digestion. 

Cocoa Butter: the fat or oil extracted from the cocoa bean. It has high com- 
mercial value. The greater part of it is employed in confectionery, especially in 
covered candies, such as Chocolate Creams, but a considerable quantity is' used in 
the druggist's trade — in the manufacture of toilet preparations, cosmetics, etc., and 
also in the natural form Avithout change or addition whenever the requirements call 
for a pure fat that will melt at the temperature of the body and will retain its 
sweetness indefinitely. 

Cocoa and chocolate and all allied products should be kept cool and dry to prevent 
deterioration. 

In preparing cocoa or chocolate for the table, it should be remembered that the 
full flavor and most complete digestibility are only attainable by subjecting it to 
the boiling point for a few minutes. Neither is properly cooked by having boiling 
milk or water poured over it — in that way you get all the "food value" into the 
stomach, it is true, but the same remark applies if you eat it raw — ^keep it boiling for 
a few minutes to enjoy it at its best. 




COPTRICUT, UNDERWOOD ir DNDEBWOOD, N. T. 



A COCOANUT GROVE 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



153 



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COPYKICnT, TINDEnwOOD 

Husking the Crop in a Cocoanut Grove near Mayaguez, Porto Rico 



COCOANUT. The cocoanut palm is 
a native of the islands which dot the 
Southern Pacific, but it is now widely 
grown in many othei' tropical parts of 
the globe, particularly in the West In- 
dies, Ceylon and parts of India. 

It flourishes best in the sandy soil 
along the sea-shore and frequently at- 
tains to the height of one hundred feet 
— a long straight slender trunk, without 
either branch or leaf — perpendicular to 
the sky or leaning to one side or the 
other according to the mercies of the 
wind in its youth — with a crown of palm 
leaves for its head. The nuts hang 
downward near the trunk from the 
under-part of the crown — the yield aver- 
aging from fifty to one hundred nuts a 
year. 

The tree grows wild without care, 
but for commercial purposes it is raised 
in plantations or "groves." 

The cocoanut, as the average person 
sees it, is a large woody-looking nut, 
three or four inches in diameter, the shell enclosing an inside covering of half an inch 
or more of white meat, and holding a small quantity of cocoanut milk. 

On the tree the nut is enclosed in a husk, two or three inches in thickness, accord- 
ing to the stage of ripeness, and a green outside skin. When the nut is first formed 
inside the husk the shell is thin, and in place of the firm white meat is a thin coating 
of a white, creamy substance — which you eat with a spoon and find delicious — and a 
large quantity, two glasses or more, of sweetish water with a mild delicate cocoanut 
flavor. As ripening continues, the outside skin takes on a brownish appearance, the 
husk shrinks and becomes more and more fibrous, the shell of the nut inside becomes 
harder and the creamy substance and the water inside the shell become the firm white 
meat and the smaller quantity of milk that constitute the cocoanut of general sale. 

Theoutsidehusk is removed before shipment here, 
partly to save space in packing, but also because 
it is easier to ascertain the condition of the nuts 
— any damaged or cracked specimens are thrown 
out as they would either dry up or become rancid 
in transportation. The "eyes" and "nose" in the 
"face" of the cocoanut — the delicate spots in the 
shell — are often tarred over to prevent the en- 
trance of air. 

In places where they are grown, "green" 
cocoanuts are generally preferred for eating raw, 
the "cream" and water being sought — the meat 
of the ripe cocoanuts being principally used for 

OOPTBIGBT, EET3T0KS VIBW CO. 

A Raft of Cocoanuts Drifting Down a Stream in 
Luzon, Philippine Islands 







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154 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



cooking, confectionery, etc — and quite a few green cocoanuts are brought here during 
the year for special stores and individuals. They are gathered by natives who climb 
up, or rather walk up, the trunks — with the aid of a rope in the case of the taller 
palms. 

Kipe cocoanuts are gathered after they have fallen of their own accord — fortunately 
for the native population they rarely fall except at night Avhen the "seal" is loosened 
by the heavy dew. 

The quantity of ripe cocoanuts sold in this country to be eaten raw is consider- 
able, but the most important traffic is in the meat itself — dried, shredded, macerated, 
etc., for cooking, confectionery, etc. — and in the oil produced from it. 

The greater part of the cocoanut meat utilized here is made in this country from 
whole nuts, 95,000,000 being imported during 1910 ; but large quantities, nearly 27,000,- 
000 pounds during 1910, are imported ready dried, coming principally via San Fran- 
cisco from the Philippine Islands, the East Indies and the Islands of the South Pacific. 
It is commercially known as "copra." 

Cocoanut oil — in temperate climates, a soft white fat — is obtained by pressing 
either the fresh meat or the dried copra, the former being the choicer. It is imported 
in large quantities — principally from Ceylon and the East Indies (both direct and via 
England), in addition to that manufactured here, for use in cooking oil preparations, 
in the manufacture of soap, etc. There is an increasing consumption of cocoanut "but- 
ters" prepared from cocoanut oil, especially in tropical countries, as it stands greater 
heat than dairy butter and is acceptable to many palates. Marseilles, France, is the 
center of the industry. 

The value of the cocoanut palm to the natives where it flourishes can scarcely 

be exaggerated. There is literal 
truth in the native proverb to 
the effect that "He who plants a 
cocoanut-tree plants vessels and cloth- 
ing, food and drink, a habitation for 
himself and a heritage for his 
children." 

He who would do so could build 
himself a home of "porcupine wood," 
which is procured from the trunk of 
the tree and is very durable. Leaf- 
stalk rafters are to his hand, and his 
house is readily completed with a 
picturesque roof of thatched leaves. 
He can cover his floor with matting 
made from the coir (the fiber which 
is about the nut), and the same fiber 
will supply him with clothing, cord- 
age and fishing lines. He can make 
brooms and brushes of the ribs of the 
leaves, and can utilize the old leaves 
in making buckets. The house com- 
pleted, it can be decorated with fans 
and with cups artistically carved from 

Cocoanut Rafts on One of the Waterways of Manila. P. I. 





COCOANUT 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the nuts. The palm furnishes transportation also, for the sea-going canoe of the 
South Sea Islander is made of rough pliable planks of cocoanut-wood, grooved to fit 
and stitched together with cocoanut-coir twine. 

As regards food, he can sustain life on the monotonous but dainty fare provided 
hj the green and ripe nuts. The latter will give him also cocoanut-oil in which he 
can fry any other food he may obtain, and from which he can manufacture soap 
and candles. The terminal bud may further be cooked like cabbage, and both tem- 
perance and intoxicating beverages may be prepared from the sajj and fruit. 

"Tuba," a beverage highly prized and extensively consumed by the natives, is the 
sap of the flowering fruit-bearing stalks. As its extraction destroys the nut-bearing 
capacity, it is generally confined to trees devoted exclusively to the purpose. The fer- 
mented juice is intoxicating and yields on distillation a spirituous liquor known as 
"Coco wine." 



COD: one of the most abundant of food fishes, found in all northern temperate seas 
and taken in large quantities by both nets and lines along the North Atlantic and Arctic 
coasts of both America and Europe. It ranges in size up to a hundred pounds, the 
average market weight though being less than ten pounds. It is a xevj voracious fish, 
all the small ocean inhabitants serving it for food, and extraordinary prolific, the roe 
often containing from two to eiglit million eggs and sometimes constituting a full half 
of the weight of the female. See Color Page facing page 250. 

Cod is marketed in various forms, fresh, salted and dried, in the latter state being 
genei'ally sold by the quintal (112 pounds). In addition to the large consumption in 
North America, great quantities of the dried fish are carried from Newfoundland to 
the West Indies, South America and Europe, especially to the Catholic countries of the 
latter continent. 

Fresh cod is at its best during the 
winter months. The head and shoul- 
ders, the choicest portions, are prefer- 
ably boiled, the remainder being usual- 
ly sliced for frying, etc. 

In Norway, cows are frequently 
fed on cod heads and seaweed in order 
to increase their supply of milk. In 
Iceland, the waste parts, bones, etc., 
are utilized as cattle food. 

Salt Cod of all kinds is, when possi- 
ble, cured immediately after catching. 
The fish are first split from head to 
tail and next thoroughly cleaned of 
all traces of blood by repeated wash- 
ings in salt water. Part of the back- 
bone is next cut out and the fish, after 
being drained as nearly dry as practic- 
able, are then placed in vats or similar 
receptacles and covered with salt, re- 
maining thus until sufficiently cured. 




COPTBICUT, CNDEttWCWO Si DMDEaWOOD, J 

Drying Cod on Racks at a Cape Ann Wliarf, Gloucester, Mass 



158 



THE GEOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



When the curiuy process has been com- 
pleted, they are taken out of the vats, 
washed and brushed to remove super- 
fluous salt and placed to dry in the sun, 
spread out on wooden racks, on the beach 
or elsewhere. They are considered fit for 
market when they show "bloom" — a 
whitish appearance on the surface. They 
are sold in many forms, popular types be- 
ing Boneless Cod and Flaked God, put up 
in small boxes; Shredded Cod, in papers 
and cans, etc. 

Dunfish is one of several names for 
dried cod. The title is traced to two dif- 
ferent sources — ( 1 ) as applied to the fish 
dried on open "downs" or "hills," from 
the Gaelic "Dnin" a hill; (2) as descrip- 
tive of the color of cod cured by being- 
salted and piled below salt grass in a 
dark room for several months, being 
turned once or more during that time. 




COPYniCnT, UNDlimVOOD 4 undekwood, m. 

Dried Cod in a Wareliouse, Aalesmund, Norway 



Rock-Cod, or Klipp-fish, is applied to the fish dried on the rocks. 

"Scrod" is a term which was originally applied to any fish, particularly cod, "scrodded" 
or "shredded," but it now generally signifies a young cod split and slightly salted. 

Cod Sounds, or Swim-bladders, and Cod tongues are popular delicacies, both separ- 
ately and mixed. They are eaten .fresh, being then in season from October to May, 
and salted or fpickled. The dried Sounds also furnish an isinglass very little inferior 
to that from the Sturgeon. 

Cod Roe is a favorite table- delicacy and is also important commercially as a bait for 
fish, large quantities being lised in the French sardine fisheries. 

COD LIVER OIL: the expressed clarified oil of cod livers. It is considered an excel- 
lent aid in the treatment of pulmonary diseases and also in various forms of debility, the 
food value of the pure oil being supplemented by a noticeable percentage of phosphorus, 
iodine and bromine. There are three grades — Light Yellow, Light Brown and Dark 
Brown. The best qualities of Light Yellow come from the Lofoten Isles, Norway. 

The high grade "cod oil'' of commerce is identically the same as "cod liver oil" — 
both are extracted from the cod livers — but publicity has made the latter title more 
familiar to the general public. 

Nearly a'll of the cod liver oil on the market formerly came from Newfoundland 
and Norway,' but Alaska and Japan are to-day also important manufacturing points. 

"Emulsion" of cod liver 'oil, a popular liiodern form, is a milk-like preparation, the 
oil finely divided and held in suspension by the addition and mixing in of, generally, 
glycerine and tragacanth. 




COFFEE 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



161 



COFFEE. The civilized world is indebted to Africa for the coffee beau. Its name 
is variously attributed to that of the Abyssinian province of Caffu and the Arabian 
word Kim wall. Its early history is clouded in tradition, but it appears to have been 
known by the Ethiopians of Northern Africa from time immemorial. They used it not 
only for the making of a beverage, but also as a war food, by mixing the roasted, pul- 
verized beans with grease and molding into balls — this being the only food they 
carried on short forays. 

Its use reached Abyssinia toward the end of the thirteenth century, and traveled 
about two hundred years later into Arabia. The latter country seems to have been 
the stepping-stone to its universal consumption — and it was Arabian coffee shipped 
through the port of Mocha that shed a halo around the name of "Mocha'' and led the 
coffee world into using it as a panoply for millions of tons that never saw Arabia! 

In those days Arabian merchants were the most enterprising in the world — they 
stood at the gateway from Asia to Europe, and they added the coffee bean from 
Africa to the spices and other luxuries of the Orient. The use of coffee quickly spread 
outward — first to Persia and Syria, then to Cairo and in a few years to Venice. A little 
later it became the favorite drink at Constantinople, and Oriental coffee-houses 
sprang up everywhere in the city. 

For the next hundred years, the trade appears to have rested content with tlie 
conquest of the countries bordering on the eastern Mediterranean, but in the middle 
of the seventeenth century the demand for coffee arose almost simultaneously in 
London, Paris and other European centers — and coffee-houses in London and cafes 
in Paris became important both in point of number and for the fashionable, literary 
and political classes which crowded them daily. 

The progress of the coffee bean was beset Avitli many obstacles. Religiously 
inclined people denounced coffee as an insidiously pernicious beverage, statesmen saw 
political danger in the discussions which marked the attendance at the coffee-houses 
— on this ground they were closed by government orders on several occasions and in 
several countries — and governments found new sources of revenue by heavy taxation 
on every gallon of coffee brewed — but the beverage proved its real worth by out- 
living all restrictions, and even all changes from the customs and habits of those 
former generations, and has steadily gained in popularity to the present rather 
staggering figures of an average yearly con- 
sumption of more than 2,500,000,000 pounds. 

Until almost the end of the seventeenth 
centui'y, only a little more than two hundred 
years ago, the world was entirely dependent 
on Africa for its coffee beans — no one had 
apparently attempted to carry the coffee shrub 
into any other soil. Louis XIV is credited with 
being the first to grow it in the French West 
Indian Colony of JMartinique — and soon after- 
ward it was successfully introduced and culti- 
vated by other European governments in the 
West Indies and by the Dutch in Java, Sumatra 
and other islands of the Malay Archipelago. 
It was introduced into India in about 1700 ; 
twenty years later into Ceylon, from Java, by 

9 Bronze-Colored Maidens As.'orting Coffee, 

Nicaragua 




162 THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

the Dutch, and in 1740 into the Philippines by Spanish missionaries from Java. At 
about the same time the first shrub was planted in Brazil, now the world's greatest 
coffee-growing country, and a little later it spread to Cuba, Porto Rico and Mexico, 
and thence to practically all other parts of Central and South America. To-day 
Africa, the original source, is a comparatively unimportant factor in the great 
bulk of coffee production. 

Growing the Bean and Preparing it for Market. 

The common coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which in its native growth 
is a slender tree of eighteen to twenty feet in height, with the greater part of the 
trunk clear but opening near the top into a few long drooping branches. Under 
cultivation the shrub is kept in a condition of short close growth, from four to six 
feet high, so as to increase the crop and to facilitate picking it — the branches, flex- 
ible, loose and expanding out and downwards, the lower ones horizontal, the upper, 
inclined to trail — the whole very pleasing in appearance. The leaves are oblong- 
ovate in shape, from five to six inches long and from two to three inches in width 
when full grown; smooth, firm and leathery in texture, dark, shiny green on the 
upper surface and pale green underneath. The flowers are white and fragrant, 
resembling the jessamine in odor, growing in dense clusters in the axils of the 
leaves. The fruit, which quickly follows the flower, is a fleshy berry, green at first, 
changing to a yellowish tint, then to red, looking then much like a small red cherry, 
and finally to a smooth glossy purple or dark red. 

There are generally two or three main harvests in the course of a year, and 
cultivation aims to direct the crops as closely as possible to that end, but in a 
greater or less degree the shrub bears blossoms and fruit contemporaneously all 
the year round. 

The flesh or pulp of the fruit, sweet and agreeable in flavor and frequently 
eaten by the pickers, encloses two seeds or beans, each inside a thin parchment- 
like skin. These seeds, oval in shape, rounded on one side and flat on the other 
where they rest together, with a little groove running the length of the flat side, 
constitute the raw coffee of commerce. They are at flrst of a soft bluish or greenish 
color, becoming hard and flinty on exposure and changing generally with age to a pale 
yellowish tint. 

When only one bean is found inside the berry — occasionally in all varieties and 
frequently in a few — the "flat side" still holds the distinguishing groove, but it is 
nearly as round as the other. These beans are known as "pea-berries," "male berries" or 
"caracolillo" (Mexican). They are most plentiful on old bushes. 

There are many varieties of coffee plants, but they all have the same general 
characteristics, and botanists differ as to whether or not they are really divisible 
into different families. The variety of general cultivation to-day is that known as 
the Arabian coffee plant. Increasing attention is, however, being devoted to the 
Liberian and the Maragogipi because of the more vigorous growth of the shrubs and 
the larger size 'of the beans (see Color Page of Coffee Beans). They do not present 
the fine cup quality of the better grade Arabian, but their size and strength of fiavor 
give them yalue for blending. The Liberian is native to Liberia, Africa, and is culti- 
vated to a considerable extent in several countries, including Brazil, the Dutch East 
Indies and* Ceylon. The Maragogipi is a native of Brazil. 



164: THE GROOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The coffee shrub grows best in rich, well-irrigated soil in upland countries. 
Tropical climate, entire absence of frost and protection from the wind, are among the 
essentials. 

Propagation is hj buddings, cuttings and seeds, the custom varying in different 
countries. The young plants are transferred from the nurseries to the plantation when 
about eighteen inches high. In some countries they are planted close together — from 
four to eight feet each way; in others they are spaced as wide as ten to twelve feet 
and other crops are planted between the rows. The first crop is generally gathered 
■when the shrubs are four years old, and they continue to produce for from ten to 
tAventy years — and sometimes longer. 

The berries are picked when just fully ripe- — if not mature, the best flavor of the 
beans is lost, and if allowed to become over-ripe they may fall off and become 
spoiled on the ground. The picking is done by hand, the berries being dropped 
into a basket suspended around the neck of the gatherer, or into broad, flat bamboo 
receptacles placed beneath the shrubs, and thence emptied into hampers or sacks 
located at convenient points. 

Under the old method, the berries are allowed to dry before the pulp is removed, 
but in what is known as the "new," "washing" or "West Indian" process (W. I. P.), 
they are taken direct and as fresh as possible to the "pulping house," where the pulp 
or meat is at once removed by machinery — leaving only the beans inside their "parch- 
uient" covering. This work is very carefully done, for to scratch the skin of the bean 
itself, called the "silver skin," to distinguish it from the parchment covering, is to 
render it worthless because of the processes to follow. 

From the pulping machines, the "parchment" beans, so called because they still 
retain the outer skin-covering referred to, run into the first of a series of fermenting 
and washing tanks, where by lying in water or moistening they are fermented and 
then washed to remove the saccharine matter adhering to the parchment. 

After the washing, the beans undergo the drying process — by exposure to the 
sun or by artificial heat, according to circumstances. 

This is the last stage of the beans as "parchment coffee." The next step is 
hulling and peeling, but before this is undertaken the bean is allowed to remain in 
its parchment for several weeks, as this "curing" improves its quality and makes it 
retain its color better. The longer it is left — even for months or years — the more, 
as a rule, it will improve, but as lengthy curing makes it very difficult to remove 
the silver-skin, the bean is never left in the parchment longer than is absolutely 
necessary. 

"Hulling and peeling" consists in the removal, generally by milling, of both 
the "parchment" and the "silver-skin." The bean after this process is at first very 
light-colored, but it soon changes to a sort of fern-green or greenish-yellow hue, and 
this color it retains for a considerable time if kept under proper conditions and away 
from dampness. With greater age the tint becomes, as already noted, a pale yellow, 
except East Indian types, which change in some cases to a dark brown as the result of 
storage methods and shipment in slow wooden sailing vessels. 

As the beans emerge from the huller, they come first under the infiuence of a 
fan. which separates and removes the detached skins, and then go to the "separator" 
— an inclined revolving cylindrical sieve, divided into different meshes. Sand and 
dust drop through the first section, small and broken beans into the next and so on, the 
best and laraest beans beiu" retained. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 165 

lu the most up-to-date plantations, separators of the eccentric or vibrator type 
have been installed in place of the revolving sieves, as they make possible a more accu- 
rate separation by sizes of the ordinary or "flat" beans, in addition to separating the 
peaberries for shipment as such. 

The separation is followed by a careful sorting over by hand of the better grades 
to pick out any discolored or otherwise undesirable beans. 

As soon as the sizing and grading are finished, the coffee is packed in bags or 
casks and is ready for market. 

The methods outlined are employed only on modern plantations equipped with im- 
proved appliances, but the same principles are followed by all firms or individuals using 
the "washing process" on any scale. By the "dry" method, "milling" is used entirely in 
place of the fresh pulping and washing. 

The value of the coffee marketed by the producer depends to a large extent on the 
care and judgment exercised in bringing it through the various processes — and the 
same care must be continued in the transportation of the bags to the port of shipment 
and in storing them in the ships which carry them to the consuming countries. 

The transportation of coffee is also an important item in its cost. Its journey from 
the plantation to some central point is often by human portage through mountain dis- 
tricts and then by slow, tedious, bullock travel for long distances to the coast — with all 
the risk of deterioration en route. 

Coffee Consumed in the United States. ' 

The following table of the imports of coffee into the United States during the 
twelve months ending June 30, 1909, gives a fairly accurate idea of the relative im- 
portance of the sources of our supply. The total figures vary considerably from year 
to year, generally averaging less than those shown. The calendar year 1910 showed a 
total of only 804,417,451 pounds. 

Pounds Pouxds 

Brazil 818,444,714 BrougM Forward 1,0'32.568.S07 

Colombia 60,183,641 West Indies 3,313.313 

Venezuela 54,774,402 Arabia (from Aden, the U. S. port of 

Otber parts of South America 1,416.768 Mocha coffee) 2.128.583 

Mexico 35,004,112 Turkey in Asia 1.371.746 

Guatemala 26,370,593 Holland (principally coffee from the 

Salvador 10.035,794 Dutch East Indies re-shipped) 1.533.001 

*Costa Rica 2.956.093 England (including India and Ceylon 

Other Central American States 1,399.529 coffees re-shipped) 2.054.119 

.Java, Sumatra and the East Indies Miscellaneous sources (re-shipped from 

generally 11.993,156 Europe, small quantities from 

Africa, etc.) 16.839.293 



Carried Forioard 1.033,568,807 ' ' Total 1,049.863,763 

*The imports from Costa Rica eenerally range from 11 to 30 million pounds. 

It will be noted that Brazil supplied nearly 78% of all the coffee imported, and 
that other parts of South and Central America and Mexico furnished more than 18% 
leaving less than 4% to the credit of all the remainder of the world. In other words, we 
received during the year 1,010,575,651 pounds from South America, Central America 
and Mexico as against only a little more than 39,000,000 pounds from all other countries. 

The coffee classifications best known to the general public are "Mocha," "Java," 
"Rio," "Santos," "Maracaibo," "Bourbon Santos," "Boaota" and "Pea-berrv." The 



166 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



cheapest varieties of general consumption are the low grade Eios, and the dearest, the 
liigh grade "Javas," or East Indian, and Mocha. 

There was formerly a great deal of deception and misunderstanding, much of it 
entirely unnecessary, in the buying and selling of coffee — not only by mixing in low 
grade, imperfect and otherwise undesirable beans for the sake of greater profit, for 
similar practices are found in greater or less degree in every line — but also in the 
marketing of good products under titles to which they have no right. The misuse of 
geographical names was for many years so widespread that they lost practically all 
their real significance to the general public — almost any small coffee bean was passed 
as "Mocha" and any larger uniform bean for "Java." That this was done is convinc- 
ingly proved when we note that only a trifle more than one pound in every hundred 
received during the year came from Java or the vicinity of Java, and that all the 
coffee from the Mocha port of shipment amounted to only about one pound in every 
five hundred — yet every grocery store in the country sold enormous quantities of "Java 
and Mocha." The practice of substitution extended also to every variety and every 
grade of every variety. 

Since the passage of the Pure Food Law there has been a great improvement in 
conditions. Millions of labels reading "Java and Mocha" were destroyed, others were 
amended by such additions as rendered them permissible. The word "Blend" was for 
a time so employed as to give prominence to the legend "ilocha and Java" on mixtures 
in which beans of those two types must have felt hopelessly in the minority, but this 
also was checked by the rule that coffees named in blends must be given in the order 
of the proportions contained in the package. 

This revolution will eventually prove 
of great advantage to the industry. The 
former methods tended to retard rather 
than advance the proper appreciation of 
coffee as a beverage, which will naturally 
follow consistent retailing of the differ- 
ent varieties, grades and blends under 
inviolable titles. In many cases, the old 
style nomenclature was a distinct fraud 
on the purchaser by obtaining from him 
a higher price than the value of the beans. 
In others, where no fraud was intended 
and where the product was worth the 
price charged, the masquerade name at- 
tached to it was a foolish following of 
trade traditions. The practice is entirely 
unnecessary, as the average coffee sold 
here is of good quality, well and cleanly 
prepared, quite worthy of sale under its 
own proper names. 

In defense of the retailer and mer- 
chants generally, it must be added that 
for generations they were in a majority 
of cases themselves victims of a world- 
wide system of false naming and substi- 




KBBWOOD & OMDBBWOOD, K. T 



Coffee Bush in Klower 



THE GROCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



167 



lution and that they only passed goods on as they 
received them and designated them the "same 
as others did." 

When the adulteration of coffee is practised, 
it is generally in the ground bean. Nearly every 
conceivable substitute has at some time been 
ground and roasted to a resemblance of coffee 
— among them rye, rice, holly berries, barley, 
acorns, beet-root, beans, peas, carrots, etc. 

If Chicory is added without the knowledge 
or desire of the consumer, it is entitled to place 
as an adulterant, but it differs radically from the 
other articles mentioned as a great many people, 
especially in European countries, consider the 
addition of a certain percentage as an improve- 
ment on the straight coffee (see article on 
Chicory). Under the present law, the addition 
of Chicorv must be announced on the label. 




COPVEIGUT, 



Coffee Pickers Homeward Bound 



The average chemical composition of raw and roasted coffee is as follows : 



Caffeine 

Sugar 

Caffetannic acid 

Fat and oil 

Albumin 

Nitrogenous extract and coloring matter. 

Dextrin 

Cellulose (fibre), etc 

Ash 

Moisture 



Raiv Coffee 
Per Cent 
1 + 

9 to 10 

8 to 10 

11 to 13 

10 to 11 

4 to 7 

1 — 

38 

3 to 4 

8 to 10 



Roasted Coffee 

Per Cent 

1-f 

1/3 

4 to 5 

13 to 14 

11 to 13 

12 to 14 
1 + 
48 

4 to 5 
1 



The liquid obtained by the ordinary brewing of the ground coffee contains how- 
ever only unimportant percentages of components other than "Caft'eine," which fur- 
nishes its stimulating properties, .etc. ; "Caffeole," the chief aromatic principle produced 
from the fat, oil, etc., by the roasting process, and "Caffeic acid," a secondary flavoring 
component. The sugar is converted into caramel in the roasting. 

The coffee bean contains less stimulating property than the tea leaf, but, as more is 
used for making the beverage, the two liquids offer approximately the same stimulating 
power. 

Some of the albumin and cellulose is dissolved in the brewed coffee, and a little 
food material is thus included in the beverage, but the amount is necessarily quite 
small. The bulk is left in the "grounds." 

The United States is the largest per capita consumer of coffee, the average con- 
sumption being about twelve pounds a year. 



Coffee Blending. 

Blending is an important branch of the coffee business, but no exact rules can be 
laid down for its practice, as tastes differ in every country and often in different sec- 
tions of the same countrv. The fundamental intent in hiah-class blends is to obtain a 



168 THE G R O C E R " S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



smooth, mellow, aromatic liquor, to add strength if too mild and to modify if too heavy. 
The genuine Mocha, for example, is a little too acid and the genuine Java generally 
not quite acid enough — hence the advantage of a blending of genuine Mocha and Java. 
In low grade blends, the aim is to make cheap, coarse beans palatable by adding a cer- 
tain quantity of others of more pleasing flavor. 

The best blends are obtained by roasting each tj'pe separately and then mixing 
and closing them up together immediately after — as old crop and new crop, or "mild" 
and "strong" beans require different lengths of time for the best results in roasting. 
If put in the cylinder to roast together, some are liable to be half raw while others 
are over-cooked. 

Coffee Selection- 
Long experience is essential to the training of a coffee expert. The chapters fol- 
lowing on the different coffee growths give brief descriptions of the beans of the prin- 
cipal varieties — but there are so many different kinds, so much alike and yet with so 
many minor differences of size, appearance, color and cup quality, that very few people 
can correctly judge the quality of a bean by its appearance raw — and only the keenest 
experts can determine its exact classification after roasting. The best test for the aver- 
age merchant or consumer is by a sample infusion after roasting and grinding. 
In purchasing the raw beans, one should also though bear in mind that : 

(1) If all of one variety {i. e., before blending), they should be fairly uniform in 

size, appearance and color. 

(2) They should be free from stems, stones, dirt and all such foreign matter. 

(3) When cut, they should be the same general color all the way through. If 

the inside is considerably ligliter than the outside, it will usually be 
found that the beans have been artificially colored. 
Simple tests for ground coffee are : 

(1) Press a little of the dry coffee between the fingers — if it cakes, it is adul- 

terated, probabh^ with chicory. 

(2) Place a little of the dry coffee in a glass of water. If nearly all floats and 

the water does not color — or only a very little — the coffee is probably pure. 
If part of the coffee floats and part sinks, it is adulterated — probably with 
cereals, chicory or similar substances. If the water turns a deep reddish 
tint, chicory has been added to it. 

(3) Spread a little dry coffee on a piece of glass or something similar and moisten 

with a few drops of water. Then pick out some of the smallest pieces with 

a needle — if they are soft, the coffee is certainly adulterated, as real coffee 

bean particles stay hard even after long immersion in Avater. 

It must be remembered that the above tests applj^ onh' to the purity of the bean 

— they tell nothing of the flavor or aromn, which are determining points of value. 

A coffee may be perfectly pure, yet be harsh, musty, hidey or in many other ways 

undesirable — -.hence the necessity of testing flavor and aroma by making an infusion. 

Coffee Roasting. 

The proper roasting of coffee alters its appearance and flavor by bringing about 
important changes in the component parts of the bean. It develops the "caffeine" 
(the active principle of coffee, corresponding to the theine in tea) , by separating it from 
the tannic acid, frees the highly aromatic coffee-oil (the amount and quality of which 




JAVA-EAST INDIAN 




MOCHA 




SANTOS 



^k^jM^ 




RiO 




BOGOTA 




MARACAIBO 





^/ii-. 




BOURBON SANTOS 



CENTRAL AMERICA 



MEXICAN 






LI BERIAN 



PEASERRY 



COFFEE BEANS 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



171 



largely determine the value of the roasted product), renders the fat more easily 
soluble by releasing it from the fat cells, and reduces the natural sugar while convert- 
ing the saccharine matter into caramel. The result is that after roasting the bean 
readily releases the flavor and aroma for which it is famous and will, by thorough 
infusion in boiling water, yield a total of more than 40% of soluble matter — though 
in ordinary coffee making only from 10% to 15% is actually extracted. 

The roasting in the average modern United States plant is preceded by passing 
the beans through a cleaning and milling machine which removes all foreign matter 
and gives a smooth finish. From this they go into large revolving perforated steel or 
iron cylinders, encased in brick and revolving over brisk fires. The cylinders are fitted 
with interior lateral ridges which keep the beans constantly moving in order that they 
may not become "tipped" or scorched. The time of roasting varies, but generally takes 
thirty minutes for a "light," and from thirty-five to forty-five minutes for a "high" or 
"dark" roast. 

From the roaster, the beans pass to the "coolers," fitted with powerful exhaust fans 
which draw cold air through them to stop the roasting jjrocess, and then to the 
"stoner," which is an air-suction pipe generally about twelve inches in diameter and 
ten feet in height, the coffee being drawn up this pipe into a hopper, leaving the stones 
at the bottom to be discharged automatically. Finally comes the filling, by machinery, 
into bags, cans, etc. 

The operation of roasting is easy to describe, but it requires much experience and 
good judgment to bring out the full strength, character and aroma. 

A "light" roast should be of a cinnamon-brown color, uniform in appearance and 
free from specks. A "medium" roast should be deep chestnut. A "high" or "dark" 
roast should be of a chocolate-brown color and oily in appearance but free from burnt 
or scorched beans — which will spoil the flavor of any coffee, no matter how high 
gTade. The "medium" roast is the 
most desirable for general retail cus- 
tom. 

So important is this process that a 
well roasted minor grade will yield a 
better liquor than the finest coffee a 
little under or over roasted. 

Coffee loses generally about 15% 
in weight in roasting, and afterwards 
should always be kept as tightly sealed 
as possible, as it loses in fiavor from 
contact Avith the air and the beans 
become tough and hard to grind. 

Grinding, Preparation, Etc. 

The manner of grinding or cutting 
the coffee bean depends upon individ- 
ual taste and custom. Coarse-ground 
coffee is not generally desirable, as it 
requires too long an infusion to extract 
the full strength — and too much boil- 
ing tends to spoil both flavor and 




COPTntGIlT, OS'DEEWOOD dl USDEaWOOD. S. T, 



DryirifT Coffee Beans 



172 THE GKOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

aroma. A medium-fine grind is the most generally serviceable for ordinary home use. 

There are many different formulas for preparing coffee for the table, the majority 
capable of being classified under the three following headings : 

Infusion or dratoing : putting the ground coffee into boiling water and keeping it 
hot on the range without boiling for eight to ten minutes. With ordinary care this 
method will produce a very pleasing beverage, but it does not bring out much of the 
stimulating property of the bean. 

Decoction or boiling : putting the ground coffee in cold water, allowing it to come 
to a boil and keeping it boiling for a few seconds. This brings out more strength than 
the preceding method and makes an excellent liquor — but if the boiling is continued 
too long the fine aroma passes away. 

For the "old-fashioned" boiling method, the white of an egg is first stirred into the 
ground coffee. The latter is then placed in the pot and the proper amount of boiling 
water is poured over it — the water, taken fresh, having previously been allowed to boil 
hard for ten minutes. The coffee is permitted to come to a good boil, is stirred 
thoroughly once and then placed on the back of the stove for ten minutes. If any 
grounds appear on top, they are stirred a little and allowed to settle. This process 
gives excellent results but it requires a good deal of care. 

Filtration or distilling: by the use of a "percolator," the boiling water passing 
slowly through the ground coffee held in the center of the machine. This method is 
largely used because the result is nearly always uniform. 

No matter which method is employed, the grounds should never be allowed to 
remain in the coffee for any length of time after it is made. 

In hotels, restaurants and other establishments where it is brewed in large quan- 
tities, the coffee is generally held in a bag or other receptacle in the upper part of the 
urn, in order that the grounds may be the more easily removed. 

The best general advice to the person wishing a good cup of coffee is to buy coffee 
as pure as possible and of flavor that suits the individual taste, to have it fresh roasted, 
fresh ground to moderate fineness and fresh made in a scrupulously clean coffee-pot. 
With these points secured, a little practice will produce a fine beverage by any reason- 
able process. 

A little cold water dashed in boiling coffee checks the boiling and causes the 
grounds to settle, leaving the beverage perfectly clear. In Creole cookery, the same 
result is obtained by adding a small piece of charcoal. 

French Coffee. The special flavor noticed in much of the coffee served in France 
is generally due to any one or all of the three following causes : ( 1 ) the addition of 
10% to 30% of chicory, (2) the especially heavy roasting of the bean, and (3) the oc- 
casional addition of a little butter and sugar during the roasting. It is generally made 
in a percolator from fine ground coffee, the liquid being passed through the percolator 
two or three times to acquire greater strength. 

Cafe au lait, "Coffee with milk" or "French Breakfast Coffee," generally means 
strong coffee served with boiling milk — about half coffee and half milk or to suit 
the individual taste. 

Cafe noir, Black Coffee or After Dinner Coffee, requires an especially generous 
proportion of coffee, and percolation continued until the liquid is black. 

Demi-tasse de cafe, ov cafe demitasse, means literally only a small or half cup of 
coffee, but, carelessly used, the expression has come to signify Cafe noir or After Dinner 
Coffee. 







1x1 

O 
O 



174 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



a 



Cafe a la crenie is made by adding plain or whipped cream to good Cafe noir. 

Vienna Coffee is prepared in a special urn which passes and repasses the steam 
through the (finely ground) coffee, thus retaining the full aroma. It is served with 
whipped cream. 

Creole Coffee is prepared by slow percolation. The coffee, fresh roasted and 
ground, is pressed compactly in the filter of the pot and a small quantity of boiling 
water is poured over. When this has passed through, more Avater is added, the process 
being continued at intervals of about five minutes. The result is a very strong and 
rich extract, which may either be served fresh or be preserved in an air-tight vessel 
for future use. A small quantity — even so little as a tablespoonful — of good "Creole 
Coffee" is sufficient for a cup of coffee of ordinary strength. 

Turkish Coff'ee is made from beans ground as fine as powder, placed in a pot 
(either large or "individual") with cold water and brought to the boiling point. It is 
never allowed to boil and is served as it is without straining or settling the grounds. 

Dutch Coffee is prepared by cold water process from very fine-ground coffee held 
in a special filter with top and bottom reservoirs. It requires four hours or longer 
for the water to percolate through the coffee, and in its passage it extracts a large 
percentage of strength and fiavor. 

Russian Coffee is strong, black coffee. 

Coffee Extract or Essence. Genuine coffee extract is made commercially by distil- 
lation — steaming and evaporating the liquid until it is reduced to the desired strength. 
One or two teaspoonfuls is generally sufficient to make a cup of coffee of moderate 
strength. For household purposes, it can be made with nearly the same result 
by following the formula for "Creole Coffee." 

Coffee, whether raw^or roasted, should always be kept away from all strong odors, 
as it absorbs them very rapidly. Roasted coffee (as already mentioned) should never 
be exposed to the air, as it will quickly lose its flavor and aroma. 

The Principal Coffee Growing Countries. 

The first division of coffee is into "strong" and "mild." The Rios and some of the 
Santos constitute the "strong" varieties. The other part of tlie Santos crop and prac- 
tically all the importations of other kinds, come under the heading of "mild." 

The next classification by the wholesale merchant is by the country of export, sub- 
divided in each case into various growths and grades. 

BRAZIL. — Rio, Santos. Bourbon Santos. 

The best known Brazil coffees are the Rios and Santos. 

Rio coffees are heavy in body and with a distinctly characteristic flavor and aroma. 
The beans varj^ in size and color from large to small, and dark green to light yellow. 

Santos coffees are generally milder than the "Rios" and very smooth and pleasing 
in the cup. The finer grades are of such excellent quality that they have been widely 
substituted for even high grade "Javas." They range from large to small and from 
green and rich yellow to very pale yellow. 

"Red Bean" Santos is obtained from the Campinas district. It is considered more 
"fiavory" and richer than the yellow or greenish beans. 

"Bourbon Santos" is a small bean variety which has grown rapidly in popularity 
on account of its acid or vinous character. It was formerly sold as "]Mocha" or "Mocha 
Seed." 



THE grocer's ex cyclopedia 175 

Among' the iiuiuei-i)us other types of Brazilian coffee are "Victoria" or Capotinea, 
Ba]ii(i and Liberia n Rio. 

The most generally accepted grades of "Rio" and "Santos" are from 1 to 10 or as 
follows : 

Fuiicij — large and uniform in color and in size; clear and perfect in selection and 
attraoti-^e in general appearance. Divided into "Light," "Medium" and "Dark." 

Prime — very clear and regular in color and size, but not so rich in appearance 
as "raucy." Divided into "Light," "Medium" and "Dark." 

(lood — uniform in color and size, but ranging from "clear" to "strictly clear." 
Divided iuto "Light," "Medium" and "Dark." This is the average or "standard" grade. 

Fair — onlj' moderately clean and liable to contain some broken and other- 
wise imperfect beans. 

Ordinary — irregular in color and size and liable to contain many black broken 
beans and a proportion of hulls, etc. 

Voniinon — the lowest grade, mixed with bad and broken beans, chaff, hulls, etc. 

COLOMBIA. — BucARAMANG.i^ Bogota, "Savanilla." 

Colombia has in recent years grown largely in importance as a coffee raising 
country and its natural advantages promise still more abundant production. 

The two best known varieties are Bacuramauga. and Bogota, which rank among 
the finest of American coffees. 

The Bucaramanga bean is large and solid and the liquor full, fragrant and aro- 
matic. France and the United States take practically all the exportation. 

Bogota is a mountain grown coffee, the bean large, uniform and bluish-green, and 
the liquor full-bodied, round and fragrant. It is the basis of a great number of high- 
grade blends. 

Meclelliii is, in the best grades, also very highlj^ considered. 

Other lesser types are Gauca, Ocana, etc. 

Colombia coffees are also commercially known as "Savanillas.'' 

VENEZUELA.— Maeacaibo, La Guayra. 

The two best types of Venezuela coffee are Maracaiho and La Guayra. 

Maracaibos are divided into several varieties, among them Oucuta, Merida, Boco- 
no, Tovar and Trujillo (the lowest), graded as Washed (the best), Prime to Choice, 
Pair to Good, Ordinary, etc. 

Both the Cucuta and the Merida in good seasons often equal the finest coffees 
grown anywhere. The beans are large, round and solid, rich-yellow in appearance and 
making liquor of full ripe flavor. 

The other three varieties mentioned are generally smaller and unattractive in 
appearance and their liquor is light, but they are useful for blending, as their flavor 
is usually pleasant. 

La Guayra coffees are best known by the Caracas, Porto-Cabello and Coro types. 

Choice "Washed" Caracas is an exceptionally^ fine coffee — rich, heavy and fragrant. 
The bean is large and bluish. 

"^filled" Caracas makes only fair liquor. The bean is yellowish and medium size. 

"Porto-Cabello" and "Coro" coffees, also largely consumed, vary in the bean from 
medium to small and from dark to pale green. They are classed as a mild coffee, but 
their liquor develops good strength as well as flavor. 

Among other varieties largely exported are Carnpaiio and Angostura. 



176 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

CENTKAL AMEKICA.— Guatemala, Costa PacA, Salvador. 

The finest Central America coffee is generally that from Q-uatemala, where culti- 
vation is conducted on the most modern lines. The best known type is the "Coban," 
a large shapely blue bean producing a fine aromatic liquor. 

Next in importance is the output of Costa Rica. The raw bean averages large and 
handsome and roasts to very good advantage, but the bulk of the best grades goes to 
Europe, and many shipments of the lower qualities sent to the United States give a 
liquor somewhat bitter and not very desirable. 

The Salvador bean is generally of medium size and, in the best grades, is well 
developed, heavy and greyish-yellow. The liquor is fairly strong, but of only moderate 
flavor. The poorer grades are very uneven and broken and the liquor weak. 

Nicaragua coffee closely resembles the medium grade of Salvador. 

Honduras produces a yellow heavy bean of attractive appearance. The liquor is 
smooth and pleasing but rather weak and frequently marked with a cocoa odor. 

Panama has not yet established any high records, but the quality of the product 
has been considerably improved in recent years. 

MEXICO. 

Mexican coffee is roughly divided into "Washed" and "Unwashed," the former 
being the choicer. The bulk of the export formerly went to France, but the United 
States receipts have grown largely during recent years. 

The two "fanciest" types of Mexican beans are the Tepic and Caracolillo, the 
latter being generally known here as "Mexican Pea-berry." 

Tepic, formerly known as "Mexican Mocha," is said to be grown from a later 
introduction of the Arabian shrub, so carefully cultivated that some judges consider 
the product fully equal in quality to that of the parent plant. The bean is small, hard 
and of steel-blue color, making a creamy, aromatic liquor. Very little of this variety 
is exported, local consumers taking nearly all the crop. 

Caracolillo is a variety almost unique. As already noted, "Pea-Berries" are found 
to some extent in all coffee-bean crops, but the shrubs from which the Caracolillo 
product is obtained bear it almost exclusively. 

After- these two special types, which do not affect the general market, come 
Oaxaca, Cordoba, Coatepec, Coliina, etc. 

The Oaxaca (pronounced Wah-har-lcar) bean is large and well developed, blue in 
color when new, but becoming whiter as it ages. The liquor is strong, rich and 
fragrant. 

Cordoba is sometimes styled "Mexican Jack." The bean is large and yellow and 
the liquor rich and full, resembling a fine Maracaibo or a medium fine "Java." 

The Coatepec bean is large, well developed and more acid than the preceding types. 

Colima is a medium-sized bean, flat, fairly well developed and with liquor pleasing 
in flavor and moderately rich. 

Small quantities come also from Tuxpan and several other lowland districts, but 
the quality is generally inferior. 

.JAVA AND OTHEE DUTCH EAST INDIAN ISLANDS. 

The Dutch East Indies, especially the islands of -Java, Sumatra and Celebes, are 
famous as the largest exporters of fine coffees. They are best known to the lay public 
by the name of the island of Java, the most populous of the group and the central point 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 177 

of Dutch commercial activitj^, but the greater part of the East Indian coffee consumed 
in the United States is of Sumatra growth. That from Celebes is generally rated the 
highest in European markets. 

Other countries produce in certain sections beans as choice as the very best 
"Java," but the quantities they can export are comparatively unimportant. The 
greater output of the Dutch East Indies is partly due to the natural adaptability of 
soil and climate and partly to the systematic cultivation by native inhabitants under 
the rule of Holland. In spite of government care there is, however, much variation 
in the beans grown — a considerable quantity of those exported do not deserve the 
reputation the fine "Javas" have earned. 

East Indian coffees are in this country principally graded by color — "Brown," 
"Yellow" and "Pale" — the darker beans bringing the highest prices. 

This discrimination was originally founded on the fact that some of the choicest 
varieties of "Java" beans become at the same time browner in color and more mellow 
and pleasing in flavor in storage and transport — being in the former respect entirely 
unique. The distinction is not fundamentally accurate, as some of the light bean 
varieties are better than many of the dark types. In Europe, the yellow colored beans 
are preferred. When fresh, all East Indian coffees are light sea-green, or blue-green. 

Dutch East Indian coffees, other than those grown on the island of Java itself, 
are now generally described in trade and government circles as "Dutch East Indian," 
or by trade titles, or by districts, as Padang, Mandheling, Corinchie, Timor, Kroe, etc. 

The title "Government" is sometimes applied as a distinguishing title to coffee 
produced on plantations operated under government supervision— as are all of the old 
and many of the new plantations. 

The title "Old Government Java" was at one time a name to conjure with, for, as 
first employed, it applied only to beans that had been held — sometimes for considerable 
periods — in the government storehouses. Until recently, nearly all the produce of the 
Dutch East Indies was sold by quarterly government auction, and any goods for which 
the upset price was not bid were held in the warehouses to await an improvement in 
market demands — the result being in many cases an improvement also in the coffees, 
spices, etc., by the opportunity thus given tliem to mature under the best possible con- 
ditions. The term long ago though deteriorated into a practically meaningless trade 
title from being applied indiscriminatingly to any brown East Indian coffee irrespec- 
tive of growth or quality, and it is now "out of date," as the government auctions were 
discontinued in June, 1909, present sales being by contracts with firms or individuals. 

"Plantation" or "Private Growth" coffees are those raised on plantations owned 
and operated by individuals in contra-distinction to those under government super- 
vision. Some are of very high quality. 

"Blue-bean Java" is a title occasionally applied to W. I. P. or "Washed" East 
Indian. 

"Liberian-Java" is that grown from shrubs of the Liberian species. Its quality 
is generally inferior to the Arabian bean varieties. 

ARABIA— "MOCHA." 
Arabian coffee is universally termed "Mocha," though no coffee was ever grown 
in Mocha — which is only a shipping town surrounded by deserts, and not to-day even 
an important shipping point, as the opening of the Suez Canal transferred nearly all 



178 THE GROCKR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the traffic to the ports of Aden and Hodeidah. This country is supplied from Aden. 

The best Arabian and the true "Mocha" coffee is that from the province of Yemen. 
The most surprising point in connection with its cultivation is that though the coffee 
shrub requires in other countries rich soil and favorable conditions to produce an 
acceptable crop, here in Arabia some of the choicest coffee in the world comes from 
stunted shrubs growing in hot, sandy, stony mountain-side gardens. All conditions, 
climate and soil seem to be against the shrub's best growth, but by way of recompense 
it . receives the most careful and painstaking human attention. The gardens are 
arranged on rocky terraces, one above the other, and are irrigated from large reservoirs 
of spring water placed above the highest. 

There are two main crops during the year. The berries, instead of being picked, 
are allowed to ripen until they fall. They are then carefully gathered up, dried, hulled 
and cleaned with scrupulous exactness. 

The separation of the finest "Mocha" beans by growers and. merchants is in itself a 
study of infinite detail — they are assorted and re-assorted into a perfect graduation of 
sizes and qualities. 

The true Yemen "Mocha" bean is very small, hard and round, regular in size in the 
best qualities, olive-green when new and a rich semi-transparent yellowish when aged. 
Its odor when fresh roasted is characteristic, and the liquor is creamy, rich, rather 
heavy, a little acid, and extremely aromatic and fragrant. 

"Tehama" Arabian coffee — that from the province of Tehama — is distinctly 
inferior to "Yemen." The bean is of about the same size, but it is immature in 
appearance and often mixed with fragments of hull, etc. Its flavor is quite second-rate 
when drunk alone, but it imparts a pleasing fragrance and delicacy when blended with 
a good "Java," etc. 

Abyssinian coffee from the vicinity of Harrar and properly called "Harrar Coffee" 
was formerly shipped via Aden as "long-berry Mocha." It is of the same color as the 
real "^locha" but is longer and more pointed and has a rank, leathery odor. 

WEST INDIAN COFFEE. 

The West Indian islands produce a large quantity of excellent coffee, but the bulk 
of the finest grades is exported to Europe, as better prices can generally be obtained 
there than in this market. The greater part of the supply shipped to this country 
comes from the British West Indies, principally from Jamaica, and Haiti, with small 
quantities from Santo Domingo, Cuba and the Dutch West Indies. 

The best Jamaica coffee, known as "Blue Mountain," is a bean of fair size, attrac- 
tive appearance and bluish color, making a full, rich, fragrant liquor, but "Plain- 
grown," the variety chiefly imported, is a much inferior grade. The bean, large, whit- 
ish and flat, is generally "hully" and the liquor is strong and rather rank or "grassy" 
in flavor. It is employed almost exclusively for blending with beans of other varieties. 

Haitian and San Domingo beans are large, flat and whitish. Their appearance is 
spoiled by crude preparation, which leaves them hully and includes broken beans, stems, 
etc., but their liquor is rich, mild and pleasant. 

The best Cnban grades come from the Guantanamo, Alquizar and San Marcos dis- 
tfiicts and the Sierra Maestra plantations. The beans are large and whitish and rather 
especially rounded on the flat side. They are generally excellent in cup quality. 

Porto Rico jiroduces very good coffee, the beans regular and well-formed, from 
yellow to greenish in color, and making a very good flavored liquor, but the product 




10 



180 . THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



goes almost exclusively to Europe. Proposed Government co-operation with the growers 
may result in stimulating traffic with this country. 

CEYLON AND INDIA. 

There are several distinct varieties of Ceylon coffees, as follows : 

"Native," grown in the lowlands — a large, fiat white bean of poor quality. 

'•I'lantation," the product of carefully cultivated modern plantations — the bean 
large, of ligUt-bluish or green tint, well developed and verj^ regular, giving a liquor which 
is smooth, rich and aromatic. 

''Liberian-Ceylon," a hybrid of the Liberian species — the bean smaller and paler 
than the parent variety and the liquor less strongybut smooth and pleasant in flavor. 

"Cej'lon-iMocha," a small bean, very even and uniform — generally obtained by 
separating from the regular "plantation" crop. Both in appearance and flavor it 
resembles the genuine "Mocha." 

Tlie two best known varieties of Indian coffee are "Malabar," a small hard bean of 
fine quality; and "Mysore," a large bluish-green beau, giving a rich, strong liquor, 
resembling "Java." 

ECUADOR.— Guayaquil. 

Coffees from Ecuador are generally known under the title of Guayaquil, from the 
general port of that name. The beans vary from medium to large, are fairly uniform in 
appearance and give good full fragrant liquor. They are quite largely shipped to the 
Pacific Coast States. 

PHILIPPINES. 

The coffee industry in the Philippines has in the past suffered from lack of proper 
cultivation, but it is only a question of time when it will fill an important position, 
for both soil and climate are admirably suitable. In spite of scanty attention and poor 
preparation, the better grades have won high esteem in European markets because of 
their rich flavor and pleasing aroma. 

Tlie beans are generally classed as Luson, ^lanila and Zainhoango, the two latter 
from the names of the shipping ports. 

Luzon is a small bean type, hard in texture and rich in cup quality. If properly 
cleaned and prepared, it would rank high. 

The Manila bean is medium in size, regular in shape and pale. green in color, with 
fine aromatic liquor. It comes principally from the districts of Cavite, Batangas, La 
i.aguna and the immediate vicinity. . .: 

Zanihoanfjo, from the Southern islands, is the poorest grade. The beans are lai^ge, 
yellowish and rather flabby and the liquor is weak and coarse. 

OTHER COUNTRIES. 

In addition to the countries referred to in the foregoing pages, there are a number 
of others which produce coffee to a considerable total, including some of very fine quality, 
but the imports into the United States are not sufiicient in volume to affect market 
conditions. 

COGNAC, pronounced Kane-Yak: the best variety of Brandy (which see). 

CQKERNUT: a method of spelling "cocoanut" introduced by the London Custom- 
ripuse, in order to distinguish more widely between this and other articles spelt much 
in the saineonaiiner and extensively used in commercial c]rcle.s — as Cocoa, Coca, etc. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



181 



COLA NUT: one of several spellings uf Kola Nut (which see). 



COLD SLAW. 



See item under heading of Slaw. 



COLD STORAGE. The cold storage system, first attempted about 1860, has grown 
to extraordinary proportions. It has reyolutionized the meat supply and extended the 
fruit seasons. It has rendered possible an uniform distribution of fresh foods through- 
out eA'ery part of the country and carried the surplus, not only of America but also of 
Australia and Russia, to the markets of Europe. It has remedied immense waste which 
was formerly unavoidable, and in countless ways improved the world's food supply. Its 
system includes a transcontinental chain of big storage houses for meats, fruits, i)oul- 
try, eggs, etc. ; refrigerator cars running from ocean to ocean, and great steamers 
especially equipped for the transoceanic transportation of perishable food products. 

The temperatures most suitable for i^reserving food products of general consump- 
tion are named elsewhere in this volume in the articles descriijtive of each. The fol- 
lowing table shows the loioest and hlgliest temperatures to which the goods mentioned 
may generally be subjected without injury under the conditions stated. Any tempera- 
ture below or above the degrees named is liable to damage them. 



Apples, in bbls., covered with straw 

Apples, loose, packed in straw 

Apricots, baskets 

Asparagus, iu boxes covered with moss 

Bananas, iu bulk and in boxes with straw 

Beans, Snap, in barrels or crates 

Beer, in kegs, packed in manure and shavings 

Beets, iu crates 

Bluing 

Cabbage, eai'ly or late, in barrels or crates 

Cauliflower, in barrels with straw 

Celery, in crates 

Cheese ' 

Cider 

Clams, in shell, in barrels 

Cocoanuts, in barrels or crates 

Crabs, in baskets and barrels 

Cucumbers, in boxes with moss 

Drugs (non-alcoholic), packed in sawdust 

Eggs, barreled or crated 

Extracts (flavoring) 

Fish, in barrels always iced 

Fish, canned 

Ginger Ale 

Grapes, packed in cork 

Grape Fruit 

Ink 

Lemons, in boxes or crates 

Lettuce, in boxes or crates 

Melons 

Milk 

Mucilage 

Mustard, French 

(Continued ov foUmmng 



Lowest Outside 
Temperature. 
Degrees Falir. 


Temperature Above 

Which Injury Occurs, 

Degrees Fahr. 


30 




75 


28 




75 


35 




70 


38 




70 


50 




90 


32 




65 


32 




75 


26 




70 


30 






25 




75 


33 




70 


10 




65 


30 




75 


22 




70 


20 




05 


30 




90 


10 




65 


32 




65 


33 




, , 


30 




80 


20 




, , 


10 




65 


18 




, , 


30 




.. 


34 




^ , 


32 




, , 


20 




, , 


32 




75 


2C 




70 


33 




80 


32 




75 


25 




. , 


36 






page.) 







182 THE GEOCER-'S ENOYCLOPEDIA 



Lowest Outside Temperature Above 

Temperature. Whicli Injury Occurs- 

Degrees Fahr. Degrees Fahr. 

Olives, in bullv, in barrels 28 

Olives, in glass 25 

Onions, in barrels, boxes or crates 20 80 

Oranges, in baskets, boxes, barrels or crates 38 80 

Oysters, in shell, in bari'els 20 65 

Oysters, shucked, in barrels 30 70 

Parsley, in baskets 33 75 

Parsnips, in baskets or barrels .■ 33 70 

Pears 32 80 

Peaches, fresh, in baskets 33 80 

Peaches, canned 20 

Peas, in baskets or barrels 33 SO 

Pickles, Brine, in bulk, in barrels 33 

Pickles, Brine, in glass : . . . . 20 

Pineapples, in barrels, in crates, or in bulk 33 75 

Plums, in boxes with paper 35 75 

Potatoes, Irish, in barrels or baskets 33 SO 

Potatoes, Sweet, in barrels or boxes 35 SO 

Preserves 30 

Radishes, in baskets 20 65 

Rice, in barrels and sacks 20 90 

Spinach, in barrels or crates 15 75 

Squashes, in crates 32 75 

Strawberries 33 65 

Tomatoes, fresh 33. 90 

Tomatoes, canned, iu boxes 28 

Turnips, late, in barrels 15 75 

Vinegar, in barrels 23 

Watermelons, in barrels and in bulk 20 85 

Waters, mineral 38 

Wines, light 33 • 

Yeast 38 65 

Foods which have had the benefit of proper care in cold storage are just as whole- 
some and nutritious as the fresh items and in a majority of cases retain their full flavor. 
They should, hoAvever, be used as speedily as possible after their removal from storage 
as they are somewhat more susceptible to "spoiling" than fresh foods — this is espe- 
cially the case with poultry and fish. 

The methods of modern refrigeration are described in the article on Ice and 
Eefeigeration. 

COLLARD: a variety of smooth-leaved cabbage whose leaves do not form a head. The 
term is also sometimes applied to the leaves of any kind of cabbage when cut very young 
for use as "greens." 

COLOR and COLORING MATTER. A great improvement has been made during 
the last few years in the class of coloring matters employed in the preparation of foods, 
candies, etc. The use of unwholesome chemicals has been practically eliminated and 
there is no longer any reason why the consumer should look suspiciously at an attrac- 
tively colored confection. Every tint desired can now be obtained in perfectly harmless 
vegetable and other extracts, supplemented by a number of coal-tar or aniline dyes ap- 
proved by the Government after painstaking analysis and investigation. 

The dyes referred to are employed in such uiinute quantities that they cannot 
harm anyone. A quarter of an ounce of "orange," for example, will give a strong yel- 
low color to 500 pounds of candy. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 183 

The animal color most used is Cochineal (red). Vegetable colors are derived prin- 
cipally from Beets, Currants, Heliotrope, Indigo, Litmus, Magenta or Fuchine, Per- 
sian Berries, Ehodites (a salt of the Rose), Safllower, Saffron, Spinach and Turmeric. 

The use of artificial coloring matter still needs — and in most states receives — very 
close inspection and regulation. There is no longer, except in very flagrant cases, 
any danger to health, but proper control is necessary to prevent commercial fraud by 
the use of colors — i. e., so improving the appearance of inferior articles as to make it 
possible to sell them at the price of better class goods. The use of colors solely to 
enhance the enjoyment of foods — as in candy, liqueurs, and many other articles — is 
entirely legitimate. To do so to conceal their inferiority, is reprehensible. 

Colors for domestic uses are retailed in both paste and liquid forms. 

COLT'S FOOT: a plant named from the shape of its leaves. It is supposed to possess 
medicinal properties, and to alleviate coughs, asthmas and chest troubles, its leaves 
being smoked as a tobacco. 

Colt's Foot Candy and Colt's Foot Rock are confections based on the herb or its 
flavor. 

COMESTIBLES : a term borrowed from the French, used in England and Continental 
Europe to embrace the entire class of edible goods. 

COMFITS : "Pan- Work" candies, such as Sugared Almonds, with a distinctive center 
covered by successive coats of sugar (see Candy). 

COMPOTE. See list of Culinary Terms in Appendix. 

COMPRESSED VEGETABLES : vegetables evaporated at a comparatively low tem- 
perature, from 120° to 140° Fahr., until they are well shrunk but have not become 
brittle, then spread in layers and compressed into cakes about V2 inch thick. The 
cakes are frequently stamped into "one-ration" tablets of about 1 ounce each. They 
are very useful under some conditions, but unless carefully and successfully prepared 
they are liable to have too strong a "hay" flavor to be generally liked. 

COMPRESSED YEAST: the most powerful of all fermenting agents in domestic 
life, was introduced from Germany about 1862, and has grown in popularity until 
thousands of wagons make the daily rounds of the grocery stores to supply fresh cakes, 
and exchange the stale. See article on Yeast. 

COMUS: the "god of revelry." The luxuries of the table are called the "gifts of 
Comus." 

CONCORD CLARET: a wine of claret type from the Concord grape. 

CONCORD GRAPES, See general article on Grapes. 

CONDENSED or EVAPORATED MILK. The invention of the process of condens- 
ing milk is generally attributed to Gail Borden in 1856, but some authorities assert 
that it was invented in Switzerland. In view of the enormous present dimensions of 



184 THE GEOCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the industry, it is interesting to note tliat the Patent Oliice Examiners were with diffi- 
culty induced to grant a patent because they insisted that milk could not be evapo- 
rated in a vacuum. 

It was the exigencies of the Civil War which first secured national recognition for 
condensed milk and advertised its merits throughout the world. It soon after be- 
came a commodity of universal use on ocean steamers and in mines, forests and con- 
struction camps, reaching ultimately every nook and corner of the universe. 

There are to-day more than tAvo hundred factories in the United States, all using 
the vacuum process. The industry consumes yearly more than 600,000,000 pounds of 
tiuid milk and the product totals to betAveen five and six million cases of forty-eight 
cans each. 

The fundamental requirement of all flrst-class condensed milk is absolutely pure 
milk produced under the most hygienic conditions. As typical of the pains taken to 
ensure this, one may take the contract between a first-class factory and the farmer. It 
is full of all manner of stringent conditions. The factory binds itself to take an average 
of so many pounds of milk per day for each month of the year, at so much per hundred 
pounds — the price being higher during the winter tlian during the other months. The 
farmer, on his part, agrees that his cows shall be fed upon particular food, that they 
shall not eat turnips, brewery or distillery grain, or any other food that will impart a 
disagreeable flavor to the milk or reduce its richness ; to hold the milk room at a cer- 
tain temperature, and with a certain amount of ventilation; that the cows shall be kept 
clean and groomed ; that the cans shall be washed and placed in the sun when they are 
not in use, and that they shall be turned down, bottom upwards, on a rack at least three 
feet from the ground ; that he will report any sickness in his animals, employes or fam- 
ily, etc. In short, every possible precaution, including traveling inspectors, to see that 
all requirements are fulfilled, is taken to secure proper care and cleanliness. It is in 
these respects that milk used for making condensed milk is generally superior to the 
ordinary store milk. 

To fully appreciate the principle employed in the manufacture of condensed milk, 
one must remember that the composition of milk includes from 84% to 90% water 
(see article on Milk). Any desired part of this water can be extracted without taking 
anything from its food value, for the latter is found in the fats, milk-sugar, casein, 
etc., all of which remain in the condensed or evaporated product. 

In the manufacture of Stveetened Condensed Milk, the liquid milk is strained, 
cleansed in centrifugal separators, heated to the proper temperature to expel the gases of 
the milk and destroy the germs, again strained, mixed with a certain quantity of standard 
granulated sugar and run into vacuum pans where it is "condensed" by evaporation — • 
boiling in a vacuum at a \qyj low temperature — of part of its water contents. It is 
then ready for canning. 

The vacuum pan employed is an egg-shaped copi^er vessel heated by interior steam 
coils and an outside steam-jacket around the lower portion. In one side of the dome is 
a small window, through which a light illuminates the interior, and opposite is an eye- 
glass through which the condition of the contents may be observed. The pan is also pro- 
vided with a vacuum gauge, test sticks, etc. 

Good sweetened condensed milk will keep for years, but all kinds will gradually 
thicken in time — poor brands naturally becoming thick and hard far sooner than well 
made full-ci'eam products. The cases should not be stored near boilers, steam pipes or 
any extreme heat. At home, as a can seldom outlasts the day, it is not likely to spoil. 



THE grocer's 10 N C Y C L P E D I a 185 

but the best j^lace foi" it is iu the refrigerator, so covered as to prevent it from absorb- 
ing the flavors of meats, etc. 

The Unsiveetened Condensed Milk, largely used for city consumption and delivered 
iu bottles, is made by the same method as the Sweetened except that the sugar is omitted. 
It is not intended for long keeping. 

Evaporated Milk is the trade designation for milk, without sugar addition, evapo- 
rated in vacuum pans to the consistence of cream, then run over cooling pipes and 
into cans and immediately sealed, followed by the same "cooking" for sterilization pur- 
poses as any other canned goods. The result is an unsweetened product which will 
keep good almost indefinitely. After coming from the sterilizer, the cans are agitated 
iu a shaking machine which breaks up the fat globules and are then stored in warm 
rooms until "cured" to the right degree. 

Though the same principle is employed in all condensed and evaporated milks, 
there is plenty of room for discrimination iu jjurchasing different varieties. The best 
grades should be creamy-white, smooth, free from a "cooked" taste, of just the right 
consistence, etc. Furthermore, there is a wide range in food values, for the latter 
naturally depend on the amount of water extracted. 

Evaporated milk of good quality is, when diluted with two-thirds of its bulk of pure 
fresh water, almost if not quite the equal of fresh milk. 

U. S. "Standard" Condensed or Evaporated Milk must contain not less than 7% of 
milk fat and not less than 28% of milk solids, including milk fat. 

CONDIMENTS: substances taken with food to season or improve its flavor, or to 
render it more Avholesome or digestible. They include such articles of general con- 
sumption as salt, vinegar, spices, etc. A majority of them, in moderation, stimulate 
both appetite and digestion, but their excessive use tends to vitiate the gastric juice and 
injure the stomach. 

CONFECTIONERY. See article under heading of Candy. 

CONSERVE : a word often used as of the same meaning as "preserves," but really a 
term of pharmacy or of candy making. Conserves are fresh flowers, fruits, roots, etc., 
preserved by beating with powdered sugar to the consistence of stiff paste, the object 
being to retain as much as possible of the natural properties of the raw fruit, etc. Tlie 
conserves of the candy maker are made for consumption as sweetmeats; those of the 
druggist are frequently employed as a vehicle for medicines. To the working confec- 
tioner, the term "conserves" means sugar and added ingredients so cooked as not to 
produce a "grainy" effect. 

/ 
CONSOMME. See sub-head in article on Soups. 

COOKERY. The fundamental principles of cookery may for general consideration 
be divided as following under the headings of Par-boiling, Boiling, Steaming, Stewing, 
Roasting and Baking, Broiling, Frying and Sauter. 

Par-boiling is a process principally designed to improve the appearance of poultry, 
tongues, etc. It imparts a whiter color and softens some items, while adding firmness 
to others (as Sweetbreads). The usual method is to put the article in cold water, 



186 THE GROCEK'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

gradually raise the temperature to the boiling point, then take it out, plunge in cold 
water and leave there until quite cold. It is later removed and wiped dry, prepara- 
tory to dressing. 

Par-boiling meat, although it renders it more sightly, lessens the nutritive quali- 
ties by abstracting a portion of the soluble salts which it contains, especially the phos- 
phates, and thus deprives it of one of the principal features which distinguish fresh 
from salted meat. Animal food, before being dressed, may be washed or rinsed in cold 
water without injury, provided it be quickly done ; but it cannot be soaked in water 
at any temperature much below the boiling point without the surface, and the parts 
near it, being rendered less nutritious. 

The term "blanching" (which see) is sometimes but incorrectly employed in place 
of ''par-boiling." 

Boiling, in the general culinary acceptance of the word, is the simplest and, when 
properly performed, the most economical method of Cooking, as the cooked flesh and 
the accompanying broth represent practically the entire nutritive value of the raw food. 

The actual boiling temperature, 212° Fahr., should be maintained, throughout the 
cooking of all green and a majority of other vegetables, but in the cooking of meats it 
should be restricted to the first five or ten minutes — after that, the meat should be 
"simmered" at a temperature of 175° to 185° Fahr. The first few minutes' boiling 
coagulates the albumen in the surface of the meat, forming a kind of hard envelope 
which prevents an excessive amount of the nutritive elements escaping into the water 
— then the "simmering" cooks the inside but leaves it tender, as the heat which reaches 
it is not high enough to harden it as the outside "envelope" is hardened when the 
water is allowed to boil. The pot should always be covered to avoid loss by evapora- 
tion, and the food should always be kept covered with water — if more water is required 
to take the place of that lost by evaporation, hot water should be added so as to avoid 
changing the temperature. 

Fresh meat for boiling should always be put into boiling tvater; salt meats into 
cold water. 

No exact rules can be given as to the time required to boil foods, properly, but mod- 
erate care and judgment will nearly always suffice to determine this point. 

( See also additional suggestions at the end of the article on Beef and in the article 
on Vegetables. ) 

Boiling Meat for Broth. When strong broth is desired more than the meat itself, 
the meat should be put into cold loater, as that permits a large part of the nutritive 
ingredients to escape into the water, then gradually brought to a boil and thereafter 
simmered until done. See also article on Meat Extract. 

Steaming: is slower than boiling, but with proper utensils it is considered especially 
desirable for the cooking of small pieces of meat and some vegetables and puddings. 

Stewing follows the same theories as "Boiling," for it is nothing more nor less than 
"simmering" in a smaller quantity of liquid the meat and liquid being served together 
as a "stew" instead of separately as "boiled meat" and "soup" or "broth." 

It offers the great economic advantage that, properly performed, it will render 
tender, palatable and nutritious the coarser, cheaper parts which would seem undesira- 
ble if broiled, roasted or baked. 



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CORN 



THE GROCER^S ENCYGLOPEDIA 189 



The meat choseu should have little fat, the cooking should be slow and easy, the 
scum and fat should be removed occasionally and the pot or pan should always be 
covered. The meat is frequently partly fried ("browned") or par-boiled before setting 
to stew. 

Roasting and Baking. Old-fashioned "roasting" consisted in cooking meats on a spit 
before an open fire, as still done in England, but in this country the term is now 
applied almost exclusively to meat cooked in the oven. The term "baked," formerly 
applied to all foods cooked in the oven, is now confined to fish, vegetables, etc., as "baked 
weakfish," "baked potatoes," etc. — meats such as beef, lamb, etc., are similarly cooked 
but are known as "roast beef," "roast lamb," etc. 

"Roasting" involves a considerable loss of weight, but it has always been and still 
remains one of the most popular methods. 

The chief points to be observed are : 

(1) To keep the oven clean. 

(2) To regulate the temperature to avoid both waste of time by too slow cook- 

ing and poor results by excessive heat. 

(3) That the greatest heat should be for only the first ten minutes, to obtain the 

outside "envelope" of coagulated albumen to retain the juices — as men- 
tioned under the head of Boiling — and then should be more moderate — and 
steady. 

(4) That the meat must be basted frequently, as this greatly assists in the cook- 

ing, keeps the meat juicy and improves the flavor. 
Both roasting and baking develop the meat extractives or flavor to a high extent, 
lightening the meat at the same time by the melting of some of the interleaved fat and 
changing some of the connective tissues into gelatine. 

Braising is a popular French method which may be described as a combination of 
roasting and stewing. Small joints or pieces of meat are placed in a "braiser" — a shal- 
low stewpan with a closely- fitting, grooved lid — and the cooking, very slowly done, is 
started on top of the range and finished in the oven. 

The braiser is always lined with a "mirepoix," a layer of slices of bacon or ham, 
vegetables, herbs, etc., and the meat is generally moistened with stock — broth of meats, 
vegetables, etc. — or stock and wine. Delicate meats are protected by covering with 
buttered paper. The result is a very savory and aromatic dish. 

Broiling is the principle of old-fashioned roasting applied to smaller pieces of meat. 
Important points to be remembered are: 

(1) To keep the gridiron clean and well greased. 

(2) To have a clear, bright fire. 

(3) To season the meat before putting it on the gridiron. 

(4) To quickly harden both sides to avoid loss of juices. 

(5) To avoid dropping fat into the fire, as this results in jerky, smoky flames 

which are liable to spoil the flavor of the meat. 

(6) Not to over-cook. 

Frying has been erroneously described as "boiling in fat" — in effect it more nearly cor- 
responds to the principle of roasting, as fat or oil attains a much higher temperature 



190 



THE GEOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



than water and more effectually seals the outside of the meat, etc., being cooked. 

"Dry frying" signifies the use of only a small quantity of fat or oil. 

"Deep" or "wet" frying is the use of sufficient fat or oil to cover the article being 
cooked. Butter is not suitable for deep frying as it is liable to burn before the food 
is cooked. Olive and other high-class vegetable oils of similar character, do not offer 
this objection. 

Care should be taken to avoid over-frying as the result is to make foods very indi- 
gestible. 

Sauter means "to toss." The food is "tossed" by moving the pan quickly back and for- 
ward over a brisk fire. When applied to meats, it is practically the same as "dry fry- 
ing." When applied to items such as French peas, for example, the "tossing" is con- 
tinued only long enough to heat them through. 

COON: a colloquial form of Raccoon (which see). 

COPRA: the meat of the cocoanut, dried. See Cocoanut. 

CORDIALS. See general article on Liquexjes. 




CORDON BLEU, "Blue Ribbon" : a term applied to a first-class cook, generally to 
female cooks. The "Blue Ribbon" originally represented an ancient French order of 
Knighthood and was first conferred upon a female cook by King 
Louis XV at the suggestion of Madame Du Barry. 

CORDON ROUGE, "Red Ribbon" : a culinary distinction 
granted by an English society to clever cooks, both men and 
women, and others who have invented valuable methods of pre- 
paring foods, etc. 

CORIANDER SEED: the fruit of a small plant, growing 
chiefly in the south of Europe. It is used as a culinary flavor, 
especially for curries, in confectionery, and to aromatise spiritu- 
ous liquors. 

Coriander 

CORK: is the outer layer of the bark of a species of oak tree which grows in Southern 

Europe and along the North African coast. It is principally 
cultivated in Spain and Portugal, those two countries furnish- 
, ing the greater part of the world's supply. 

f. The first stripping is taken when the tree is from fifteen 

'^'' ', to twenty years old, the cork bark being subsequently removed 

«, every eight to ten years. The first two "crops" though are of 

%_ poor quality and are suitable only for coarser commercial 

purposes. The bark for bottle corks is not obtainable until the 
third stripping and each coat thereafter is generally better and 
finer than the one preceding. 

The stripping takes place during the months of July and 
August, the bark being taken off in sections. After removal, it is scraped and cleaned 




Cork Tree 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



191 



aud then flatteued b}" beatiug and pressing. It is then ready for manufacture or 
exportation. 

For making "corlvs" for bottles, the cork is cut into strips and the strips into 
sqiiares about the size of the particular cork desired. The squares are rounded and 
shaped b^^ a broad sharp knife — bj' hand, for no machine has as yet been able to give 
continuous satisfaction. 

In addition to its use for closing bottles, cork lends itself to a variety of other 
purjioses — for life belts and jackets, hat and shoe linings, artificial limbs, archi- 
tectural models, etc. The chips and cuttings are ground up and used in the manufac- 
ture of linoleum, etc. Old corks of all kinds have, consequently, real value and should 
not be thrown aAvay. 

So numerous are the commercial possibilities ,of cork, that in spite of the large 
annual production, the supply is never equal to the demand — prices are continually 
growing higher and substitutes are used wherever practicable. 

CORKSCREW. A grocer who sells bottled goods and has no corkscrews in his stock, 
is short-sighted. They can often be sold to ladies, especially the Patent Lever types 
which involve no strain in pulling the cork. That a grocer must have one corkscrew ad- 
mits of no question — customers naturally expect to have their purchases opened if they 
request it. A five-cent corkscrew readily given with a purchased bottle, especially to 
a new customer, will very often be much appreciated. The more easily a bottle, or 
can, is opened, the more quickly it is consumed, and the sooner the grocer may expect 
another order! 



CORN. The title "corn" is used in a general way to designate all the principal grains 
— wheat, rye, etc. — but as particularly applied in this country it refers to "Indian Corn" 
or "Maize" — the most beautiful and luxuriant of all grain "grasses," resembling rather 
the sugar cane of the tropics than other cereals, and the most abundant in product. It 
is native to this country and was used as food by the Indians centuries before the era of 
Columbus, and probably by the civilization which antedated the "Red Jfan." 

Corn is lower in protein than hard wheat and oats, but is fully equal in that 
respect to other grains and it surpasses many in the proportion of fat or oil. It 
does not make as good bread for general purposes as wheat because of its smaller pro- 
portion of gliadin, but otherwise its use as a food ranks very high in national importance 
- — being enjoyed in a great variety of styles — coarse groimd into hominy, cornmeal, 
etc., and boiled as "hominy," "mush" or "hasty pudding," or baked in hoe-cakes, johnny- 
cakes, corn bread and muffins, converted 
into syrup, ground fine as "corn-starch" 
for puddings, etc., eaten green — boiled 
with beans to make "succotash" or "on 
the cob," and canned for use when "green 
corn" is unobtainable — and very often 
preferably when it is. 

The consumption of canned corn has 
grown to very large proportions, the 
annual output of the State of Maine alone 
reaching about twenty-three million cans 
a year. 3Iaryland, New York, Indiana, 

Sweet Corn 



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192 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



Ohio and other States are also constantly increasing the big totals of their products. 
The average annual crop of corn in the United States is about 3,000,000,000 
bushels. This staggering total is variously utilized. Part of it is employed in the starch, 
brewery, whisky, glucose and other industries and part in the food products already 
mentioned, but the bulk is transformed into meat — for corn is our most important live 
stock food, rounding out the steer and putting fat on the hog. Comparatively little 
is exported as grain, but a very large quantity, an annual value of a great many million 
dollars, in the form of meat products — cattle and swine on the hoof, fresh, salted and 
canned, and lard and various other items. 



The greater part of the 'Afield corn'- 



is of the "Dent" species, sub-divided 



into innumerable varieties, but capable of a general grouping into two classes — "yel- 
low" and "white." It is this field corn which is used in the manufacture of cornmeal, 
hominy, corn-starch, corn syrup, etc., and for cattle food. 

Of the other kinds, the best known commercially are "sweet corn" — grown prin- 
cipally for canning and for green corn "on the cob," and pop-corn (which see). 

Sweet corn is distinguished by its crinkled, semi-transparent appearance when 
dry. When cut for green corn, it should always be consumed as soon as possible after 
picking as it deteriorates rapidly in holding. The husks should be bright and fresh look- 
ing. Wilted or partly dried specimens should be avoided. 

The corn grain may be divided into the germ (the oily part), the endosperm (the 
body of the corn, consisting principally of starch, together with some gluten ) , and the 
hull or "bran." In the manufacture of corn products such as starch, syrup, etc., the 
initial step is the separation of these parts by steeping, grinding, etc. 

The germs are used in the manufacture of Corn Oil (see following). 

The hulls are mixed with the water used in steeping the corn before separation, 
and the water containing the gluten separated from the starch of the kernel (see 
Starch), the product being used as cattle-feed. 

From the starch are produced three principal varieties of products : 

(1) Dry starches of various qualities, both edible and laundry. 

(2) Corn syrups and corn sugars of divers grades (see Corn Sugar, Corn Syrup 
and Glucose). 

(3) Dextrins (see Dextrin). 

The Corn Products Refining Company furnish the following table, giving in detail 
the trade products of the grain. See also Color Pages, opposite and facing 186. 



GERM 



^^JHb. 



HULL 



OSPERM 



STARCH 



OIL CAKE 

(Cattle Feed; 



Corn Oil 



Rubber 
Substitute 



STARCH 



& GLUTEN 



GLUTEN 



N. P. Corn Syrup 
export corn syrup 
70 Sugar 
80 Sugar 
Anhydrous sugar 

Corn & Cane Syrups 

I 

Table Syrups 



Dextrines 

WHITE 

Sp white 

CANARY 

Sp, dark Canary 
american gum 
British Gum 



Dry Starches 



HULL 

\ 

Gluten Feed 
(FOR Cattle) 



PEARL 

POWDERED 

LAUNDRY 

THIN BOILING CONFECTIONERS 

THIN BOILING LAUNDRY 

CORN Starch 

IVORY STARCH 

GRITS 




SWEET CORN 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 195 



CORN FLOUR: made from white corn, is used in the manufacture of many pancake 
flour mixtures, and also to some extent by bakers and confectioners for dusting 
purposes. 

CORNMEAL: is made from both yellow aud white corn. The principal divisions are 
into "bolted"' and "granulated." The Granulated represents the harder part of the 
corn, which remains granulated after grinding. The Bolted is the softer part which 
passes through the bolting cloths. 

White cornmeal of both classes is used extensively in the South, for cooking, 
baking, etc. The White Bolted is used in the North also by bakers and confectioners 
for dusting purposes, and in some parts to a considerable extent in the making of corn 
bread. 

Yellow Granulated is consumed in large quantities in the Northern States, but is 
seldom seen in the South, where the White Meal is almost universally preferred. 

Yellow Bolted is used in the manufacture of Brown Bread, etc., and is exported 
to the West Indies for native consumption. 

Cornmeal varies with the quality of the corn used and quickly deteriorates in 
warm weather or in heated houses. When fresh ground and promptly consumed, it 
has a much better flavor than when held in stock. In many country houses the care- 
ful housewife puts a large round stone in the center of the cornmeal firkin to prevent 
the meal from "heating." 

In Italy, cornmeal mush called "Polenta" is the principal article of peasant diet 
for many months of the year. 

CORN OIL: used in various degrees of refinement as a cooking and edible oil, in the 
manufacture of soap, lubricating oil, oil cloth, rubber substitute, etc., is made from 
the germs, which, after separation from the body and hull of the grain, are dried, ground 
and pressed into cakes, to be later subjected to high pressure, the oil running out into 
collecting tanks. When pure it is golden yellow in color and marked by a pleasing 
taste and aroma somewhat suggestive of freshly ground grain. 

The residue of corn oil extraction is pressed into oil cakes, to be used as cattle 
food, etc. 

CORN SALAD: also called Fetticus, Field Salad, Fat Hen, Lamb's Quarter, Marsh 
Salad, Hog Salad and Doucette : a salad plant, found in numerous varieties and known 
locally by many names. Several kinds form "rosettes," others resemble Seed Lettuce in 
appearance and growth. It makes an especially good salad mixed with lettuce, the 
outer stalks of celery or sliced beets, giving a slightly bitter taste which is generally 
very well liked. 

CORN-STARCH : used in the manufacture of puddings, etc., is made from the raw 
starch of corn by breaking it up, washing and siphoning repeatedly, running over 
refining sieves of fine silk which remove any particles of fibre still adhering, putting 
through various refining processes, drying until the content of water has been reduced 
to only about 10% and finally pulverizing. 

CORN SUGAR or Gommercial Dextrose, etc. : used in the manufacture of caramel or 
sugar coloring, beer, vinegar, etc., is made in the same manner as Corn Syrup except 



196 THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



that the evaporation is carried on for a longer time. Tlie end product is run into 
barrels or other receptacles where it crystallizes, and is then shipped either solid in the 
barrels or broken up by chipping machinery. See also "Commercial Dextrose" in 
article on Glucose. 

CORN SYRUP, or Coiamercial Qliccose, etc.: is used as table syrup (see Syrup); 
in confectionery, baking, etc. (see Glucose), and in the manufacture of jams, vinegar 
and various other food products, in addition to the large quantity employed in other 
industries. In manufacture, raw (corn) starch is mixed with water to form what is 
known as "starch milk," then a small quantitj^ of hydrochloric or muriatic acid is 
added and the whole is run into "converters" — large closed copper vessels, where steam 
is applied under about 40 pounds pressure, quickly changing the starch into a mixture 
of glucose and dextrose. The product is next run into a tank where alkali is added 
to neutralize the acid used and the liquid is tlien filtered and decolorized by passing 
through bone-black, in much the same way as cane sugar is purified, and finally evapo- 
rated to the proper consistence in vacuum pans. 

CORNED BEEF, Pork, Etc.: meat preserved with brine. 

Good grade corned beef is made from the rump, chuck and plate ( See article on 
Beef). It should consist exclusively of meat cut from young cattle in good condition. 
If canned, it should be well trimmed, the skinny and connective tissues removed and 
freed from gristle, bone, blood clots and excessive fat. No soft fat at all should be 
included. It should not contain more than about one thirty-second of jelly — which 
should be made only from soup stock and bones — and should not shoAV excessive liquor 
when opened. 

For Corned, or PicJcled, Pork, see article on PORiv. 

CORNED BEEF HASH: as put up in canned form, consists of about 50% corned 
beef and 50% vegetables, chiefly potatoes and onions, seasoned with pepper and salt. 

COS LETTUCE. See item under title of Eomaine. 

COSTERMONGER: a term applied to a person selling any kind of food — fruits, 
fish, vegetables, etc. — in the street from barrows or carts. The title is a corruption of 
"Costard Monger" or "Costard Seller," Costard being an Old English name for "apple" 
— first applied to a special variety, but later to any kind. 

COTTOLENE : a frying and shortening material resembling lard, made from cotton- 
seed stearin (see Cottonseed Oil) with enough beef suet added to give it the desired 
consistence. 

COTTON. Crude cotton is the soft, woolly fibre contained in the seed "boll" of the 
cotton-plant. The boll bursts when ripe, presenting then the appearance of a small 
bunch of cotton-wool attached to the dried calyx. The fibre varies from one-half inch to 
two inches in length, is either white or yellow in color and is variously named from the 
land on which it is cultivated, the place of production, etc., as Upland Cotton, Sea 
Island Cotton, Florida Cotton, etc. The seeds scattered through the fibre are extracted 
bv means of the machine known as the cotton-gin. 



THE GUOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



197 



COTTONSEED, Flour, Meal, Oil. Cottonseed comes from 
the giu with short soft liut still adhering- to the shells. Its 
general commercial treatment produces from each hundred 
pounds, about 46 pounds of lint and shells, 36 pounds of oil 
cake or "cake" and 16 pounds of crude oil. The lint is mar- 
keted as cotton batting, etc., the shells are used as fuel and 
fertilizer, the oil-cake as fertilizer and cattle-feed, and the oil 
for edible purposes, soap manufacture, machinery uses, etc. 

The seed, when freed from the down, somewhat resembles 
a small coffee-bean in size and form. 




Cotton Plant— the lower bolls 
ready for gathering: 



Cottonseed flour, or (whole) meal. The ground whole 
cottonseed has in recent years attracted attention as a valua- 
ble food material. The decorticated seed contains an average 
of 10 fc water, 19% protein, 20% fat, 24% carbohydrates, 22% 
fibre and 5% ash (see Food Values). It is too rich to be suit- 
able for use as a substitute for wheat flour in bread, for ex- 
ample, but it may be advantageously eniployed in combination with it or other flour. 

Cottonseed Oil, when thoroughly refined for edible purposes, serves as an excellent 
and inexpensive substitute for olive oil in cooking. It is also largely used as a salad 
oil, for packing sardines and other products, etc. "Choice" oil is of a light lemon 
color and mild and neutral in flavor. "Prime" oil is slightly darker in color and is sweet 
in flavor but without any seedy taste. Coitonseed Stearin, used in the manufacture 
of cottolene, compound lard, etc., is obtained by separation from the reflned oil. The 
lower grades of oil and the residue separated in reflniug, employed for mechanical pur- 
poses, soap manufacture, etc., are reddish or brownish and unpleasant in flavor. 

The value of the oil obtainable from the average American cotton crop is estimated 
at nearly one hundred million dollars, yet less than a hundred years ago the bulk of 
the seed was treated as a waste article and considered troublesome because of the 
difficulty of disposing of it. The real importance of the present extensive industry 
commenced with the still more I'ecent date of 1855, when improved methods of decorti- 
cating the seeds were invented. Part of the seed has always been employed as a fertili- 
zer, but even the full exploitation of its oil possibilities would not interfere with this use, 
as experience warrants the belief that the cotton-meal residue, after the extraction of 
the oil, is nearly or quite as valuable for fertilizing purposes as the whole seed. 

COUMARIN: the flavoring principle of the Tonka Bean (which see). 

CRABS : the most popular of all crustaceans. They are found in great variety, some 
existing entirely in the sea, others in shallow water, both fresh and salt, and yet others 
on land. They multiply rapidly and are in season all the year. At the mouth of the 
Chesapeake, the beach is often covered for miles with a layer of crabs a hundred feet 
wide, driven ashore by the wind during weather cold enough to partly numb them. 

In this country the type principally consumed is the Blue Crab, but we also en- 
joy, particularly as a garnish, the tiny Oyster-Crab — which makes its home within the 
oyster shell, but is nevertheless a true crab. The Hermit Crab is another small soft- 
tailed variety which makes its home in univalves or single shells, as the Oyster Crab 



198 THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

in bivalves. As food, the two important divisions of Blue Crab existence are into Hard 
Crabs and ^oft Shell Grabs. 

Soft Shell Crabs, in season from April or May (according to the season) to October 
15, are those which have just cast off their shells.. At one stage they are called SJied- 
ders. They come to market packed in seaweed, and should be kept moist, and in such a 
position that the gills are always wet. 

The male crab has a long white narrow tail turned around its under part. The 
female has a broad, brownish feathery tail. The meat principally eaten is that from 
the inner top of the back and the claws. The center of the body is filled with the liver, 
a soft yellow substance which is not generally consumed, but which some people con- 
sider a delicacy, especially when mixed with the eggs or "coral" of the crab. 

Canned Crab Meat: is a convenient and desirable article for salad and similar 
purposes. The best packing is that in which the tender white "lump" pieces predomi- 
nate or are exclusively used. Other grades consist chiefly of the smaller, but also very 
delicate, "flakes" and claw meat. An increasing quantity is imported from Japan. 
The crab catch on the Chesapeake and the canning of the meat are thus described : 
"Each of the boats carries six hundred feet of lines, anchors, buoys, etc. Small 
lateral lines are attached to the main line at intervals of eighteen inches. To these 
the bait is attached — tripe generally being used. At stated periods the boats are visited 
by a larger one which collects the catch and carries it to the factory. There the crabs 
are carefully assorted, and any that may have died during the trip are thrown out. 
Those that pass the inspection are placed in latticed cars, each holding two hundred and 
fifty dozens. The cars are run into steaming tanks and sixty pounds of steam is in- 
stantly turned on. Each individual crab, with one spasmodic twist, immediateh' relin- 
quishes all earthly ambitions and dies, that man may profit by his involuntary sacrifice. 
There is no lingering torture, as in the old-fashioned way of boiling, to cause the meat 
to become fevered and soggy — it leaves the shell as white, sweet and dry as it is possi- 
ble to get it. After the steaming the crabs are passed to the 'strippers.' These, stand- 
ing before the trough of clear, cold water, dexterously remove the top shell, viscera, 
etc., and after carefulh^ washing each crab pass it to the pickers, who occupy long 
tables running the length of the house. The meat is here picked out into half-gallon 
buckets to the tune of 'We'll Put John on the Island!' and 'I'm Traveling to My Grave,' 
a hundred colored voices taking up the refrain. Afterwards it is weighed and care- 
fully examined to see that it is clear of shell — if not up to the standard, it is returned 
to the picker. From the weigher it goes to the canning-room, where it is packed in one 
and two pound cans, and then passed to tlie process room, sealed and cooked. Every 
can is afterward examined to see that it is perfect. If found so, it is varnished, 
wrapped in a handsome label and packed two dozen in a case, ready for market. Thus 
packed, it will keep for an almost imlimited time in any climate." 

CRAB APPLE: the parent from which all the varieties of 
the cultivated apple have sprung. It is a small fruit, about 
one inch in diameter, having a harsh, acid taste, which renders 
it almost uneatable when raAv. It is generally used for making 
preserves and jellies. 

CRACKERS. See general article on Biscuits. ^^^^ ^^p,^ 




T H E G E C E II ' S E X C Y C L P E I) I A 



199 



CRACKNEL or Egg Biscuit: a high-class plain biscuit made in various shapes, all 
thicker than the average biscuit but extremely light, very finely grained and of a pecu- 
liarly smooth and shiny surface. As only first-grade wheat fiour, eggs and a small 
percentage of sugar enter into their manufacture — no water or other moistening 
being added — they are valued as a delicate and nutritious food. 






\ 










Cranberries -"Bugle," "Bell' 
"Cherry" types 



and 



CRANBERRY: a small acid fruit, growing in boggy and marshy ground, largely 
used for making tarts, sauces, jelly, etc. Four varieties 
are generally recognized — tlie Cherry, the Olive, the 
Bugle and the Bell, their titles being more or less de- 
scriptive of their shape. 

The berries were first cultivated at Gape Cod, and 
Massachusetts is still the largest producing state. The 
markets also receive large quantities from New Jersey 
and Wisconsin, and small supplies from several other 
states. The soil for producing them must be a marsh 
of muck or peat that can be drained a foot below the 
surface and is capable of being flooded in winter to pro- 
tect the roots. '' 

In the districts where they are grown extensively, the cranberry "picking season'' 
is a bonanza to every man, woman and child. The pickers are generally paid about 
75 cents a biishel. Two bushels is considered an average day's work, but experts often 
gather five, and sometimes seven bushels. 

In Germanj and some parts of the United States, the berries are gathered with a 
wooden comb, but the best method is to 
comb them off with the extended fingers. 
This does less injury to the fruit and to 
the plant. 

More money has been made and more 
lost in the culture of cranberries than in 
almost any other berry. Too frequently 
the crop is a total failure. The cranberry 
worm devastates the bushes, or an early 
frost kills the berries. 

Cranberries vary widely in price. 
They are at times so cheap that it is in- 
teresting to know that if all soft berries 
are picked out, the remainder can be kept 
sound for months by putting them in jars, 
covering with water, setting in a cool place and occasionally replenishing the water. 

Medium-sized berries are generally more solid and therefore keep better than tlnise 
that are especially large. Great care should be taken in cool weather to avoid buying 
berries which have been bitten by frost. 

The fruit of the High Bush Cranberry, or Cranberry Tree, which attains a height 
of eight to twelve feet, resembles the ordinary cranberry in flavor and general appear- 
ance but it is smaller and contains only one seed. In spite of its similarity, it is not 
related to the cranberry proper, belonging instead to the same species as the old- 
fashioned Snowball Bush. 




'OOD A uNDEEwoon. >, 



Gathering Cranberries, Mass. 



11 



200 THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

CRAYFISH or Crawfish: a diminutive lobster found plentifully in our rivers and 
in season from September to April. It is popular as a garniture because of its form 
and color, and the flesh from its tail foi'ms many delicate entrees, salads, etc. 

CREAM : the fatty element of milk. In good rich milk the proportion varies from 
one-fifth to one-third. The proportion in milk sold by different dealers is usually 
easily ascertained by putting a sample of each in bottles or tubes and letting them stand 
undisturbed for forty-eight hours — the difference in color will distinguish the cream 
from the milk, and show the relative quantities contained. Most of the cream sold as 
such is now separated from the milk by centrifugal separators instead of allowing it 
to rise. 

U. S. Standard cream must contain not less than 18% milk fat. State standards 
vary from 15% to 20%. Good cream by natural separation will average about 22%. 
By centrifugal separation it can be made to vary from very "light," as low as 9%, to 
very "heavy," as high as 55%. 

CREAM CHEESE. See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 

CREAM NUT: one of several names for the Brazil Nut (which see). 

CREAMERY: an establishment for the manufacture of butter, etc., from cream 
obtained from the farmers of the neighborhood. The product is sold and quoted as 
"Creamery" or "Creameries." See Butter. 

CREAM OF TARTAR: is refined Argol, or Tartar, a substance found in the juice 
of grapes and obtained as a precipitate after its fermentation. It has an acid, cooling 
taste, and is used in the preparation of summer drinks, as an aid in raising bread and 
cakes, etc. Its sale by grocers has been greatly lessened by the increase in the popular 
use of baking powders. 

There are usually from one to three inches of dark "grounds" or lees at the bottom 
of a full barrel of new wine after it has stood long enough to settle. After a certain 
time, the lees are removed in a "cake" and then dried and broken up till they are about 
the size of common sand and of a pinkish tinge, like the "tailings" of a Nevada quartz 
mill. This product is sold to tartar manufacturers. 

In refining, the powdered lees is put into vats of hot water, cooked for about two 
hours and then run off into shallow receivers around which the crystals speedily form 
in a thick mass. The same water is used repeatedly as it always holds a certain quantity 
of tartar in solution. 

Tartar from mne that has been cleared with plaster is richest in Tartaric Acid, 
while that formed in wine that is cleared with eggs is richest in Cream of Tartar. The 
tartar takes a tinge of pink or cream, as the wine in which it forms is red or "white." 

Cream of Tartar is generally adulterated, sometimes to the extent of two-thirds or 
three-fourths of the bulk sold. As a majority of the articles added are insoluble earths, 
it can be tested by boiling it in water eighty times its own bulk — if any sedi- 
ment remains, it is not pure. 

CREME, "Cream" : a name applied to many compound spirits and liqueurs, as Crdme 
de Mentlie, etc. (see Liqueurs). See also article on Soups. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 201 

\ 

CREME DE MENTHE, "Cream of Mint" : a popular liqueur of peppermint flavor, 
some varieties coutaining also other aromatic principles. It is put up in "white," 
green and red colors and is generally sold iu bottles of fancy shape. 

CRESCENTS: (1) rolls of Vienna Bread dough in crescent shape; (2) shapes of 
Genoese Cake with water icing of various colors; (3) a kind of French bonbon. 

CRESS, or Pepper Grass : a name applied to a number of pungent flavored plants of 
the mustard family, used as a condiment, for garnishing and in salads, etc. The leaves 
of the common varieties are very much divided and frequently curled. Those of the 
Broad-leafed types have the blade entire except for occasional notches along the edges. 
In the market-gardens surrounding London, cress is grown in enormous quanti- 
ties. It is generally sown together with mustard, the growth being forced and the leaves 
cut when from 1% to 2 inches high. Eape is frequently substituted for Mustard and is 
considered preferable by some people — the flavor is not so pungent but the leaves are 
stiffer and keep fresh longer. See also Watercress. 

CROSS BUNS : small circular cakes or buns, so-called because marked with the cross, 
especially baked in many sections for consumption on Good Friday. They are popu- 
larly known as "Hot Cross Buns" and as such are in many English towns cried about 
the streets on the morning of Good Friday. 

CROUSTADES: are cases or shells of biscuit or pastry composition, made in 
various shapes and used for the service of creamed fish, etc., and some entrees and des- 
serts. 

CROWN OF JAPAN. See Japanese Artichoke. 

"CROWNS." The word "crown," as commercially applied to dates, figs, raisins 
and some other food products, signifies "grade" or "quality." The higher the number 
used as a prefix, the choicer the grade — 9-crowns raisins being, for example, a little 
choicer than 8-crowns, etc. 

CRUSTACEANS : animals with jointed shells, as the lobster, etc. See Shellfish. 

CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS. The theory of crystallizing fruit is to extract the juice 
and replace it with sugar-syrup which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay 
but retains its natural shape. 

The general method to boil the fruit — preferably unripe and in the case of "stone" 
fruits while the stone is still soft — until tender and then suspend it in strong syrup 
until it has become almost transparent, occasional evaporation keeping the syrup at 
the fullest strength. The fruit is next dried in stoves or drying rooms at a temperature 
of about 120° Fahr., until the syrup has crystallized. 

Another process — that principally employed in Portugal, one of the most important 
producing countries — consists essentially of repeated boilings of the unripe fruit in 
strong syrup, followed by draining and, lastly, drying on trays in the open air. 

A wade variety of fruits are now candied, among the latest additions being the 
"Prickly Pear" of California. They constitute a form of sweets admirably adapted 



202 THE grocery's encyclopedia 

to the grocer's counter as they are closely allied to his regular stock and are very attrac- 
tive in appearance. 

The housewife can make a very showy confection by cutting the red heart of the 
watermelon into slices and then into fancy shapes, immersing them in crystallizing 
syrup and then allowing to dry. The pink and red color showing through the crystal 
coating makes an extremelj' l^leasing appearance. 

CUCUMBER: one of the most popular of salad vegetables. It is somewhat indi- 
gestible, but when properly prepared and dressed — with plenty of oil — it may be eaten 
without the slightest fear of evil consequences. The rind is considered poisonous, so 
paring should be thorough and deep. 

Cucumbers when marketed should be crisp and firm to the touch. For sale fresh, 
they are selected according to both ripeness and size, the latter varying greatly with 
different varieties. For general pickling, they are gathered when from 2^/2 to 5 inches 
long. Very small pickled cucumbers are known as Gho'Mns (which see). 

Dill pickles are made either from fresh or salted cucumbers — the former being 
considered the choicer, but the latter having better keeping qualities. The Dill pick- 
ling process employs pickled dill seed or herb and "dill spice" — composed of allspice, 
black pepper, coriander seed and bay leaves — in addition to the brine. 

The English cucumber, of which there is a small sale in Eastern markets, is round 
instead of triangular like the American, generally verj' much longer in proportion to 
diameter, more uniformly green and with very little seed. 

In England and the Continent, cucumbers are often boiled in thick sections and 
served with hot butter or cream sauce. 

CUMIN: a herb of the carawa.y type producing seeds of aromatic odor and taste 
which are popular in Europe and Asia for flavoring soups, pastry, liqueurs, etc., but 
are little used here except in curry powders. 

CUMQUAT, See matter following title of Kumquat. 

CURACOA: one of the most popular Uqiieiirs. The best varieties consist chiefly of 
lemon and orange peels and bitter oranges distilled with clear spirit and rum. The 
finished product may be red, orange or "white" in color and is marketed both in tall 
narrow jugs and in bottles. It is excellent for flavoring sweet sauces, jellies, etc. See 
Colof Page of, and article on Liqueurs. 

CURCUMA, Curcumin: a yellow coloring matter extracted from Turmeric (which 
see). 

CURRANTS. Two varieties of fruit, entirely different except in size, are known as 
"Currants" — one used as a fresh, and the other as a dried fruit. 

The fresh currant, a small acid berry sometimes eaten raw but principally con- 
sumed in the form of jelly and cooked in pies, etc., is the fruit of a bush resembling the 
gooseberry bush. The most common type is the Eed Currant. "Green currants" are 
Eed currants gathered for cooking before they are ripe for the sake of their peculiar 
tartness. The White Currant is a similar variety produced by cultivation — it is less 
acid and consequenth' more pleasing for eating raw. The Black Currant is a separate 




t I 'CUMBERS 



THK GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



205 




London Market \Vhite "grape" Transpaient 

SIX CHOICE VARIETIES OF CURRANTS 



Moore's Select 



type aud of different ilavor — its juice, credited witli being aperitive, is used for flavor- 
ing purposes aud in mailing wine, liqueurs, jellies, etc. 

The dried currant, extensively used in cakes, etc., is a small seedless "raisin," the 
fruit of a species of grape vine grown principally in the Grecian Islands of Zante (hence 
the term "Zante Currants"), Cephalonia and Ithaca and in the vicinity of Patras. The 
fresh ripe fruit is also locally employed in wine manufacture. 

The title "currant" is a corruption of Corinth, the name of the now unimportant 
Greek town of Gortho at the time when it was one of the most prosperous of Mediter- 
ranean cities. During the middle ages, currants were known as raisins de Coraunts. 



CURRY POWDER or Curry Paste: a condiment so highly seasoned that it is only 
within recent years that it has obtained a substantial foothold in temperate climates, 
though it has been extensively used in India and other Eastern countries for many 
generations. In India it generally consists of black pepper, cayenne pepper and 
a variety of spices — nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, etc. — made into a paste or powder with 
turmeric. Its composition varies with different makers. That sold here usually con- 
tains chiefly turmeric, coriander seed, cayenne, black pepper, fenugreek seed, ginger 
and lime juice. It is retailed in packets, jars, bottles, etc. 

The word "curry" is of (Asiatic) Indian origin and originally signifled there a 
"stew" — generally of chicken, veal or lamb. The "finishing"" or seasoning of the dish 
was frequently performed at the table by the host or some other member of the party, 
many English officers at one time priding themselves on the special combinations of 
spices, etc., that they had learned or invented, just as in every country many epicures 
pride themselves on their ability in making a salad or sauce. Later, the word came to 
be applied more particularly to the mixture of spices added than to the dish itself. 

In India and Ceylon, curry sauces are added to a variety of dishes — generally a 
few minutes before serving or before the completion of conking. Vegetables of all 
kinds, in addition to meats, poultry and fish, are so treated. 

Curry is best kept in a bottle or jar, tightly corked or stoppered. 



206 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 





CUSK: a fish similar to and about the same size as the cod, sold fresh and salted. 

CUSTARD APPLE, or Anona, Coster, Bull ock Heart, etc.: local titles of a West 
Indian fruit somewhat resembling the Northern Papaw. It is a 
member of the Anona family, which includes the Sweet-sop, Sour- 
sop, Cherimoya, etc. It is generally round in shape, with skin vary- 
ing from yellowish to reddish brown and greenish-white pulp of light 
texture which is sometimes described as of "Custard" consistence. 

CUTTLE-FISH BONE: as known to the retailer, is the bone of a 
kind of shell-fish, placed in cages for birds to whet their bills upon it. 
It should be kept by all grocers who sell bird food as it is a small and 
profitable item and not liable to spoil. It is also sometimes used in 
the preparation of tooth-powders, for polishing metals, etc. 

DAB: a title applied to several fish of the flounder family, found 
along the North Atlantic coast. The best known types are the Rough 
Dab and the Eusty or Sand Dab. cuttie-Fish 

DAIRY : a term which covers everything pertaining to milk — the "dairy" may be the 
farm, milk-house, place of butter and cheese manufacture or retail store. 

The best situation for a small dairy building is on the north side of the dwell- 
ing-house, in order that it may be sheltered from the sun during the heat of the day. 
Necessary features are ample ventilation, the absolute exclusion of files and other 
insects and cool even temperature. The walls should be double, or at least especially 
thick, and the windows provided with shutters or doors. 

Farm dairies have been largely superseded by cheese and butter factories or 
"Creameries," generally divided into a number of departments. 

Association, State and Government dairy schools, and the Agricultural Experi- 
ment Stations have greatly increased the efficiency of those engaged in the industry. 

DAMAGED GOODS. The liability of many goods to damage en route makes it im- 
portant for the dealer to act cautiously in throwing the blame on the wholesaler or 
shipper. Nothing can be more unwise than to receive a shipment of goods by freight 
and return a damaged cheese by express, or to return an entire invoice because one item 
in it is wrong. Write carefully and coolly to the shipper, stating the particulars and 
saying that such articles are held subject to his order — and expense and trouble will 
be saved to all concerned. Many goods, especially in winter, are sent at the risk of 
the party ordering them and it is best to understand all the circumstances before mak- 
ing claims. Just claims should always be made promptly, but it is very dangerous to 
contract the reputation of making claims on trivial grounds. 

DAMSON : a species of peculiar-flavored small black or blue plum, much used in the 
filling of tarts, etc., and in liqueur manufacture (see Slivovitz). It is delicious 
cooked, but too astringent to be enjoyed raw. 

DANDELION. The dandelion, one of the most common and familiar of spring' 
flowers, is entitled to much higher place than it at present holds in general estimation 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



207 



here. Perhaps because of excessive familiarity with it as a "weed," and partly also 
in some sections because it is regarded as of essentially medicinal properties, the aver- 
age person ignores its manifold virtues and possibilities as a salad plant, alone or with 
other plants, but John Evelyn placed it among his famous seventy-three salad herbs and 
European gardeners and cooks have made it fashionable on the other side of the 
Atlantic. In this countrj' also it is uoav extensively cultivated by Eastern market 
gardeners, being raised in hothouses between seasons. 

The leaves when "blanched" by covering with earth, or potted and grown, from 
strong roots, in a warm dark cellar, are white, crisp and delicious. The young leaves 
resemble Endive. Even the ordinary green leaves lose much of their bitterness if 
washed and macerated in several waters and they make excellent spring "greens," especi- 
ally if stewed with an equal quantity of sorrel leaves. 

"Dandelion Coffee" and "Dandelion Chocolate" are made from the root, roasted 
and ground. The "coffee" is a mixture of ordinary coffee and powder, or extract, of 
dandelion root. The "chocolate" contains one-fifth chocolate and four-fifths root. 



DATES. Tn Persia, Arabia and northern Africa, the date palm forms one of the prin- 
cipal sources of natural wealth. The wood and leaves are used in every imaginable way, 
just as natives in other parts of the world use the 
eocoanut, and the fruit, fresh or dried, frequently 
serves the Arab as his only food. Its prepon- 
derating content is sugar, the protein percentage 
being small, but the sugar is of so pure and 
wholesome a quality that it is very easily di- 
gested. 

The date palm commences to bear fruit at 
from six to eight years, continuing to one hun- 
dred years — and often for several centuries. It 
is particularly valuable to humanity because it 
will flourish under conditions which kill all other 
vegetation. Excessive alkalinity of soil and a 
hot, dry climate, which would make any other 
growth almost impossible, result in its very finest 
product. The finest of all dates are the Deglet 
'Noor, from the "Sunken Gardens" of the Algerian 
Sahara, the palms growing in dells of sand, the 
lower parts of the trunks buried in the sand and 
the strong rays of the desert sun reflected from 
the sandy slopes on each side. 

In addition to its own growth, it has con- 
verted many parts of the Sahara into richly pro- 
ductive zones, the shade it affords making it pos- 
sible to grow figs, almonds, etc., in the oases. 

The palms are divided into male and female 
trees. In a wild condition there are generally about equal numbers of each, but under 
cultivation one male tree serves for from forty to one hundred female trees, the fertiliza- 
tion of the blossoms of the latter being insured by tying to every flowering branch a 
sprig of the male flowers. 




Part of a bunch of dates hung up to ripen 



208 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Under ordinary conditions a good 
tree will bear annually from sixty to two 
hundred pounds of fruit, the amount be- 
ing sometimes increased by careful culti- 
vation to from four hundred to six hun- 
dred pounds. The fruit is borne in 
bunches weighing from ten to forty 
pounds, hanging directly beneath the 
feathery head of the palm, tlie individual 
dates adhering to numerous slender twigs 
attached to the central stems. As the 
dates do not all ripen at the same time, 
the branch, after cutting, is usually 
placed in a dry and shady location for 
the green fruit to mature. For specially 
early fruit the first ripening dates are 
sometimes picked from the bunch before 
the branch is cut. 

There are three principal types of 
dates — the Sweet, the only variety known 
outside the home of the palm; the Mild 
Siueet, generallj^ eaten as a fresh fruit; 
and the Diij or "CameV date, preferred 
by the Arabs as a general food article, 
both pressed whole and ground into date 
flour, as under proper conditions it will 
keep for years. The flavor of the Camel 
Date is excellent, but it is too dry to cor- 
respond to the ordinary consumer's conception of what the fruit should be. 

Of the Sweet Dates, the choicest are generally those which are large, softish 
but not sticky, not too much wrinkled, of a reddish or yellowish brown on the outside, 
with a whitish membrane between tlie flesh and the stone. 

Nine-tenths of the supply imported into the United States comes from Arabia, 
chiefly by way of Smyrna. The bulk arrives pressed in large boxes, gunny bags or 
frails^ but the finer types are packed in small fancy boxes, baskets, etc. 

The choicest dates are those from Tunis, Algiers and Morocco. Among the best 
known varieties are the De^Zei Isloor, already referred to; the Tafilat from the Mo- 
rocco Sahara; the Menakher, a long, large brown date from the Tunis Sahara, and the 
Bhars. The high price of these "fancy" dates is due to European competition for the 
comparatively limited supply. 

Fard dates are a black, rather hard variety, extensively used for stufiing. Per- 
sian dates are generally lighter in color and of softer flesh. 

The Rhars and similar varieties are especially full of sugary juice, and the Arabs 
make "Date Honey" from them by hanging the bunches up to drain. The fruit used is 
afterwards packed for general consumption, sometimes pounded and pressed into cakes. 
A special method of preparation for the best oriental trade is to press out the 
juice of a certain number of dates and use this as a syrup in which to pack other rich 
dates in large vases. 




Gathering dates, Elche, Spain 




DATES 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



211 




Vinin:^- l);lU- I'alllis 



The fermented sap of the palm, and also the fermented juice or syrup of the 
crushed fruit, are consumed locally aa Palm Wine or Date Wine, etc. ; the young 
leaves may be cooked as "Palm Cabbage," and the stones are ground into "Date Coffee," 
for human use or for cattle food, or are pressed to obtain "Date Oil." 

In other parts of the world are found numerous special varieties of the date palm, 
among the most noteworthy being one common to South India and the East Indies, 
which is even higher in sugar content than the African or Arabian type. Date sugar 
from this palm is a commercial product of considerable value. 

Another small fruited species gives a specially desirable date meal. 

A considerable measure of success has already rewarded efforts to grow dates in 
this country, in several parts of California, Colorado and Arizona. The climatic and 
soil conditions have proved entirely suitable, and the result will probably be the trans- 
formation of sections so alkaline as to be otherwise worthless, into richly productive 
areas. The value of the product is indicated by the importation of twenty or more 
million pounds every year. 

Stuffed dates are prepared in constantly increasing variety — filled with almond 
and other nut meats, separately or mixed with date, fig or raisin meat or the latter 
without the nuts ; ginger, peanut or walnut butter, various forms of confectionery, etc. 

DATE PLUM: a name applied to the American Persimmon (See Peksimmon). 

DECANT ATION: the operation of pouring or drawing off the clear portion of a 
liquid from the iai]:)urities or grosser matter that has subsided. It is commonly per- 
formed either by gently inclining the vessel, or by a syphon or pump. See Wines. 



DECANTER: a bottle especially designed for the service of wines, liquors, etc. 

It is often difficult to clean decanters, especially after port wine has stood in them 
for some time. The best method is to wash them out with a little pearlash and warm 
water, adding a spoonful or two of fresh-slacked lime, if necessary. A few small cinders 
or pieces of raw potato may be used to facilitate the action of the fluid against the side 
of the glass. A little strong nil of vitriol will also rapidly clean glass bottles. 



212 THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

DELAWARE WINE : a class of domestic wines, red and white, sweet and dry, made 
principally from Delaware grapes. 

DELICATESSEN. The delicatessen stores now. so numerous in all our large cities 
started with one place in Grand Street, New York, opened about 1868. Their stocks 
embrace a wide variety of food items — ready-cooked meats, cheeses, fine canned goods 
— such as sardines, mushrooms, caviar, etc. — packet teas, olive oil, etc. — in short, all 
the most profitable articles of the grocer's stock. 

DEMERARA SUGAR: a name given to the finest flavored of "raw sugars"— sugar 
before the refining process. The term was formerly restricted to that from the Demer- 
ara section of British Guiana but is now applied also to similar sugar from the West 
Indies. It is usually of a light straw color and large crystallization. 

DEMIJOHN: a very large-bodied bottle with a small neck, generally protected by 
wickerwork covering. 

DENDANG: a local name for the sun-dried meat of the East Indies. 

DERMESTES: commonly called the Bacon Beetle. The larva of this insect is very 
destructive to bacon and other dried meats and often to cheese. It is a worm about 
%-inch in length, tapering towards the tail, dark-brown above, white beneath, with long 
hairs and two horny hooks on the end of its body. 

DESICCATED MILK. Evaporated milk finely powdered. 

DESICCATED or DRIED SOUPS. There are two main classes of desiccated or 
dried soups, put up for army, camp and similar purposes — those entirely of meat, and 
those entirely or principally of vegetables. The former should consist of meat extract 
obtained by extracting and then condensing the juices of lean meat at a low tempera- 
ture, the completed product appearing in tablet form or in tubes of paraffin wax, etc. 
The vegetable soups consist of several varieties of dried vegetables chopped up and 
mixed with dried flavoring herbs, etc., with sometimes the addition of a certain 
quantity of gelatine or meat basis. For commissary and export purposes, cubes of com- 
pressed dry vegetables are enclosed in jackets of gelatinous soup, both jacket and con- 
tents being dissolved in the hot water to be used in making the soup. 

All dried articles of this kind should be carefully guarded from moisture. 

DEWBERRY: an early variety of Blackberry (which see). 

DEXTRIN or British Gum: a substance obtained by roasting starch. Its principal 
use is in the textile industries, as gum for postage stamps, in mucilage manufacture, 
etc., but it is also sometimes employed as a glaze for certain candies. It was discovered 
by the accidental overheating of starch and its process of manufacture was for a long 
time kept secret. Its name arises from the fact that under polarized light it turns the 
plane to the right or "dexter." 

DEXTROSE. See article under heading of Glucose. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



213 



DIAMOND BACK: the most famous variety of Terrapin (which see). 

DIASTASE: a ferment found in grains and other seeds during germi- 
nation (see Malt). It is also present in human and animal saliva. 

DIGBY CHICKS: smoked herrings from Digby, Nova Scotia. 

DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. See Food Values. 

DILL: a herb of the parsley family, grown chiefly for its aromatic 
pungent seeds, which are employed in the manufacture of sauces, pickles, 
etc. See Cucumber. 




Dill 



DISTILLATION : is, in its fundamental features, the vaporizing of a liquid by heat 
in one vessel and then conducting the vapor or steam into another cool vessel, where it 
is condensed into a liquid. The value of the process is found in the fact that very few 
liquids become vapor at the same temperature. Ethyl alcohol will vaporize at 173° 
Fahr., and water at 212° — so that each can be readily separated from the other or from 
other components. 

Distillation in its simplest form, may be explained by remarking that if one places 
a kettle of wine, for example, on a stove, the steam which comes out of the spout j^rior 
to the water-boiling point, 212° Fahr., is principally alcoholic vapor, which, if passed 
into another vessel and held until it condenses into a liquid, will be a crude brandy. A 
simple distillation will not produce a complete separation — the alcoholic vapor passed 
out contains a certain percentage of water — but the process can be repeated until nearly 
all water is eliminated. A complete separation can only be secured by placing the 
liquid, after distillation to the highest possible percentage, in suspended skin bags. 
The water, being heavier than the alcohol, settles to the bottom and gradually drips 
through the bag. 

The principal use of the process of distillation is for the manufacture of commercial 
alcohol (see Alcohol) and liquors such as brandy, whisky, rum, etc., and to add 
special flavors and properties to alcoholic liquors, as in the manufacture of perfumes, 
liqueurs, etc., but it is also employed to separate light and heavy oils, in the manufac- 
ture of certain products from coal tar, to purify drinking water, to separate volatile 
from non-volatile substances either in watery or alcoholic solutions or mixtures, etc. 
Another familiar example is the changing of sea water into fresh water by distillation 
— the fresh water passes over as steam, leaving the salt behind. 

In the manufacture of brandy, rum, whisky, etc., distillation is preceded by other 
processes which produce a fermented liquid consisting of alcohol, water and solids, it 
being the duty of distillation to separate the alcohol and water from the solids and 
then to eliminate a part of the water and certain other volatile substances. Brandy is 
made from wine (the fermented juice of grapes) ; rum from fermented molasses and 
other residue of sugar manufacture; whisky from a fermented grain mixture (see 
article on Whisky). 

The fermented liquid is placed in a "still." The old-fashioned pot-still consists of a 
large round pot with a short copper "chimney" for the vapor, with a bend at the top 
and a horizontal continuation in the shape of an elongated neck or spout. The still is 
heated to 173° Fahr. and over, by_ direct fire beneath in a brick "oven" surrounding 



214 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

tlie "pot," and the alcohol in the ferment changes into vapor or steam and passes up 
and along the neck. This neck connects with a long tapering copper pipe, called the 
"worm," coiled in a tank of running water, which cools and condenses the vapor into 
a liquid and runs it into the receiving vessel. The process is continued until practi- 
cally all of the alcohol contents of the liquor have been extracted. This first product 
is again distilled and the result is "whisky," "brandy," etc., according to the charac- 
ter of the fermented liquid employed and the method of distillation. 

In a majority of present day establishments, large modern stills, the contents 
heated by steam coils, have succeeded the old-fashioned pot still, but the principle 
emploj^ed is identical. 

The still with a short "chimney" leading into the "neck" — in some cases it is only 
the turn of the neck itself — is employed where it is desired to carry over as much 
flavor or perfume with the alcohol as ijossible. 

When for other purposes very strong and tasteless spirits are desired, "patent" 
or high chimney stills are employed, as the flavor-oils, etc., being heavier than the alco- 
holic vapor, fall away in its passage upwards. In addition, three and sometimes four 
re-distillations are employed to further abstract the water, etc. 

Distillation in its leading principles and cruder forms is a process easy of accom- 
plishment, but much care, experience and judgment are required to produce spirits of 
high grade and quality. 

Dry Distillation : is a separation of one or more components from a solid body by the 
action of heat without the addition of liquid 

In Destructive Distillation, a term which is synonymous with Dry Distillation in 
the majority of its uses, the substance is placed in ovens or "retorts" of various shapes 
and compositions, of metal, clay, etc., which are subjected to sufficiently great heat to 
decompose their contents. The Destructive Distillation of bituminous coal, for example, 
gives gas for illumination, power, etc. ; coal tar, a thick liquid substance, now of great 
commercial value (see article on Coal Tar) and coke, the dry residue, generally utilized 
as fuel for blast-furnaces. 

DISTILLED WATER. See sub-head in general article on Water. 

DRIED BEEF, Smoked Beef, Chipped Beef. The thick flank is the part generally 
used for Dried 3Ieat. It is divided lengthwise, set for about ten to fourteen days in a 
pickle of salt, sugar (or molasses) and a little saltpetre, then hung up and smoked like 
ham. Large quantities are sold in thin slices, put up in tins or glasses, in that condi- 
tion being generally known as "Chipped beef." A popular method of service is to 
blanch, drain and seiwe with Cream Sauce. 

DRIED AND EVAPORATED FRUIT. The great industry of drying and evapo- 
rating has made a diet of domestic fruit possible the year round irrespective of cli- 
mate and season. It is also possible to sell the product at prices within the reach of all 
classes of people, because of the cheapness of the process and the lower cost of trans- 
portation per pound of actual food, as a result of the elimination of the bulk of the 
water which forms so large a percentage of both fresh and canned fruits. 

The comparative merits of the open-air "dri/iiir/'" and the indoor "evaporatiur/'' 
processes hinge entirely upon the matter of climate. In California, open-air drying 



THE G R C 10 R S E N C Y C L P E D I A 



215 



is almost imiversalh- employed, as tlie sections of the state where fruit is dried are 
praoticallT free from rain and excessive mo'sture during the drying season. In nearly 
every other part of the United States, the evaporating process has entirely superseded 
open-air drying for commercial purposes and has resulted in fruit that keeps better 
and consequently commands a higher price than sun-dried fruit from the same localities. 

In drijiiifj peaches, apricots and similar fruits they are first cleaned and cut, then 
])laced cup-side up on wooden trays about three by seven feet in size and given a pre- 
liminary sulphur bath to sterilize them, before the trays are placed in the sun to dry. 
In good weather, five or six days are sufficient for thorough curing. The fruit is finally 
graded and packed in boxes and bags of various sizes. 

Evaporation. The history of the evaporating pi'ocess begins about 1868. Two 
years later Charles Alden patented a tower form, known as the Alden Process, which 
temporarily achieved great popularity. Since that time many machines have entered the 
uuirket, and it is said that in Wayne County, N. Y., alone, more than 2,000 small evapo- 
rators are used on the farms. The system most in favor now among the larger packers 
consists of a slat floor Avith a fui^nace underneath, the fruit being spread thickly on 
the floor and dried by the heat rising through it. The newest method is by means of 




DRYING APRICOTS IN CALIFORNIA 



216 THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



steam pipes running back and fortli through the chamber of the evaporator. The advo- 
cates of this process claim that the heat is more evenly distributed and the temperature 
more uniform, avoiding all danger of scorching the fruit. 

In order to secure the best results of evaporation it is necessary to run the tempera- 
ture as high as possible without injury to the fruit and to keep the air in rapid circula- 
tion throughout the chamber. It is under these conditions that the slight chemical 
changes in perfectly evaporated fruit take place — the albumen, instead of being slowly 
dried, is coagulated and greatly assists in the preservation of the fruit with the richness 
and flavor it possessed in its natural state. After the trays are removed from the evapo- 
rator, the fruit is put into bins where it is stirred occasionally and allowed to remain 
until it has passed through the sweating process. Next comes the grading, by appear- 
ance, quality, etc. 

Apples are generally peeled, cored and sliced by special machines before being 
passed to the evaporator. Pears and peaches are usually cut in halves and evaporated 
with or without being peeled. 

The cores and skins are evaporated separately, but in the same way as the fruit. 
When properly cured, they possess commercial value in home and foreign markets for 
the manufacture of jellies and vinegar. 

Standards, etc. Much trouble formerly arose from the lack of a standard of dry- 
ness in evaporated fruit. A bushel of green apples, for example, weighs about 50 lbs. 
and should make 7 or 8 lbs. of white stock and 4 lbs. of waste — five-sixths of the fruit 
being water. Apples when thoroughly dried still contain about 25% of water, but many 
lots were formerly sent to market containing 30 to 35% — being only half dried, they 
molded, discolored and fermented or soured. The present food law fixes 27i/2% as the 
limit, which has practically eliminated that particular trouble — to the great advantage 
of the industry as a whole. 

During the Summer months and in warm climates generally, dried fruit is best 
kept in cold storage. If in good condition when put in, it will maintain its quality, 
flavor, etc., for a long time. If held in stores where it is exposed to dampness, it is liable 
to sour or become moldy. 

Preparation for the Table. In preparing dried or evaporated fruits such as apples 
and peaches for the table, the best results are attained by cooking slowly for several 
hours at a temperature just below the boiling point, enough water being added at first 
to cover the fruit. Every package of dried fruit should bear printed directions for 
making pies and for other forms of cooking, as very few housewives know how to use 
it to the best advantage. 

See also articles on Apples (dried), Dates^ Figs. Prunes;, Raisins, etc. 

DRIED HERBS, VEGETABLES, etc. See Herbs, Beans, Compressed Vegetables, 
Julienne, Lentils, Peas, Potato Chips, etc. 

DRUMFISH: a Southern sea fish, resembling the black grouper, which averages in 
weight from one to ten pounds. 

DUCKS. There are twelve "standard" varieties of domestic ducks raised in this 
country, but the most popular and abundant is the White Pelcin, first imported from 
China about 1872. It is a large bird, a pair often reaching a total weight of twenty 
pounds, of delicate flesh and an excellent layer. It may be recognized by the peculiar 



THE GEOCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



217 



|H 


1 




1 


m^ 


1 




1 


m. 


^ 


L^ 


1 


B^^'iy 


jm 


i4l 


w. 


H^,i:9 


B^*#- 







turued-up effect of its tail and its erect carriage — its 
legs are set so far back that it wallcs in an upright posi- 
tion. In a good specimen, the baclv is long and broad, 
and the breast round, full and very prominent. The 
plumage is dowm^ and of creamy or snow-white through- 
out, and the bill yellow. The "standard" weight of the 
adult drake is eight pounds and the adult duck seven 
pounds; that of the young drake and duck, each one 
pound lighter. The average market weight is about five 
pounds each. 

Next to the Pekin in popularity is the White Ayles- 
hunj, a famous English variety, similar in general ap- white ivkin Ducks 

pearance, excepting the special Pekin effects of carriage and tail, and averaging a little 
heavier in weight. 

Other well-known types are the Colored Rouen — the name probably from Eouen, 
a city of Normandy, which is famous for its poultry — with the heavy domestic duck 
shape but with plumage closely resembling that of a wild Mallard duck; the Black 
Cayuga, a purely American variety, and the Colored and White Muscovy. 

Ducks are sent to market both dry-picked and scalded, opinions being divided as 
to the better method. 

Ducklings are generally in the market from May to November. The older birds 
then take their place from December to April. 

The general tests for age and conditions given under the head of Poultry apply in 
buying ducks. An additional test for age is found in the windpipe, which can be easily 
squeezed and moved in a young duck, but which becomes fixed and stiff in older birds. 

Wild Ducks. The best known varieties of wild ducks are the Canvasback, Mallard, 
Kedhead, Euddy, Green-winged Teal, Blue-winged Teal, Pintail, Black, Grey, Widgeon 
and Wood. See Color Page of Canvasback, Mallard and Ruddy, opposite page 218. 

The epicurean value of the cooked wild duck depends principally upon its diet dur- 
ing life. The delicious fiavor of the Canvasback is attributable to its feeding princi- 
pally upon the eel grass called "Wild celery," which grows plentifully on the Chesa- 
peake shores and along the Great Lakes and western rivers. The proof of this statement 
is in the fact that the Canvasback when found in parts where the wild celery does not 
grow, offers no choicer flesh than the more ordinary members of the wild duck family. 

The delicacy of the flesh of the other varieties named is due to their feeding prin- 
cipally on grain, aquatic plants, small moUusks, etc., avoiding the fish diet which gives 
the rank taste to the Merganser duck. 

The last named, the Merganser — also variously known as the Sheldrake or Saw 
Bill — should always be avoided. Its adherence to a fish diet makes its fiesh rank and 
unpleasant. It may be known by its hooked and saw-toothed bill. 

The descriptive items of plumage given in the following paragraphs refer, be it 
understood, only to especially characteristic markings — a fully detailed description of 
the elaborate costumes of the wild ducks of American habitat would require a good- 
sized volume exclusively devoted to the subject. Furthermore, in some varieties the 
plumage varies considerably with the season. 

The Canvasback takes its name from the plumage of its back — of ashy white, 
marked with zigzag black lines. It is further distinguished by a very short bill, and 



218 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

a rather long narrow head sloping back from the bill. The crown of the head is a rich 
chestnut color, with parts nearly black. The average market size is from five to. six 
pounds a pair, sometimes going as high as eight pounds. The female is somewhat 
smaller than the male. 

The Mallard is the ancestor of a majority of our domestic ducks of colored plum- 
age. The head and neck of the male are a glossy green and the back brown and grey, 
shading to black, with blue and Avhite markings on the wings. The female is princi- 
pally dark brown and buff. The average market weight is five pounds a pair, though 
it often goes higher. 

The Red-Head resembles the Canvasback in general appearance, but it averages a 
little smaller and it also differs from it in several details — the black and white lines 
on the back are nearly equal in width, giving a silvery appearance; the head is well 
rounded instead of sloping back from the bill, and there is no black in its coppery 
chestnut crown. The upper part of the female is a greyish, mottled-looking brown. 

The Ruddy is again smaller than the Eed-Head. The crown of the head and neck 
are glossy black and the sides of the head are dull white. The upper part of the body 
is encircled by a band of red brown and the lower part of the back is white with brown 
bars. It is also distinguished by the stiffness of its tail quills. The upper part of the 
female is a grej^-brown. 

The Gi~een-Winged Teal is one of the smallest of the wild duck famih^ The head 
and neck are chestnut color with green on the sides of the head ; the upper back and sides 
are marked with waving black and white lines, and the lower parts are dai'k grey- 
brown. The wings are distinguished by the green patches which give the bird its name. 
The upper part of the female is mottled bro\An, with head and neck streaked with light 
reddish-brown. 

The Blue-Winged Teal is a little larger than the Green-Winged. The head and neck 
are dark grey with a white crescent between the eyes, and the back and wings reddish- 
brown with purple tints. The female is brown and buff in colors. 

The Pintail is so named because of its long greenish-black tail feathers. The head 
and throat are of greenish-brown, the neck is especially long and slender, the back is 
marked with waving black lines and the breast and under parts are white. The upper 
part of the female is mottled grey, yellow and broAvn. The tail is shorter than that of 
the male but the central feathers are sharp-])ointed. 

The Blade Dud; is about the same size as the female Mallard. The head is a rich 
brown and the upper part of the body dark, rather dull brown. 

The Grey Dude has a head streaked with black or brown, the upper part of the 
back a brownish-grey and the lower part changing to black. The female is smaller and 
darker. 

The Widgeon has a back of grey-brown mixed Avith black and a head white or buff 
on top and green on the sides. The female- is smaller and darker. 

The Wood Dude is a bird of such elaborate plumage that it would be difficult to 
name any one or two points as particularly distinguishing it. It is so beautiful that 
many sportsmen advocate its complete and entire protection as a bird of plumage. 

DULCIN: (1) a highly sweet coal-tar product of the same charactei as Saccharin 
(which see). (2) a crystalline sugar compound, resembling that from manna, obtained 
from several plants. 




Canvas Back 



Ruddy 
WILD DUCKS 



Mallard 




THE groceh's encyclopedia 221 

DULSE: iiu edible red seaweed found on the North Atlantic coast, be- ,. • ■ 
ing especially abundant in New England. It is I'ough dried in the sun ^ f 
and eaten dry as a relish, cooked with butter to be eaten with fish, etc., 
or boiled in milk to be seiwed as a vegetable. ' , 

DUNFISH. See sub-head in article on Cod. 

DURIAN: one of the most important of Malay fruits. It is greenish 
in color, inclined to oval in shape, about the size of a large cocoanut 
and the thick skin marked with spicules. Its odor is unpleasant to the 
novitiate, but the pulpy flesh has a pleasant taste, and the seeds also 
make good eating when roasted. 

Duriiin 

"DUTCH STANDARD 16 " : is a sugar standard used in the custom-house, in 
conjunction with the polariscope, to determine the quality of sugar imported and the 
duty payable. Sugar below it in grade is subject to the Raw Sugar duty ; that above it, 
the higher rate for Kefined Sugar. The "16" corresponds to one of a set of sixteen glass 
bottles or tubes of sugar of various grades of purity and color, originally used by the 
Dutch government for classing sugars, and generally so employed by other nations 
also until the introduction of the Polariscope (which see). 

DYES, Aniline: are put up in convenient packages for dyeing a great variety of 
articles, from Easter Eggs to clothing and household furnishings. They are based on 
Aniline, a coal-tar product discovered in 1856. 

A majority of aniline colors are soluble in Avater, some in alcohol and some in oil. 
A few of the water-soluble can be made into oil-soluble. If alcohol or oil soluble colors 
are desired, it should be designated when ordering. 

Certain of these dyes are now largely employed as very effective and harmless 
colors for confectionery, etc. (see Colors and Coloring Matters). 

EDAM: one of the best known of Dutch cheeses. See Cheese. 

EELS: are found in all countries and climates and iu both fresh and salt water, and 

are in season the year around. The most general classifi- 
cation is into Kiver or "silver," and Sea or "conger." The 
three best known types are "snig," "sharp-nosed" and "broad-nosed." All kinds are very 
much alike in appearance, and have the same black tough skin. The principal differ- 
ence is in size, the sea or conger eels sometimes reaching enormous proportions. 

EGGS: one of the most generally valuable of food products, because of the many 
ways in which they are utilized. 

When lightly cooked, eggs are easily digested and are well suited to sick or deli- 
cate people. Boiled hard or fried, they are more difScult of assimilation. A fresh egg 
is said to equal in nourishment one and a half ounces of meat and one ounce of bread. 

In ordinary parlance, hen's eggs are always understood when "eggs" are men- 
tioned, but the omnivorous human diet includes also those of various other creatures. 
There is, for example, a limited consumption of the eggs of ducks, geese and guinea- 
fowls, and in some sections of gulls and other wild birds, those of the plover being 

12 " 



222 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

considered a great delicacy. The eggs of turkeys and, in California, of ostriches are also 
occasionally eaten, but they are ordinarily too valuable for hatching to use them for 
the table. Again, terrapin eggs are served with the meat, the eggs of the sturgeon as 
caviar, those of the shad as "shad roe," etc. These, however, are topics foreign to the 
article following, which refers to the eggs of domestic hens. 

There is a great similarity in the proportion of shell, white and yolk in fowls' 
eggs. Roughly speaking, the shell makes up one-tenth, the yolk three-tenths, and the 
white about six-tenths. The white is nearly seven-eighths water. The solids of the 
white are practically all nitrogenous matters, principally albumen. The yolk is about 
one-half water, one-third fat and the remainder principally nitrogenous matter. 

The egg meat varies though somewhat in different seasons and conditions. Those 
received in the spring are generally firmer and fuller than those gathered later in the 
summer and the thickness of the shells varies in different sections — those of Ohio and 
Indiana, for example, being generally harder and thicker than those of Michigan and 
New York — owing, jierhaps, to the difference in the gravel of the soil. 

All eggs are examined by "candling." The process, in a cold storage house, is per- 
formed in a dark room where electric light spots glow inside dark green metal shades, 
each with a single open space or hole. Tlic egg is placed against this hole and an elec- 
tric ray penetrates its very being. 

For months during the egg gathering season, a force of men stand at these light 
holes, candling eggs with marvelous rapidity and grading them in boxes which an ele- 
vator is carrying ceaselessly to cold storage rooms. 

New-laid eggs appear semi-transparent, of a uniform pale pinkish tint, with only 
a very small air-chamber — a separation of the skin from the shell, filled with air. 

If incubation has begun, a dark spot is visible, increasing in size in proportion to 
the length of incubation, and the entire contents appear cloudy, becoming worse as 
the egg grows older. Other similar spots are caused by fungus growth. A rotten egg 
is dark-colored, almost opaque. The air-chamber also becomes larger with age. 

There are various degrees of badness classified in the trade by different colors. 
Those absolutely unfit for food are used in the tanning industry. 

A great many eggs are not "full" — the fact does not mean that the egg is not a 
good product, but it must not be rated as either a "fancy fresh" or a "fresh-gathered 
extra." Again there are "checks." A "cheek" is an egg that has met with an accident 
that has cracked the shell so slightly that the crack is ordinarily invisible — the egg is 
not necessarily bad, but it must not be sold at the same price as a perfect one. 

A writer in the 'Neio England Grocer says of the egg trade : "The original owners of 
the eggs know as little about the history of their distribution as do the men and women 
who finally devour them. 

"To these first and last persons who handle the product, the eggs are either good 
or bad, and there's an end on't ! But to the man who handles them between the farm 
and the breakfast table there are Fancy Fresh, Fresh Gathered, Storage Packed. 
Storage, Limed, Known Marks, Extras, Firsts, Seconds, Dirties, Checks, etc. The dis- 
tinctions become very necessary when one realizes that practically the whole enormous 
egg business is conducted by telegraph and that the dealer who purchases a carload of 
eggs has no opportunity to examine them until they arrive." 

T\'ith the exception of those which, because of their proximity to a large city, can 
profitably be shipped by express, eggs always travel in refrigerator cars — winter as well 
as summer, for the heavy construction of the perambulating ice-chests is equally serv- 



THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 223 



iceable for protection against cold and heat. One carload contains four hundred cases, 
or one hundred and forty-four thousand eggs. 

On large poultry farms, eggs are produced and handled very much as the product 
of any other factory — the poultry man knows his cost of production by dozen or case, 
the operative cost, etc., etc., just as does his contemporary in any other line of business 
— but the greater part of the country's egg supply is still represented by accumulations 
from thousands of general farmers scattered all over the country. 

"The history of one of these farm eggs reads like 'a gathering of the clans.' The 
hen that laid it may be the property of a small farmer in a Western state, located 
fifty or a hundred miles from the nearest good-sized town. The egg is one of a dozen 
that the farmer takes to the nearest village store and either sells for a small sum of 
money or barters for sugar, calico, tobacco or some other commodity that he needs more 
than he needs eggs. 

"Other farmers in the neighborhood are doing the same and the store is thus the 
recruiting station for a goodly company of eggs that must necessarily find a market 
somewhere else. These eggs are sent to a larger center, where they pass into the con- 
trol of a large, or small, shipper who mobilizes them, to continue the figure, no longer 
by companies but by battalions, regiments and armies — i. e., carloads. 

"When the shipper has a carload of eggs ready for the eastern market, he tele- 
graphs the fact to an eastern dealer. A certain amount of dickering goes on over the 
wire, and the eggs are finally sent East. The eggs are not though for immediate con- 
sumption, hence the necessity for the refrigerator car and the storage warehouse to 
retain the condition in which they were purchased. 

"Compai-atively few eggs are found to be bad, and all shipments are now sold 'at 
mark,' a technical way of saying that a case of eggs at wholesale is supposed to be with- 
in a small percentage of the requirements or standard of each grade, and there is no 
rebate for damaged eggs. Formerly there was a rebate during a part of the year that 
was called the 'loss off' season, because a certain percentage of the eggs were not expected 
to come up to the standard of the various grades. 

"There are very few disputes between shippers and dealers that are not settled 
peaceably between the persons directly concerned, but occasionally they form the basis 
of expert examination by either the Chamber of Commerce or Fruit and Produce 
Exchange inspectors, sometimes indeed getting as far as the Arbitration Committee." 

There is a wide difference in the weight of eggs — although all cooking receipts 
say "take two eggs," or whatever number seems suitable, without any allowance for 
variations in size! 

The breeds that lay the largest eggs, averaging seven to a pound, are the Black 
Spanish, Light Brahma, Houdan, La Fleche, and Creve Cceur. Eggs of medium size 
and weight, averaging eight or nine to a ])ound, are laid by the Leghorn, Cochin, 
^Minorca, Red Cap, Poland, Dorking and Games. Hamburg eggs average about ten to 
the pound. There is thus a difference of three eggs in one pound weight. The average 
weight of twenty eggs laid by different breeds is 2Vs pounds. 

The most popular types of fowls for egg-producing are Leghorns, Minorcas, Black 
Spanish, Hamburg's and Red Caps, their average total output being larger than from 
other varieties. 

The size of the egg varies also with the care and treatment of the fowls. Those from 
the South formerly averaged small for all breeds, but a marked improvement has been 
noticeable durins: recent years. 



224 T H E G E C E E ' S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



A bulletin of the North Carolina station of the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
gives the following figures as the results of tests made to ascertain the comparative 
values of eggs from a number of Southern-bred standard fowls, both as pullets and 
mature hens. 

The first named tj])e. Single Goinh Broicn Leghorn Pullets, is taken as the start- 
ing point — the eggs from the others following being found of higher food value to the 
extent of the percentage named. For example, if eggs from the Single Comb Brown 
Leghorn Pullets were at that time worth 30 cents a dozen, those from Single Comb 
Brown Leghorn Hens were worth 20% more, or 36 cents a dozen, and those from the 
Light Brahma Hens, 60% more, were worth 48 cents a dozen. 

These averages are subject to variations as a result of differences in feeding and 
locality. 

Per Cent. Per Cent. 

Greater Value Greater Value 

Single Comb Broion Leghorn Pullets « * * BuS. Cochin Hens 31.8 

Single Comb Brown Leghorn Hens 20.7 Black Langshan Pullets 31.8 

Silver-Laced Wyandotte Pullets 23. Barred Plymouth Rock Pullets 34.S 

Light Brahma Pullets 30. Barred Plymouth Rock Hens 40. 

Late-hatched Barred Plymouth Rock Hens.... 30. 4 Buff Cochin and Black Langshan Pullets 47.2 

White Wj-andotte Hens.. 30.4 Black Minorca Pullets 47.2 

White Wyandotte Pullets 30.4 Black Langshan Hens 51.4 

White Plymouth Rock Pullets 31.1 Light Brahma Hens 60. 

By far the greater part of the eggs held over for future use are kept in condition in 
cold storage, but when this is impossible they may be preserved by immersion in a solu- 
tion of water-glass {iiodium and Potassium HUicate) . Experiments, both in a practical 
way and in laboratories, have demonstrated that a 10% solution of water-glass will 
preserve them so effectively that even at the end of three or four months they will 
appear fresh. In most packed eggs, the yolk soon settles to one side, and the egg is then 
inferior in quality, but in those preserved for three and a half months in water-glass, 
the yolk retained its normal position. One gallon of the solution is sufficient for fifty 
dozen eggs if they are properly packed. 

Eggs varnished with vaseline or preserved in limewater also keep well but the 
former is too laborious aud the latter sometimes communicates a disagreeable odor and 
taste. 

Eggs in cold storage are held at temperature ranging between a little below and 
a little above the freezing point. They are seldom kept longer than six months, but 
under good conditions they will retain a fairly fresh flavor for a year or more, losing 
hoAvever in weight from the evaporation of the whites. 

Eggs enter into commerce in many forms in addition to those in the shell — including 
whole eggs removed from the shell and stored in cans at a little below the freezing point, 
powdered yolks, crystallized whites, desiccated eggs, etc. 

Large quantities of egg substitute are consumed in mining camps and desert 
regions. Some of these consist chiefly of starch, others are of animal origin. They 
are of varving degrees of value. 

Fresh eggs should be kept in a dry, cool place free from any strong or objection- 
able odor. If packed in salt or sawdust they will remain fresh longer than if exposed 
to the air. 

Boiling Eggs. There are other ways of boiling eggs than by their immersion for a 
certain number of minutes in boiling water. A more pleasing result can be obtained. 




EGG PLANT 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



227 



(1) by placing them iu cold water and gradually bringing it to a boil, removing them 
when the boiling point has been reached, or (2) by placing them iu boiling Avater and 
then turning the gas flame out, or setting the pot well back on the range, removing the 
eggs in from seven to ten minutes. By either procedure, the white will be tender and 
jelly-like instead of the somewhat tough and leather^' consistence of the ordinary 
boiled egg. 

EGGPLANT {see Color Page) : a fruit- vege- 
table which is growing in popularity in this 
country. In many parts of the tropics it is a 
staple and important article of diet. There are 
seyeral varieties of the plant, yielding fruit of 
varying qualities and of different colors, shapes 
and sizes. The best known type is somewhat egg- 
shaped, three to five inches in diameter and from 
light purple to black in color. It is generally 
fried in slices, but is even more palatable when 
cut in one-inch cubes. It is also excellent stewed. 

ELDER: a bush bearing flat clusters of berries 
of a deep purple color. Elderberry Wine is Gathering Eggplants 

prized for its medicinal properties, and is also employed in the manufacture of imita- 
tion Port. 




ELEME: a Turkish word for "selected," as Eleme fif/s (see Figs). 

EMERY: an impure hard black or greyish-black granular corundum, employed in 
pulverized form for polishing and grinding metals, etc. Emeri/ Cloth or Paper is 
coated yvith a mixture of emery powder and glue. The colored varieties of corundum 
include the sapphire and several other precious stones. 

ENDIVE, Cichorium Endivia : a salad plant of the Chicory family and closely allied 
to the dandelion, originally brought from China to Europe in the sixteenth century. 
The two principal types under cultiva- 
tion are those known to gardeners as 
"Curly Endive," with narrow, feathery 
leaves, and "Broad-leafed" or "Bata- 
vian" Endive, with leaves large and 
rather broad, generally twisted and 
waved and with thick white midribs. 

In Eastern markets, Curly Endive 
and other small leafed varieties are 
generally known as Chicori/ (which 
see) because of their resemblance to 
Common Chicory, and Broad-leafed 
Endive by the French title of EscaroJe. 
The title Endive is reserved for the 
winter-grown heads of the Witloof or 
Brussels Chicory, a sub-variety of the "Esearoie •■ 




228 



THE GEOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Magdeburg Large-Eooted Chicory, which onsist of a number of thick creamy-white 
leaves from four to sis inches in length and one to two inches in width, pressed tightly 
together and generally tapering to a 
point. 

Curly Endive, or Chicory, is grown 
both for summer and winter markets, 
generally blanched more or less in culti- 
vation. 

Broad-leafed Endive, or Escarole, is 
more highly considered as a winter than 
a summer salad but it is raised for both 
seasons, its natural tendency to blanched 
centers being accentuated by gardeners. 

Witloof Chicory, or Endive, is a 
winter salad exclusively and is obtained 
by cutting off the summer tops of the 
plant, setting the roots in sand in cellars, 
etc., and forcing the desired new growth. 
It is eaten both raw and cooked. For 
salad purposes it should be very crisp 
as otherwise it is liable to be too bitter. 
The greater part of the Eastern supply is 
imported from Europe. 

" Endive" 

ENTREE, ENTREMET. See list of Culinary Terms in Appendix. 

ERBSWURST: an important army ration, originated in Germany. It consists of 
a mixture of pea-pulp, bacon and seasoning. 

ESCAPERNONG: an Indian name from which is derived the title of the best 
known Southern grape, the Scuppernong (which see). 




ESCAROLE. See article on Endive. 

ESPAGNOLE: one of the principal fundamental sauces in cookery and used as a 
basis for many brown sauces. It contains the essence of a variety of articles — ham, 
veal and beef, several vegetables, a number of herbs and spices, fowls (old birds are 
taken for the purpose) and wine. The proper cooking, preparation, etc., require several 
hours.. 



ESSENTIAL OILS, or Volatile Oils. See general article on Oils. 

EVAPORATED FRUITS, Etc. See Dried and Evaporated Fruits. 

EXTRACTS : as familiar to the average retailer and consumer, consist of a certain 
percentage of true extract or essence, or its chemical imitation, in an alcoholic solu- 
tion. The aromatic principles of a great many spices, nuts, herbs, fruits, etc., and some 
flowers, are thus marketed, among the best known of true extracts being almond, 



THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 229 



cinnamon, cloves, ginger, lemon, nutmeg, orange, peppermint, pistachio, rose, spear- 
mint, vanilla, violet and wintergreen. 

A majority of natural essences are obtained by extracting the essential oil from 
the blossoms, fruit, roots, etc., or the whole plants, by expression, absorption, distil- 
lation or maceration. The first method, that of Expression, can only be employed -when 
the oil is very plentiful and easily obtained, as in lemon peel (see Lemon Oil). The 
second. Absorption, is generally accomplished by steeping in alcohol, as vanilla beans 
(see Vanilla Extract). The third, Distillation (which see) is sometimes compara- 
tively easy, as when following Maceration in making peppermint extract, etc. (see 
Mint), but in many cases it requires expert chemical knowledge and the erection of 
costly stills. . 

The distinctive flavors of nearly all fruits, in the popular acceptance of the word, 
are very desirable adjuncts to many food preparations, but unfortunately there are only 
a few from which it is practicable to obtain a concentrated flavor extract of the 
necessary strength. Among those which lend themselves readily to the manufacture 
of "pure" extracts the most Important are lemons, oranges and vanilla beans. 

A majority of other concentrated fruit flavors, as banana, cherry, currant, peach, 
pineapple, raspberry and strawberry, are produced by chemical combinations of com- 
pound ethers, together with special oils, etc , the desired colors being generally obtained 
by the use of coal-tar dyes. Among the ethers most generally employed are Acetic and 
Butyric (which see). The chief factors in the production of artificial banana and pine- 
apple extract, and also important in the m jnufacture of strawberry extract, are amyl- 
acetate and amyl-butyrate, Amyl Alcohol being the principal constituent of that part 
of the alcohol obtained by the distillation of grain and potato starch, etc., which is 
popularly known in this country as "fusel oil'' and in Europe generally by the title of 
"potato oil." 

Artificial extracts do not as a rule possess the delicacy of the fruit flavor, but 
they get sufficiently close to it to be of real service and convenience when true essences 
are unobtainable. 

EXTRACT OF MEAT. See special article on Meat Extract. 

FALERNIAN WINE. "Falernian Wine" is a familiar expression — the reference is 
to the famous wines of ancient Rome produced in the district of Falernus, near the 
^lassican Hills. 

FARINA. The word Farina indicates properly the flour of any grain, starch, root, 
etc., but as used generally in this country it signifies either a coarse "flour" from corn 
(maize), used principally for making puddings and desserts, or a wheat "cereal" for 
breakfast purposes, etc. 

Wheat "farina" corresponds to the product known in Europe as Semolina or 
Semola. It consists of very fine wheat "middlings" — the small particles of wheat left 
in the bolting machine after the flour has been passed through its meshes. The best 
is that obtained in the milling of the very hard-grained wheats. 

Semolina is perhaps most popular in Prance where it is used in a great many ways, 
including a favorite variety of fine wheat bread known as pain de gruaii, etc. In Italy 
it is used with other grains and meal in making Polenta (which see). It is the original 
macaroni "flour." 



230 



THE GEOCEK'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



FEME SOLE TRADER: is the legal term applied to a woman who secures a license 
to carry on business in her own name without liability for the debts of her husband 
and without rendering her husband liable for her own. 



FENNEL. Common Garden or Stveet Fennel is a plant chiefly cultivated for its 
leaves which are consumed both fresh — for garnishing, 
as a salad, etc. — and cooked as a vegetable, in the latter 
case generally tied in bunches and boiled with fish and 
certain other foods. It is very popular in Italy, especi- 
ally in the vicinity of Naples. The seeds are also used ' ' 
for seasoning and in the manufacture of liqueurs. 

Florence Fennel is a different variety, grown princi- 
pally for the bulbous lower parts of the leaf stalks, 
which are usually eaten boiled. In flavor it somewhat 
resembles celery but is sweeter. 

FENUGREEK: is a herb Avhich resembles clover. Its Florence Fennei 

seeds are used as an ingredient of curry powder. Separately, they are strong, bitter 

and of unpleasant flavor. 




FERMENTATION : in its broadest sense, is the chemical change by which organic 
substances are decomposed and re-combined in new substances or compounds. Ferments 
are of tAvo classes — "organized," or living, as yeast fungi, lactic bacteria, etc., and 
"unorganized," as diastase, pepsin, etc. 

In its most widely used significance, fermentation is the chemical change produced 
in substances, more or less liquid, containing some sugary solution, by which the latter 
is converted into a liquid, alcohol, and a gas, carbon-dioxide (see article on Yeast). 
Wine and beer fermentation is called Vinous. Under favorable conditions of tempera- 
ture, etc., fermentation continues until the growth of the yeast cells is stopped by the 
exhaustion of the particular chemical components adapted for their subsistence, or by 
the formation of other substances in quantities inimical to their growth. As already 
noted, alcohol is one of the chief results of vinous fermentation, but it is itself adverse 
to yeast growth, and will stop it entirely, and with it fermentation, if a sufficient 
quantity is added to the liquid, or formed in it. 

Vinous fermentation is followed, under certain conditions by acetous fermentation 
— a class of acetic bacteria oxidizing the alcohol and producing vinegar. 

The "souring" of milk isJactic fermentation — the milk sugar being converted by 
the action of lactic bacteria into lactic acid. See article on Bacteria. 

Putrefaction of meat, etc., is Putrefactive Fermentation. 

FETTICUS: one of the many names for Corn Salad (which see). 



FIG: the fruit of the fig tree, of which there are several hundred varieties. It consists 
of a pulp containing about 60% sugar, enclosed in a thin skin varying in color from 
nearly white to dark purplish or black. 

Figs are best known to the average consumer in their dried condition. Next in 
point of popularity are those preserved in syrup, brandy, maraschino, etc., and in 







:j "-^v .,xil^- •-;--.: 



FIG Tree and Fruit (fresh and dried) 



THE GBOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



233 



"marmalade" form. There is also a fair demand for Stuffed Figs, filled with nut 
meats mixed with chopped figs or with any of the materials used in the stufling of 
dates. The fresh fruit is too perishable an article for handling by any other than 
"fancy" fruit stores, except in districts with a large Latin population. 

Some choice qualities of both the "plain'" and "stuffed" are put up in fancy boxes, 
baskets, jars, etc., but the greater part of the supply, from the very finest "Smyrna 
Extra Fancy 3-in Layers" to the more ordinary types, come in bulk, chiefly in boxes, but 
also in drums, bags, etc. 

The greater part of the consumption of dried figs is of the imported variety, chiefiy 
from Asia Minor, of which Smyrna is the principal seaport — hence the name "Smyrna 
Figs." Greece and Italy supply a minor quantity and there is a constantly increas- 
ing production in California and the South. 

Dried figs can be kept without deterioration for from eight to twelve weeks if stored 
in a uniform temperature of about 40° Fahr. - - 

Minor grades are in Europe utilized in laa'ge quantities in the manufacture of 
brandy and, in Gerniam^, as a substitute for coffee. 

Imported Figs. The two principal types of "Smyrna Figs" — which set the quality 
standard for all fig-producing countries — are those classed as Eleme, the best known 
type of "pulled figs," and called also "Layer Figs" because of the style of packing, and 
Locouiji. "Eleme" is a Turkish word signifying "selected." "Locoum" figs are those 
packed in the shape of cubes — Locoum being the Turkish name for a square-shaped 
sweetmeat. The title also stands for quality, because only thick and meaty figs can be 
packed in Locoum style. 

"{Smyi-iia) Naturals" are the inferior fruits, shipped loose in bags and boxes. The 
term "natural" is applied because thej^ are not compressed in packing. 

In packing Eleme Figs, the fruit is first "pulled" and drawn between the fingers 
and thumb into a flat disk-like form, and then the back part is split to allow still 
more spreading. In "pulling," the "eye" part is brought into the center of the disk. 
The "pulled" figs are then placed in "layers" in boxes and the piling up of the boxes 
on each other presses the contents. A few bay leaves are generally placed on top 
of the filled boxes, partly for the flavor and partly to exclude insects. 

Eleme or Layer Figs are graded from "choice" to "extra fancy," etc., and by size, 
1% in. to 3 in., etc. 






m Vi 




Locoum Figs— American style (rounded) 



Locoum Fifjs— London style (squared) 



I-HOTOB 11' 

Layer Figs 




PHOTO nv PADDOCKj; i-O^VII-R<0 



A Smyrna Fig Packing establishment 



THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



235 



For Locoum Figs, the fruit is merely pressed between the fingers to somewhat 
cubical shape. 

The square-shaped Locoum-packing shown in the center box in the illustration 
at the foot of page 233 is generally known as the "English" or "London" style. It 
has the advantage that the absence of air-passages is an additional safeguard against 
the deterioration of the fruit. The round or "American" packing is also frequently 
known in the trade by the specific title of "Pulled Figs." The English style is 
usually preferred in New England markets, but elsewhere the American is the best 
selling type of Locoum figs. 

The greater part of the basket and carton output is further generally described as 
"washed." 

Most of the fig trees grown in Asia Minor are of the varieties which require 
"'caprification." They bear only female blossoms, and these are hidden inside the imma- 
ture fruit. The only method of fertilizing the fruit is by means of the fig wasp, a little 
insect which is found abundantly in the fruit of the wild fig, known as the "Caprifig." 
When the wasp emerges from the ripened caprifig in which she has developed to 
maturity, she seeks an immature caprifig to enter for the purpose of depositing her 
eggs in it. If a cultivated fig tree is nearby, she may enter its immature fruit by mis- 
take — and as she is covered with the pollen of the caprifig, she unwittingly fertilizes 
its numerous blossoms by piercing their bases and thus brings the fruit to maturity. 
Where caprifigs grow in the vicinity of "Smyrna" trees, the wasps will of their own 
accord fertilize the fruit of the latter with more or less thoroughness, but to insure 
complete and uniform fertilization of the entire crop, 
growers take charge of the caprification themselves 
by attaching caprifigs to reeds and suspending them 
over the fruiting branches of the cultivated trees. 

Grecian Figs are chiefly of varieties similar to 
the "Smyrna" and require caprification. The fruit 
is generally of inferior quality. After drying, it is 
usually strung on reeds, bent into "wheels," of various 
shapes and containing each from fifty to several hun- 
dred, and packed in large cases. 

Italian Figs are principally of types which do 
not need caprification. The drying is frequently by 
artificial heat and is facilitated by splitting the fruit. 
A popular style is to insert an almond or piece of 
citron in the pulp after drying. 

Grecian and Italian figs are cut as they ripen, 
instead of being allowed to fall as in Asia Minor. A-wheei-ofGreekflgs 




California Figs. Fig culture has become an industry of considerable importance in 
California. The greater part of the crop is dried, generally in the sun, and the variety 
chiefly grown for that purpose is known as the Adriatic. The best qualities are packed 
in small cartons with fancy ribbons. Next in importance are Preserved Figs, generally 
the fruit of the "Magnolia" or Brunswick Fig. 

The self-pollinating trees which until recently have been exclusively cultivated in 
California, do not produce fruit to compare in quality with the fine imported Smyrna 
product, but during the last few years a considerable number of true Smyrna Fig trees 



236 THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



have been successfully grown tkere. Owing to the necessity of caprification, it was 
formerly impossible to fertilize the blossoms of these trees in California, but a number 
of Caprifig trees have been imported and a few of these are planted in each "Smyrna 
Fig" orchard, iti order to breed the necessary supply of fig wasps, and to afford them 
a suitable place to sojourn during the winter. 

Southern Figs are most familiar to consumers in the form of skinless fig preserves 
put up in syrup. The skin of the fruit is removed by chemical or mechanical means 
— during the entire process of preserving, the fig is not touched by human hands 
after the preparatory processes of sorting and inspecting the fresh fruit. The variety 
known locally as the "Magnolia," though really of the Brunswick type, is the most wide- 
ly cultivated in the South. It begins to ripen about the middle of June, continuing until 
frost. 

The last decade has seen thousands of acres of land sold in Texas on the strength 
of its adaptability for the Magnolia fig crop, and millions of the trees have been planted. 

Other figs grown to a considerable extent in the South are, in Texas, the Mission 
Black, known locally as the "Brunswick" or the "Black California," and, in Louisiana, 
the Brown Marseilles, known locally as the "Celeste," and the White Marseilles, known 
locally as the "Ncav French." 

FILBERTS or Hazel Nuts {See Color Page opposite 414) : the fruit of the Hazel 
bush or tree, growing in clusters, each enveloped in a husk which opens as the nut 
ripens. Filberts, "full-beards," are those with fringed husks extending beyond the nuts ; 
Hazels, "hoods," have husks shorter than the nuts. When ripe and deprived of the 
husks, only an expert can tell the difference, as there are several styles and sizes of 
each. In this country they are all classed as "filberts." 

The two chief varieties of the American nut are the "Common" and "Beaked." The 
former is the more desirable, its kernel being sweet and pleasing in flavor, but it is too 
small to be of much commercial value. 

The best known imported varieties are the Sicily and Naples, the bulk of the sup- 
ply coming from Sicily. One Naples type is distinguished by its large oblong shape. 

"Barcelona Nuts" are hazel nuts, generally kiln-dried, from Barcelona, Spain. 

FILLET or Filet: a market term for the Tenderloin (see Beef and Pork). Also a 
culinary term for a strip or band of meat Avithout bone. 

FINES HERBES: a French culinary term for a combination of Chervil, Chives, 
Parsley, etc. 

"FINGER ROLLS," Salt Sticks. Soup Sticks: Italian bread made in stick form, 
from twelve to eighteen inches long. The term is also applied to finger-shapes of crusty 
bread, cut in various sizes and thicknesses, to be eaten with soup. 

FININGS and Fining. See matter following title of Clarification. 

FINNAN HADDIE or Findon Haddie: the popular title for smoked haddock— the 
name being after the fishing village of Findon, Scotland. It is marketed in cans and 
boxes and is considered best during the winter months. It is an excellent breakfast 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



237 



dish. The supply was formerly almost entirely imported, but now some of the finest 



comes from New England. 



FIRKIN. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 



FISH. The annual catch of fish in the United States — sea, lakes and rivers — averages 
about 2,200,000,000 pounds, most of which is consumed in this country. To obtain the 
actual quantity of food represented, the figures must be considerably reduced, as the 
loss of weight in dressing varies from 15% to 50%. To the net total is added the impor- 
tation of nearly 200,000,000 pounds — fresh, salted, canned, etc. The final figures sound 
very impressive, but when due allowance is made for the large per capita consumptiori 
in certain sections, the result represents only a small per capita consumption by the 
general public. 

Public opinion has been enlightened from time to time by medical and other scien- 
tific advocacy of a greater consumption of fish as especially suited to the semi-seden- 
tary habits and lives of a very large percentage of the population, and the result has 
undoubtedly been an increased appreciation and consumption, but it remains true that, 
by probably the majority, fish is still looked upon as an "extra" course, an exclusively 
Fridaj^ meat or, in the case of canned goods, as an emergency item. A more general 
use of fish would tend to decrease the cost of living by relieving the pressure of our 
ever-increasing numbers on the beef supply. 

It is somewhat curious to note the tenacity of certain erroneous impressions con- 
cerning fish as a food. It is still commonly believed that it is an especially good brain 
stimulant because of the phosphorus contained in the flesh. As a matter of fact, fish 
contains little if any more phosphorus than beef, and even if it did, there is no reason 
to believe that it would therefore exercise any perceptible influence on the brain. On 
the other hand, many people undoubtedly eschew fish because they fear ptomaine poi- 
soning — yet, under conditions of proper care and cleanliness, there is no more danger 
of poisoning from fish than from many 
other articles of food. 

Stripped of all prejudices and tra- 
ditions, fish is very similar to lean beef 
in its food composition. The many vari- 
eties differ considerably in their propor- 
tions of the different elements, but they 
are all similar in that they supply the 
human system with a considerable per- 
centage of protein — muscle and flesh 
building nutrients. 

The fish which most closely corre- 
spond with the average beef percentage 
of protein are the halibut, pollack, Maine 
salmon and sturgeon. Those exceedinr/ 
the beef average in protein include : cod- 
steaks, smoked and salted cod, smoked 
and salted halibut, smoked and salted 
herring, mackerel, California salmon an<l 
canned sardines. 




A J;ip;tncsc h'l^li Market 



238 - THE GEOOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

A third list of those averaging a little below in protein percentage, takes in black 
bass, sea bass, bluefish, butterfish, cusk, fresh herring, fresh mackerel, yellow perch, 
pickerel, pompano, redsnapper, shad, trout, weakflsh and whiteflsh. 

The average of protein of all fish sold, including the lesser varieties, is about 
two-thirds of that of beef. 

It will be noted that in the fourth paragraph fish was described as tallying closely 
with lean beef. The average cut of beef contains a considerable percentage of fat, 
but this element is found in similar proportions in comparatively few varieties of 
fish — the majority having more water and less fat. 

There are, however, a number of fish which contain as much fat as such meats as 
young chickens, veal, etc. — among them being butterfish, smoked or salted halibut, 
smoked or salted herring, mackerel, salmon, canned sardines, trout and turbot — and a 
few which equal medium-fat beef in fat percentage, chief among them being California 
salmon, smoked and salted halibut and salted and canned mackerel — the last-named 
indeed frequently exceeding it in fat. The fat of beef is, though, generally more easily 
digested than that of fish. 

Other fish which contain a fair proportion of fat are alewife, striped bass, fresh- 
smoked haddock, fresh halibut, fresh herring, mullet, pompano, porgy, shad and 
wliitefish. 

Shellfish, being treated under a separate head, have not been included in these 
comparisons. 

The digestibility of fish varies with the different varieties, but as a general rule 
it may be stated that those with the smaller amount of fat are the more easily digested, 
and that fresh fish, though less rich in food values, is more easily assimilated than 
that smoked or dried. Canned uncured fish corresponds very closely in digestibility 
with the fresh fish of the same variety. 

In buying fish, freshness should be insisted on as essential. The flesh should be 
firm and the skin and eyes bright. Avoid any whose meat is so soft that the pressure 
of the finger leaves a mark. Cleanline.ss both in storing and handling are very impor- 
tant. 

Most fish are at their best just before spawning time, except shad, which is con- 
sidered the choicest when spawning; and when very fresh, except halibut, which 
improves in flavor with a little age. After spawning, fish loses greatly in quality- — the 
flavor is less desirable and the flesh becomes soft. 

It should be remembered that the ordinary temperature of a cooling room or re- 
frigerator is not cold enough to keep fresh fish in prime condition. It should instead 
be buried in fine cracked ice. For shipment and storage, it is frequently frozen into 
blocks of ice. 

All fish should be thoroughly cleaned before cooking. 

Dried, Salted. Smoked and Pickled fish should always be kept out of the sun and as 
cool as possible. If the brine dries out or leaks away in transit or in the cellar, rebrine 
them at once. Keep the barrel covered and use a special fish fork for hand- 
ling the fish. 

Smoked and cured fish of all kinds are best in cold weather. 

Canned fish, as also all other kinds of canned goods, should be emptied into a china 
or glass vessel or dish when the can is opened — it should never be left in the can. 

Of the fresh fish, striped bass, butterfish, cod, cusk, eels, haddock, halibut, king- 
fish, Spanish mackerel, pollack, Pacific salmon, imported sole and sturgeon are found 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



231) 



ill the eastern market all the year rouiid. The others are, generally, in season in accord- 



ance with the rollowing list : 

Angel, or Moon Fish — July and August. 
Bass: Lake or Black — June to December. 

Sea — May to October. 
Blackfish, or Tautog — April to October. 
Bluefish — May to October. 
Bloaters — October to April. 
BoNiTO — June to October. 
Carp, Common or Buffalo — Middle of July to 

October. German — October to April. 
Codfish Tongues and Sounds — October to 

May. 
Flounders — Spring and Summer. 
Fkost-Fish — October to Marcli. 
Grayling — September to January. 
Grouper — November to Marcli. 
Hake — See Whiting. 
Herring — October to April. 
Lafayette — Middle of August to November. 
Lamprey — April to May. 
Mackerel — April to September. 
Mullet — June to October. 
Muscallonge — June to December. 
Perch — September to May. 



Pickerel — June to December. 

Pike — September to April. 

PoMPANQ — May, July, latter half of November 

and December. 
PoRGY — June 15 to October 15. 
Redsnapper — October to middle of July. 
Salmon (Kennebec)— May 15 to September 30. 
Shad — January to June. 
Sheepshead — June 15 to November 15. 
Skate, or Ray Fish — September to June. 
Smelt — August 15 to April 15. 
Spotfish — August to May. 
Trout, American — January to middle of July. 
English — January to March. 
Brook — April to August. 
Turbot, Americaii — January to July. 
English — January to March. 
Weakfish — May 15 to October 15. 
Whitebait (Imported) — March to August. 
Whitefish — November to July. 
Whiting, or Silver Hake — S eptember to 

January. 



See also additional matter concerning the fish mentioned in their respective alpha- 
betical positions. 



FISH CULTURE or Pisciculture. Propagation of the principal food fishes is con- 
ducted on a steadily expanding scale in the United States and the results long ago 
demonstrated the immense national profit derived. The salmon, tlie shad and many 
other important fishes would in all probability be practically extinct to-day if the 
hatcheries had not supplied billions of young fish to help take the place of those har- 
vested from the waters for human consumption. Such assistance is especially neces- 
sary in the case of all fresh-water fish and such salt-water fish as the salmon and 
shad, which leave the ocean to deposit their spawn in river beds and thus make total 
extermination possible. 

The greater part of the work is now performed under the jurisdiction of the 
U. S. Fisheries Commission, supplemented by that of the State Fisheries Commissions 
and various sportsmen's associations and clubs. The U. S. Fisheries Commission 
maintains a number of hatcheries along the coast, in the chief shad and salmon rivers, 
at various points along the Great Lakes, etc. Their product is variously utilized — 
part of it is distributed in the natural spawning grounds of the immediate vicinity; 
great quantities are shipped, principally as "fry" and "fingerlings," to all parts of the 
country for the stocking and replenishing of ponds, rivers, lakes, etc., and a small 
percentage are brought to maturity for breeding purposes. 

The fish most extensively cultivated are the various varieties of salmon, shad, cod. 
flounder, whitefish, trout, perch, pollack, smelt, bass, lobster, oyster, clam and terrapin. 

In addition to helping replenish the natural supply, fish culture has resulted in 
creating new sources of food by introducing valuable varieties into waters in which 
tlicy were previously unknown. Shad, for example, was formerly unknown on the 
Pacific coast, but it is now nearly as plentiful there as on the Atlantic. 

The eggs are obtained from many sources — purchased from fishermen, taken from 
fish caught for the purpose, obtained from fish specially bred, etc. They are first 



240 



THE GUOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Main Deck of the Fisheries Steamer Fish Eaick, equipped for hatching shad 

fertilized and then placed in the hatchery. With some varieties, the hatching appara- 
tus consists of wire trays held in troughs of varying size^a single tray of the kind 
generally used for salmon, about 1 foot wide and 2 feet long, will hold two gallons, or 
30,000, of salmon eggs. Others, as for whitefish, shad, lobsters, etc., generally consist 
of glass jars, similar to those shown in the accompanying illustration, from which the 
"fry" as hatched are discharged into glass tanks. 

The "fry" may be distributed as such or, according to circumstances, held in 
troughs or artificial ponds or enclosures until six or seven months old. A seven months 
trough-raised "fingerling" salmon averages from 2i/2 to 3 inches in length. 

During the year ending June 30, 1909. the U. S. Fisheries Commission distributed 
724,558,703 eggs^ 2,370,975,068 "fry" and 11,598,140 fingerlings, yearlings and adults. 

FISH GLUE. See general article on Gluh. 

FLAGEOLETS: shelled green young kidney beans, generally put up in bottles or 
cans, but also sold dried to a limited extent. The beans of the best grades are of special 
green-seeded varieties. 



FLATFISH: fish with flattened bodies and both eyes on the upper, more highly 
colored side, as the Flounder, Ilnlibut, Plaice, etc. 




(1) Klngflsh 




(2) Striped Bass 


(5) Flounder 




FISH 



f3) Sea Bass 
(4) Whiting 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYOLOPEDIA 243 



FLAVORS, or Flavoring Extracts. See Extracts. 

FLAVORS OF FOOD. See sub-head in general article on Food Values. 

FLAX: is the soft silky fibre of the flax plant, an annual which grows to a height of 
about two feet and is widely cultivated in ditferent parts of the world, principally in 
temperate climates. It is made into linen and employed also in the manufacture of fine 
writing papers, known as "linen" and "bond," and some varieties of cordage, etc. 

FLAXSEED: the small flat mucilaginous seed of the flax plant, better known as lin- 
seed — see Linseed Meal and Linseed Oil. "Flaxseed tea" is a decoction of the boiled 
seed. 

FLIES: are the natural enemies of the grocer and his stock- — and of the housewife 
and her peace. They destroy goods, discourage trade and transfer disease. Screen 
every door and window and then catch those which intrude by fly-paper — screened or 
covered if possible, for dead flies are never attractive. 

FLIP: a mulled beverage of spirits or ale, sweetened and flavored with spices, etc., 
drunk hot. 

FLITCH of Bacon: the English name for a whole side of salt pork. The term is 
also sometimes applied to any large piece of side meat. 

FLORENCE OIL: a title sometimes used for high grade Olive Oil (which see). 

FLOUNDER, or Flatfish {See Color Page opposite 240) : a common and well-known 
flatfish found at the mouths of rivers and along the coast. It varies in size from very 
small — five to the pound — to five pounds each. The spring and summer are the prin- 
cipal market seasons. The flesh is excellent — the fish being often skinned, filleted and 
served as "sole." 

The Common or Winter Flounder, is the variety generally known under the title 
of "Flounder," but there are numerous other types, prominent among them being the 
Dab, the Four-Spotted flounder and the California flounder. 

FLOUR: is grain of any kind ground to fine powder, as wheat flour, rye flour, etc. In 
general use, except when otherwise specified, the term signifies wheat flour. 

Flour is an article of prime importance to the grocer, as the quality whicli he 
furnishes has a direct effect on the growth of his trade, especially in country districts. 
Great care should therefore be taken to purchase reliable brands which do not vary 
in quality and of which the stock can be constantly renewed. 

In manufacture, the wheat is thoroughly cleaned, crushed by steel rolls into meal 
("whole meal") and sifted or "bolted" through silk cloths to separate the "flour" 
from the germs and bran (see Whe.\t). The "flour" is then ground, sifted and purified 
— once or several times, according to the grade required. 

The following rules may be used as preliminary tests for flour : 

First, look at its color. If for bread making especially, it should be creamy- 
white, for this generally indicates a strong flour. If for pastry, a starchy-white color 



244 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

is acceptable, as this indicates a soft flour. If it is so white as to have a bluish or 
grayish cast, or if it contains small black or bran specks, it is not desirable for either 
purpose. 

Next, examine its adhesiveness. Make a dough by mixing a small quantity with 
water. If it works dry and elastic, it is good ; if soft and sticky, it is poor. If when 
pulled apart it breaks short, it is deficient in gluten and therefore not suitable for 
bread making, though if it is good in other respects it may be satisfactory for pastry, 
etc. If the dough is tough and tenacious, it shows a large percentage of gluten. 

The place where flour is stored must be moderately cool, dry, well-lighted, airy and 
never exposed to a freezing temperature nor to excessive heat. An even temperature of 
70° to 75° Fahr., is best if it is to be used within six months; that to be held longer, 
should be kept in a cooler temperature. Whether in barrels or sacks, etc., it should 
always be placed on a rack at least two inches from the floor in order to allow a cur- 
rent of air to pass under and prevent dampness and it should not be placed in contact 
with grain or other substances which are liable to generate heat. 

Flour is peculiarly sensitive to atmospheric influences — hence it should never be 
stored in a room with any material which emits an odor — any smell perceptible to the 
human sense will be absorbed by it. Damp cellars or close lofts are especially unsuit- 
able. 

Flour of good quality improves in flavor and character up to about six months and 
under proper conditions will retain its merit for a considerable time thereafter. 

The three chief varieties of wheat flour are the "Patent" or "Standard Patent" 
(white), "Graham" and "Whole Wheat" — the last two containing part or all of the 
outer branny covering of the wheat. There are many grades on the market, but no one 
universally recognized standard. It is packed principally in sacks of paper, cotton or 
jute of various sizes, from 2 to 98 lbs. A barrel contains 196 lbs. 

Flour should be sifted that the particles may be thoroughly disintegrated before 
baking. If cold, it should be warmed before use. This treatment improves the color and 
baking properties of the dough. Bread sponge should be prepared for the oven as soon 
as the yeast has performed its mission, otherwise bacterial fermentation, sets in and 
acidity results. Too cold a dough causes too slow fermentation. 

Average analyses of wheat flour show from 8 to 12% water; 8 to 15% protein, 1 to 
3% fat, and 60 to 80% carbohydrates (See Food Values). White flour generally has 
a little more carbohydrates and a little less protein than Graham and Whole Wheat 
flour. 

In some sections, retailers find also a good demand for rye flour and those doing a 
"fancy" trade include in their stock such special varieties as barley, chestnut, potato, 
rice, "Boston Brown Bread," etc. The first four are chiefly imported. 

See also Rye, Self-Raising Flour, Farina, etc. 

FLUKE: a northern sea fish resembling the Flounder (which see). 

FLUMMERY: a thick hasty-pudding made of oatmeal or rice, flavored with milk, 
bitter almonds or orange flowers, etc. It is known as Sowans in Scotland. 

FLY-PAPER: should not be kept in the cellar or any damp place. Warm upper floors 
ai'e preferable. Three points should be remembered : keep it dry — keep it flat — keep it 
raoderatelv warm. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



245 



FOIE GRAS: signifies literally and actually "fat liver" — but it is applied particu- 
larly to the livers of fat geese. Those of fat ducks are similarly 
employed but the product is considered inferior and retails at 

lower prices. / ' || :^ <^^ 

One of the most famous industries of Strasburg, Germany, 



and Toulouse, France, is the scientific fattening of 



for 




A fat goose liver 



the enlargement of their livers. The birds are kept in special 
coops which prevent their taking exercise and are fed to the 
limit of their capacities. Their health is, however, carefully 
watched and the treatment is temporarily suspended in the 
case of any bird which shows even the slightest symptoms of 
sickening. 

Foie gras is imported in jars or tins in four forms — Foie 
Gras au Natiirel, Pate de Foie Gras, Puree de Foie Gras and 
Saucisson de Foie Gras. 

Foie Gras au Natiirel consists of full livers, plain cooked, put up in tins of several 
sizes. It is intended for use in the preparation of aspics, etc. 

Pate de Foie Gras, the principal form, was invented at Strasburg toward the end 
of the eighteenth century by Clausse, then chef of the Governor of Alsace. The cooked 
livers, seasoned with wine, aromatics, etc., and with cut truffles added, are filled into 
earthenware "terrines" for Terrine de Foie Gras, or pastry shells or crusts for Pate de 
Foie Gras en crotite, and surrounded and covered with a forcemeat made of liver trim- 
mings and pork. In the best grades the livers are whole ; the lesser qualities are of cut 
pieces. The terrines are made in two styles — the "flat," called "casseroles," generally 
light yellow in color, and the "high," brownish-red in hue — both styles in various sizes 
holding one-eighth, one-quarter, one-half and one pound. The Pate is also sometimes 
packed in jars of elaborate richness of appearance. 

A good Pate when opened should have, covering the other contents, a quantity of 
white or yellowish fat, rendered from the liver itself during the cooking, and should 
give out an appetizing odor. If the liver appears dry and bare of grease and gives out 
an unpleasant odor, the jar should be returned to the seller to be exchanged for another. 
This condition may be found occasionally, no matter what care has been exercised in 
putting up the product. 

Only Pate de Foie Gras made in the country or district in which the geese are reared 
and fattened is really worthy of the name, as a first-class product can only be made 
from fresh livers. A Pate made from preserved livers is never as rich because 
the liver necessarily suffers by the second cooking. 

Pate de Foie Gras should always be- served very cold — only in that condition is the 
full fine flavor obtainable. It is best to set it on ice for several hours before serving. 
If ice is not obtainable, the terrine should be submerged in the coldest water obtainable 
and kept there as long as possible. This precaution is naturally most important in 
summer and in warm countries. 

Puree de Foie Gras is made of whole livers and liver trimmings Avith some pork 
added, well seasoned and cooked and then pressed through a fine sieve. Small pieces 
of truffle are added and the paste is then canned like other potted meats. 

Saucisson (sausage) de Foie Gras. put up in cans of cylindrical shape, consists 
of the liver cut in small pieces, pistachio nuts and pieces of truffle, etc., added, the 
whole mixed witli liver trimmings and pork, then forced into casings and cooked. 



246 THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



FONDANT: soft white candy made by boiling sugar to the "ball" and working it 
till perfectly white. It is used for making bonbons, chocolate creams, etc., and, when 
softened by heat, for icing cakes, etc. 

FOOD VALUES — the Foods ive eat, their Characters, Comparative Values and 
Digestibility. There is much yet to be learned concerning the comparative effects of 
foods taken into the human system and the processes by which they are converted into 
flesh, blood, bone, nerves and brain, but the advance of knowledge in these matters 
has been very rapid during the last few decades and sufficient has been ascertained to 
give the average individual a A^ery fair idea of the needs and the requirements of the 
"machinery" which enables him to live and of the composition of the machinery itself. 

Many and complicated are the natural chemical processes by which food is trans- 
formed in the human stomach, intestines, veins, etc., but a general consideration of 
the subject is simplified by the fact that the beginning and the end — i. e., the food put 
into the stomach and the body built and sustained by the food — are composed chiefly 
of the same chemical compounds. In other words, the human body is composed of 
water, protein (a term which includes the principal nitrogenous compounds), fats, 
mineral matter (phosphate of lime — the mineral basis of bone — and numerous com- 
pounds of potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium, etc.), and carbohydrates (starches, 
sugars, etc.). And all these components are found in varying proportions in the foods 
we eat, though in the human body the carbohydrates become principally fats, only a 
very small percentage being reproduced as sugar, etc. 

Water constitutes about 60% of the entire weight of the average person, protein 
forms about 18%, fats about 15%, minerals about 6% and carbohydrates a little less 
than 1%. 

After the large amount of water and the small amount of minerals, both of which 
are absolutely essential to life, the proteins are the constituents of the first impor- 
tance for they are the chemicals which chiefly build the flesh, bone and muscle of the 
body. The principal protein compounds may be divided into albuminoids and gelati- 
noids (classed together as "proteids") and extractives. Of these, the albuminoids are 
the chief and the real body builders and the extractives are the least important except 
that they provide the flavor of meats, etc., and thus stimulate appetite and digestion. 

Protein is found in all human foods — -but in greatly varying proportions. In this 
country, any lack in other foods is made up, and very often over-done in that respect, 
by the excess of protein in meats — lean meat consists almost entirely of protein and 
water — and by the consumption of eggs, fish, etc. In Asia, the insufficiency of protein 
in the rice diet is supplied in some parts by the use of beans and peas (dried beans 
being even richer in protein than meats, in addition to their great percentage of car- 
bohydrates) or by the consumption of fresh or salted fish; or by both beans and fish. 
And similarly, in one way or another, as the result either of instinct or experience, has 
the balance been maintained with at least some degree of accuracy in every part of the 
world. 

We have said that the protein practically builds the machinery of the human 
body — but a machine needs fuel to operate — and, similarly, the human body requires 
the necessary chemicals to produce heat and energy. These it obtains to some degree 
from the protein but principally from two other foi'ms of food — fat and carbohy- 
drates. Fat is the most condensed form of fuel but the average digestion does not 
take kindly to it in over-large quantities so the greater part of the supply is in carbo- 



THE GllOCER^S ENCYCLOPEUIA 24'( 



hydrates — practically "sugar" for the starches are converted into a form of sugar in 
the stomach and intestines, as a preliminary to their assimilation by the body. 

Be it undei'stood that the term "fuel"' is not used as a mere figure of speech — 
it represents the actual uses of the food, for fats and sugars are consumed in the body 
by chemical processes which are allied in general character to the consumption of coal 
in the fire which drives an engine. The sums of heat aud energy engendered ia t!iC 
digestion, etc., of different foods have been carefully ascertained and recorded and 
are credited as so many "calories" or fuel units to a pound of each kind of food. 
Butter, for example, being 85% fat, is a fine type of human fuel and is credited with 
3,410 calories per lb. Sugar, 100% carbohydrate, contains 1,750. Beef varies from 
only 500 to 1,400 — the principal value of beef being as already noted for its protein, 
or as a flesh and muscle builder, instead of for "fuel" purposes. 

The principal forms of fat for food are those in meats of all kinds, butter, cheese, 
a few fruits (as olives) and several kinds of nuts. 

The principal sources of carbohydrates are cereals of all kinds (wheat and rye 
flour in the form of bread and otherwise, corn, rice, oatmeal, tapioca, etc.), dried 
beans and peas, a few kinds of nuts, several varieties of dried fruits, potatoes, etc., 
and in a lesser degree some fresh fruits, as apjjles and bananas. 

Sugar is 100% carbohydrate — but the system can only take it in moderate quanti- 
ties, not being fitted for the exclusive use of full carbohydrates any moi'e than for the 
use of large quantities of fat — it prefers both mixed with other components as in 
sw'eet, starchy' or fatty foods, or to produce them itself by conversion. 

The excess of fat and carbohydrates after supplying the immediate necessities of 
heat and energy, is stored in the body in the form of fat, which, except when excessive 
in amount, stands as a very real reserve store of energy when at any time the body 
requires more fuel than it can draw from the immediate supply of food. A person 
who for any reason does an unusually excessive amount of physical labor may lose 
several pounds in weight in a few hours — -the energy aud heat developed and utilized 
are necessarily drawn from the reserve force of the body as the food supply for the 
same period could not furnish so large an amount under such conditions of activity. 

A well-regulated diet for an average person of normal digestion must, therefore, 
contain a variety of foods sufficient to supply the system with an abundance of water 
(as a beverage or in food), a sufficient amount of protein to repair the waste of tissue 
and "energy foods" (fats and carbohydrates) in accordance with his manner of life 
— the more the labor required from the body, the greater should be the supply. Still 
further, the greater the proportion of hard physical labor in outdoor occupations, the 
greater, generally, the proportion of the "condensed fuel" — fats and sugars — that 
may be advantageously used. 

A diet principally of lean meat would supply too great a proportion of protein 
— one of fruits and vegetables, except dried peas and beans, peanuts, etc., would 
supply too little. Bread and good rich milk would make quite a satisfactory all-round 
diet — giving water, protein, fat and carbohydrates in very fair proportions and in 
easily digestible form, but, fortunately, we need not confine ourselves to such a very 
monotonous bill of fare! We can reach just as satisfactory a percentage by a judi- 
cious mingling of a variety of other foods with all kinds of delightful properties. 

It will be understood that all statements concerning human diet necessarily 
deal in averages — every individual must regulate the details of his diet to agree with 
the results of his own experience. Furthermore, all percentages of food components 



248 



THE GROCERY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



essential or desirable are subject to variation in different climates and countries and 
none is absolutely binding in the operation of the human machine — which is wonder- 
fully adaptable in meeting exigencies. Lean meat, for example, contains very little 
fat and no carbohydrates, but the human body, when necessary, will obtain all its fats 
and carbohydrates by chemical transformation of the protein and a man might live for 
a long time on lean meat alone. But it would not be a safe or desirable diet! 

The tables following give the average percentages of a number of general food 
items, after discarding general waste, as skin, bone, etc. The body receives a large 
proportion of the values recorded in the cases of persons of good digestive organs, if 
the foods are properly prepared — which in most cases means properly cooked. 

The importance of good cooking cannot be over-estimated — incompetent prepara- 
tion often means the loss of much of the value of the foods eaten. The valuable carbo- 
hydrates, for example, are chiefly very small starch grains enclosed in tiny cells with 
thick walls on which the digestive juices have little effect unless the walls have been 
broken by cooking — and this is only one of a great many examples that might be cited. 

The purposes of cooking are threefold — (1) to assist digestion by preparing the 
food for the action of the digestive juices; (2) to quicken the flow of the saliva and 
digestive juices by making food pleasing to the jialate and other senses, and (3) to 
destroy by heat any disease germs or parasites that it may contain. 



WATER 



FAT 



CARBOHY- 
DRATES 

(Starch, Sugar, 
Etc.) 



BEEF (frenh) 

Chuck (rib") 

Loin (medium) 

Ribs 

Round (medium) 

Shoulder and clod 

Liver (beef) 

CORNED BEEF 

VEAL 

Breast 

Leg' Cutlets 

Liver (calf) 

MUTTON 

Leg 

Loin (without kidney or 

tallow) 

LAMB 

Loin 

Leg 

PORK, salted and smoked 

Bacon 

Ham 

Salt Fat Pork 

PORK (freKh) 

Loin (chops) 

Hams (fresh) 

POULTRY 

Fowl (medium age) 

Turkey 



67 
61 
57 
68 
69 
1-2 
54 

68 
71 

75 

63 

4-8 

53 
59 

-20 
40 

8 

51 
50 

60 

58 



19 
19 

18 
31 
20 
20 
15 

20 
20 

17 

19 + 

15 

18 
18 

10 
16 



16 
16 



20 
32 



13 
19 
34 
10 
10 
5 
26 

11 



17- 
36 



28 
32 



39 

86 



32 
33 



19 
19 



"ASH" 

(Mineral Salts, 

Etc.) 



1 
1 
1- 

1 + 

n- 

5 

1 

1-f 
1-f 



THE GEOOER^'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



249 



PROTEIN 



*FISH {fresh) 

Cod (dressed) 

Mackerel 

*FISH (preserved and canned) 

Canned Salmon 

Salt Cod 

tSHELLFISH 

Oysters 

Lobster 

EGGS (uncooked) 

DAIRY PRODUCTS 

Whole Milk 

Skim Milk 

Cream 

Butter 

CHEESE (Cheddar type) 

FLOUR, CEREALS, Etc. 

Wheat Flour 

Rye Flour 

Rice (ordinary or "pol- 
ished " ) 

Oat Breakfast food 

Wheat Breakfast food . . 

Cornmeal 

Macaroni 

BREAD ( White Wheat) 

VEGETABLES 

Beans, white (dried). . . 

Beets (fresh) 

Cabbage 

Potatoes 

Squash 

Sweet Potatoes 

Tomatoes 

+FRUITS 

Apples (fresh) 

Apples (evaporated). . . . 

Bananas 

Dates (dried) 

Figs (dried) 

Grapes 

Oranges 

Prunes 

Strawberries 

ttNUTS 

Pecans 

Peanuts 

Walnuts 



83 
T4. 

64. 

58 

88 J^ 

74. 

8T . 
90+ 
74.}.^ 
II 

12 
13 

13 

8 

10 

14. 

35h' 

l'2K 

88 

91 

791.^ 

90 

71 

94^^ 

85+ 

27 

77 

15+ 

19- 

79 

87i>| 

22+ 

911^ 

3K 
3}i 



18 

22 
21 



6 
l(j 
13 

3+ 
31,3' 

2K 
1 

111-3' 

7 



161.^ 
12 
9 
13^1 



m 

1- 

1^-2 
1- 



2- 
1 

2+ 
4+ 

n4 
1- 
2 
1- 

12+ 

30 

18 + 



F.4.T 



7 
12 

1 + 
■2- 

12 

4 

J2- 
18 
85 
37 

1 
1- 

H 
7 

1^ 

2 

1- 

2- 



2+ 

3- 

M 



60l.< 



CAKBOHY- 

DRATES 

(Stabc'h, Sugar, 

Etc.) 



3M 
1^- 



3+ 



75 

78 

79 

66>>i 

75 

74 

74 

53 

59}4 

9i4 

6 
18 

8 
36 

3>^ 

13 

67 
S0}4 

78>^ 
74 

11 

731^ 

12+ 

17 

16 



•' ASH ■ 

(Mineral Silts, 

Etc.) 



* See also article on Fish. 

t See also article on Shellfish. 



t See also article on Frcits (Food Values). 
ii See also article on Nuts. 



1- 
1- 

2 

20^2 

1- 



1- 

}-i 
% 
% 

3 

4 



1- 



1 
1 
I 

SK 

1- 

1 

1- 

.I2+ 
1- 
1/ 



1- 

2K 

K 

2}^- 

113 
l,^i 



In order to avoid incorrect deductions from a study of the table.s 'given, we mav 
add that, though the chief purposes of food are to build the body and supply it with 
the necessary warmth and energy, and that therefore the principal foods mav be 



250 THE GROOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

judged by their percentage of protein, fat and carboliydrates, etc., the limitations of 
the human digestive organs must always be borne in mind. Cheese, for example, is 
rich in both protein and fat, and the peanut in protein, fats and carbohydrates — • 
either should apparently be most valuable as a leading article of diet, but the average 
digestion will accept and assimilate them only in small quantities. 

On the other hand, many vegetables which show but very small percentages of 
food value are of vital importance because of the salts they contain and because their 
special composition assists in the digestion of the main foods. Many fruits have this 
useful quality in addition to high food value. 

The average American diet is not so far from being correct as many critics 
declare and it could be made an excellent standard by decreasing the amount of meat 
generally consumed and increasing the proportion of green vegetables and fruits. An 
excessive consumption of meat means an o\'er-supply of protein which doubles the 
work — and therefore the risks — of nature to dispose of it or to convert it into carbo- 
hydrates, in the latter case endangering the balance of health by giving the system too 
great a supply of fuel — for, as already noted, there is an ample supply of carbohydrates 
in all popular diets, the only lack in other than American being in the supply of 
diminutive size. 

The Flavors of Food. The distinctive flavors of different foods are attributable to 
a variety of causes. 

In fresh meats, they are due to the extractives which in varying proportions form 
part of the protein. Some "game" birds are especially rich in that respect — hence the 
high esteem in which they are held by epicures. The flavors of fruits and vegetables 
are usually attributable to similar components. The extractives are generally 
enhanced by the process of cooking — and in meats, birds, etc., are also developed by 
"aging" in a greater or less degree. 

In many other foods, the distinctive flavor, instead of being an essential part of 
their natural development, hinges on the special methods of their commercial prepara- 
tion. In hams and other smoked meats, it is largely due to the acid in the wood 
smoke in which they are suspended. In black tea, cheese, butter and many other 
examples, it is the result of chemical changes brought about by the growth and respi- 
ration of microscopic plants during manufacture — for all plants, whether microscopic 
or visible, breathe as do human beings, producing the same chemical change of the 
oxygen of the air into carbon-dioxide. 

The difference between green and black tea is attributable chiefly to the fact that 
for the latter the tea leaves are allowed to ferment before they are "fired" or roasted. 
This, translated in the light of modern botanical knowledge, means that the micro- 
scopic plants in the moist leaves are permitted to respire for a time before they are 
killed by the heat applied in the firing machines. 

The difference between Camembert aiid Swiss cheese — or any other varieties — is 
similarly the difference in the microscopic plants which respired within them during 
the process of ripening — plants furthermore that can be transplanted in spite of their 
protein. 

See articles on Bacteria. Mold and Yeast. 

Time Required for Digestion. The table following gives the average time employed 
in the digestion of the foods named. No absolute deductions can be made from the 




(1) Cod 

(2) Haddock 



(5; Halibut 
FISH 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



253 



figures, but foods which take louger than foui* hours for the process are generally unde- 
sirable, except in rerv limited quantities. 



Hours. Min. 

Apples I, ra w ) 1 25 

Apples (stewed) 1 35 

Beans (boiled) 2 30 

Beans (puree) 1 30 

*Beef (lean, rare, roasted) 3 00 

Beef (stewed) 2 45 

Beef, fresh salted (boiled) 2 45 

Beef, old salted (boiled) 6 00 

Beefsteak (grilled) 3 00 

Beets (boiled) 3 45 

Bread 3 30 

Butter (melted) 3 30 

Bread and butter with coffee 3 45 

Cabbage (boiled) 4 30 

Chicken (boiled) 2 00 

Chicken (fricasseed) 2 45 

Chicken (roasted) 4 00 

Cheese, old 3 30 

Duck (roasted) 4 00 

Eel (roasted) 6 00 

Eggs, fresh (raw) 2 00 

Eggs, fresh (whipped raw) 1 30 

Eggs, fresh (soft boiled) 3 00 

Eggs, fresh (hard boiled) 4 00 

Eggs, fresh (scrambled) 3 00 

Fish (other than fat varieties, boiled) . . 1 30 

Fish (other than fat varieties, fried) 3 00 



Hours. Min. 

Hashed Meat (warmed) 2 30 

Liver (calf's, fried or sauteed) 2 30 

Liver (beef, fried or sauteed) 3 00 

Lamb (grilled) 2 30 

Lentils (boiled) 2 30 

Milk (raw) 2 15 

Milk (boiled) 2 00 

Mutton (boiled or broiled) 3 00 

Mutton (lean, roasted) 3 15 

Nuts 5 00 

Oysters (raw) 2 55 

Oysters (stewed) 3 30 

Onions (stewed) 3 30 

Peas (boiled) 2 30 

Pig, suckling (roasted) 2 30 

Pork, fat (roasted) 5 15 

Pork, salt (boiled) 3 15 

Potatoes (baked) 2 30 

Potatoes (boiled) 3 30 

Rice (boiled) 1 00 

Sausage, fresh (grilled) 3 30 

Sausage (smoked) 5 00 

Spinach (stewed) 1 30 

Salmon, fresh (boiled) 1 30 

Turkey (roasted or boiled) 2 30 

Turnips (boiled) 3 30 

Veal (roasted) 4 30 



*Meat is generally more easily digested raw than cooked, but its consumption in that condition 
is attended with risk of intestinal disturbances from the parasite life it sometimes contains. 

Comparative Digestibility of Foods. The following list of foods considered from 
the standpoint of the ease or otherwise with which they can be digested by dyspeptics, 
is adapted from a folder entitled Diet and General Directions Suitable for Those Suf- 
fering from Indigestion, given by the authorities of Cambridge University, England, 
to each pupil on or shortly after his arrival : 

First Group. Articles ea»y of digestion and most suitable for the dyspeptic. 
Cliicken, eggs (lightly cooked), sweetbread, squab, mutton, venison, rabbit. 
Flounder, chicken halibut, smelt, whiting. 
Stale bread, biscuits, arrowroot, cornstarch, rice, sago, tapioca. 
Asparagus, cauliflower, sea-kale, string beans. 
Baked apples, grapes, oranges. Beef-tea, milk, mutton broth. 
Toast-water, black tea, Bordeaux wines (Claret and Sauternes), Rhine wines, 
dry sherry. 

Second Group. Articles moderately easy of digestion, but only admissible in the 
less severe cases of indigestion. 

Soups in general. 

Beef, lamb, hare, turkey, duck, guinea fowl, wild waterfowl, woodcock, snipe. 

Bass, cod, haddock, oysters (raw), perch, pike, pollack, porgy, pompano, Kenne- 
bec salmon, shad, trout, turbot, weakfish, whitefisli. 

Artichokes, cabbage, potatoes, salads of lettuce or cress, tomatoes, turnips. 

Apples, apricots, gooseberries, mulberries, peaches, pineapples. 

Cooked fruit in general, marmalade, jelly, richly made farinaceous puddings. 

Cocoa, coffee, malt drinks, Madeira and Burgundy. 



254 THE GIIOCBE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Third Gkoup. Articles difficult of diyeatioii. Feio of the articles contained in 
this group should ever he taken by the dyspeptic, and those to which an asterisk is 
prefixed should he regarded by him more in the light of poison than food. 

Hard-boiled eggs, *pork, *veal, *goose, the brains, *heart, *liver and *kidney of 
animals, ^hashed or *stewed meats, salt meat, *sausage. 

Cockles, crab, crayfish, *eel, herring, lobster, *mackerel, *mussels, cooked oysters, 
prawns, salmon, scallops, shrimps, skate, sprats, sturgeon and salted fish in general. 

New bread, cheese, *muffins, *mushrooms, pancake, *pastry in general, pickles, 
plum pudding, *suet pudding, buttered toast. 

^Nuts of all kinds. 

Cherries, pears, plums, dried fruits. 

Beans, beetroot, carrots, *raw cucumbers, endive, Jerusalem artichokes, onions, 
parsnips, peas. 

Chocolate, champagne, port, liqueurs. 

General Directions. Dyspeptics should observe great regularity in the hours of 
meals — any changes in the time of meals should be gradually made. Solid food should 
be thoroughly masticated before being swallowed. 

FOOTS : the settling in oil, sugar, honey or molasses casks. All scrapings of sugar 
hogsheads and other refuse of sugar warehouses, etc., come under this name. It is 
also applied to industrial Olive Oil (which see), etc. 

FORBIDDEN FRUIT: another name for the Shaddock (see Grape Fruit). 

FORCEMEAT: chopped meat mixed with herbs and condiments, used for stuffing 
fowlSf for croquettes, etc. • 

FOWL: a word which was originally used in the same general sense as "bird" but 
which is in modern language applied only to poultry, particularly the domestic cock or 
hen, and to-day generally signifies those too old for broiling. The word "chicken" is 
now almost universally used both in trade circles and in government reports to 
designate fowl of any size killed for eating. 

FRANKFURTERS. See sub-head in general article on Sausages. 

FREEZING. Fruits, vegetables, etc., and nearly all liquids are very liable to damage 
by frost, and care should be exercised when ordering them in cold weather, as such 
goods are generally sent at the risk of the purchaser. In winter, the cellar is the best 
place for all goods in bottles, tin or wood, which are liable to freeze — a bottle of 
bluing or ink that freezes and cracks may ruin a whole shelfful of goods. 

FRENCH BEANS: tlie English name for String Beans (see Beans). 

FRENCH BREAD: a popular title for long, very narrow loaves. See Bread. 

FRENCH DRESSING: a term applied to several receipts for simple salad dressings. 
The correct formula consists of four parts of olive oil to one part of good vinegar, 
with a small quantity of fine table salt and ground pepper — two saltspoonfuls of salt 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



255 



and one-half saltspoonful of pepper being iu correct proportion when four tablespoon- 
fuls of oliye oil are used. 

A little onion juice or chopped parsley, tarragon, chives or chervil may be added 
if desired. 

FRENCH ROLLS: a somewhat indefinite term popularly applied to almost any 
good-quality bread rolls, particularly those in special shapes. 

FRENCH WINES. Among the best known types of French wines are Champagne, 
red and white Bordeaux wines (see Claret and Bordeaux Wines, White), Bur- 
gundy, Saumur, Cette, Hermitage and Eivesaltes, all of which are listed elsewhere in 
their alphabetical positions. 

FRIED CAKES: a local name for Crullers and Doughnuts. 

FRIEDRICHSHALL. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

FRIJOLE BEANS, See sub-head iu general article on Beans. 

FRITTERS: a species of fried batter-cake, generally enclosing fruit, sweetmeats, 
poultry, meat, fish, etc., as Banana Fritters, Clam Fritters, etc. 

FROGS' LEGS. The hind legs of the common green frog are enjoyed in both Europe 
and the United States as a delicate food much resembling chicken. There are two 
varieties on the market — the small marsh frog and the large bull frog. The latter is 




A Pennsylvania Frog "Farm"— the masses floating on the surface of the pond are frog spawn nearly ready to hatch 



256 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

the more convenient for use and market purposes, but the smaller kind is more delicate 
in flesh. They are in season all the year, but are considered best from June to October. 
Frog farming has become a recognized industry, the output of the ponds having, 
in the neighborhood of large cities, a sure sale at fair prices. Among the devices for 
feeding them are boards smeared with honey or sugar, to attract insects which the frogs 
greedily devour. 

FROST-FISH or Tom-Cod: a small American fish varying in weight from five to 
a pound to a pound each. It is most plentiful in winter. 

FROSTING: a domestic term for meringue or icing for cakes. See Icing. 

FRUITS — Their Food Values, Etc. It is not so many years ago that the arrival 
of the "strawberry season" constituted as real and distinct a mark on the calendar 
as the commencement of school holidays. Tlie season was short — and for that reason 
perhaps the berries seemed doubly delicious I Then, later on, the Easpberry reached 
the markets and the hucksters heralded its arrival through the streets. And so the 
spring and summer divided their honors among various fruits, sometimes singly and 
again in groups. 

But now, all bars are down ! We can enjoy most fruits the year round — the prices 
vary, but there is seldom any "closed season." And many fruits formerly rare are 
now plentiful. The best example of this is the banana — a few years ago a rarity to 
the inhabitants of inland towns, but to-day found in every hamlet throughout the 
country. In the winter, it and the orange, pineapple and other tropical and sub-trop- 
ical fruits from California, the south and elsewhere, are supplemented with fancy 
melons, peaches, plums, etc., from various parts of the world — including southern 
Europe and South Africa — and early in the spring, long before they are ripe in the 
North, Florida and other southern points are shipping carloads of strawberries and 
other berries up through the states. Modern methods of refrigeration and transpor- 
tation have revolutionized this branch of our food supply. 

The fruits of temperate climates can nearlj^ all be divided into three classes — 
.siOHe, such as plums, peaches, etc. ; jJome, apples, pears, etc., and berries. The prin- 
cipal exceptions are melons, rhubarb and kindred fruits more nearly allied to what are 
popularly known as vegetables. 

Tropical fruits are more diversified in characteristics, but one family, the citrus, 
includes a number of the best known — as oranges, grape fruit, lemons and limes. 

In addition to the delicious and pleasing variety they give — or should be allowed 
to give !^to the' diet, fruits of all kinds, because of their composition and components, 
greatly assist in the functions of general digestion and thus increase the value obtain- 
able from what may be described as the "main" foods. The quantity that may be eaten 
raw, depends upon individual circumstances. An excess of unripe fruit may cause 
stomach irritation as the result of an excess of acid generated — and over-ripe sweet 
fruits may set up abnormal fermentation — but a moderate amount of fruit in fairly 
ripe condition will nearly always be found most advantageous. Cooked fruits can be 
used and enjoyed with equal benefit and still greater freedom. 

The composition of a majority of ripe, fresh fruits includes about 80% water, a 
fair percentage of carbohydrates — principally sugar and crude fibre — and a small per- 
centage of protein compounds and mineral salts, ether extract, etc. The sugar per- 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 257 



centage, considered particularly as food or uutrient value, is lowest in berries, as black- 
berries and strawberries, and highest in bananas, loquats and American persimmons. 
Next in degree below the last-named are cherries, medlars, pears, Japanese persim- 
mons, pomegranates, sapodillas, scarlet haws and apples. 

It is, however, largely the combination of water, sugar and crude fibre and salts 
rather than their nutritive components which makes most fruits so desirable an addition 
to the diet and gives them their value as anti-scorbutics, laxatives, etc. — hence, as auxili- 
ary foods, some fruits of minor food percentages (lemons and oranges, for example), 
are as desirable and useful as they are delicious. 

Lemons, limes and similar fruits popularly known as "acid" or "sour," hold most 
of their merit in their juices and consequently genuine lime or lemon juice is nearly as 
efficacious as the fresh fruit, but in a majority of other fruits it is the combination 
referred to which gives them their medicinal value. Eemembrance of this fact Avill 
guard against many popular errors. It is a common su^jposition that it is the juice 
of the orange, for example, which contains the laxative value when the fruit is taken 
early in the morning, and hence many people express it into a glass to drink it — and 
are disappointed in its effects. Orange juice is a delightfully refreshing, cooling bever- 
age, but it is the whole flesh of the orange which should be eaten — to get the combina- 
tion of the sugar of the juice and the crude fibre, etc., of its containing matter. 

The flavor of fruits is due partly to the malic, citric and other acids which they 
contain, but chiefly to their ether extracts. The reason that some fruits, as very 
sweet apples and pears, seem sweeter to the palate than other fruits containing a 
larger percentage of sugar, is found in the fact that they maj^ contain a larger average 
proportion of Fruit Sugar as distinguished from Grape Sugar. Both are "sugars" 
but the former is much the sweeter to the palate. 

Nearly all fruits are best held at a temperature of about 40° Fahr. — the tempera- 
ture of the ordinary refrigerator. Anything below that, any approach to freezing, is 
dangerous to most varieties. 

Temperate-climate fruits, as apple, pears, etc., will under ordinarily good condi- 
tions keep fairly well in a temperature not exceeding 60° to 65° Fahr., but when the 
thermometer goes above that point, all stock except that for immediate sale or con- 
sumption should be stored in the refrigerator. Citrus fruits — oranges, lemons, limes, 
grape fruit, etc. — are generally safe up to 80° or 85° Fahr., but beyond that they are 
liable to shrivel and dry out. 

Fancy Fruits, such as hothouse grapes, fine peaches, green figs, etc., should 
always be kept at a temperature of about 40° Fahr., only the smallest necessary quan- 
tity being exposed for show, and must be carefully handled to avoid bruising. 

The exceptions to these rules are fruits which require ripening after receipt, as 
bananas (which see), some varieties of pears, etc. 

All fruits should be washed before eating. 

Dried fruits, such as prunes, figs, apples, etc., should be consumed more freely 
than at present, for they contain all the good qualities of the fresh fruit — the only 
loss having been of part of their water content. In some, prunes for example, the 
sugar value is increased by the process of drying. See article on Food Values and 
the matter concerning individual fruits under their respective headings. 

FRUIT BUTTERS: are preserves of fruits, made without retaining their form, less 
sweet than jam and of a consistence somewhat resembling butter. The trade usually 



258 THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



buj's them in large wooden pails and retails them by the pound. Many of the lesser 
grades are prepared from damaged fruits and the lowest quality of molasses. 

FRUIT CONCRETE: of lemons and oranges, is a term sometimes applied to ter- 
peneless essential oils. 

FRUIT EXTRACTS, Essences, Flavors. See article on Extracts. 

FRUIT JARS. See remarks under heading of Jars. 

FRUIT JUICES. High class fruit juices are simply the expressed juices of ripe 
fruits, sterilized before fermentation has commenced and carefully bottled. Among 
the most popular types are grape juice, lime juice and unfermented cider (apple 
juice), which are treated under their respective headings. If the fruits are sound and 
the process of manufacture carefully controlled, no preservatives of any kind are 
needed. 

The addition of sugar is permissible and also carbon-dioxide for carbonated fruit 
beverages, but if alcohol, preservatives or coloring matter are added, the label should 
disclose the fact. 

FRUIT SYRUPS. As generally understood in the trade. Fruit Syrups are divided 
into two classes, those bottled to be retailed for home use in making summer drinks, 
and those put up in various kinds of receptacles for sale to soda fountains, etc. The 
best types are pure fruit juices concentrated and heavily sweetened. Lower grades 
are liable to be artificial both in flavor and color. 

The home use of good fruit syrups is worth encouraging. They form an agreeable 
variation to the time-honored lemonade made from the fruit, and similar beverages, 
and are much less trouble — ^you merely pour a little syrup in the tumbler and fill with 
cold water, either plain or carbonated. There is no fuss with squeezers, sugar bowl, 
etc., and the result is deliciously refreshing. 

The visitor to Paris always notes with interest the great variety of fruit Sirops 
sold at all refreshment stands and at the syrup booths along the boulevards. Their 
popularity is due to the fact that, as a general thing, their purity and quality have 
been carefully guarded. They are drunk mixed either with plain or effervescent 
water. Some customers who wish the sweetness modified, procure a delightful drink 
by adding wine — or substituting it for the water. 

The Syrups most in favor are currant, raspberry, cherry, pomegranate (grenadin), 
and almond (orgeat). 

Skill is also displayed in the mingling of fiavors. Sirop de groseilles'. currant 
syrup, for example, generally consists of four parts of red currant and one part of 
bitter cherries. Sirop de groseilles framhoisees, is four parts of currant syrup and one 
part each of raspberries and bitter cherries. 

1 
FRUMENTY: a gruel made by boiling wheat in water until quite soft, then drained, 
thinned with millc, moistened with sugar and fiavored with nutmeg, etc. When cur- 
rants and eggs are added, the result is "Somersetshire Frumenty.'" 

FRYING. See sub-head in o;eneral article on Cookery. 



T H E G K ( ) CK R ■ S E N C Y C L P E D I A 259 



FULLER'S EARTH: a uon-plastic clay, used in "fulling" (cleansing and shrink- 
ing) cloth, to remove grease and for numerous other purposes. It is sold both in lump 
and powder, the latter obtained by soaking it in water. 

FUNGI : a botanical term applied to all vegetation which is unable to draw its nour- 
ishment from the chemical components of the earth, as do all the "ordinary" plants, 
and must live on "organic" substances — animal or vegetable matter, alive or decay- 
ing — resembling in that respect members of the animal kingdom. The order comprises 
a great number of species, differing widely in size, appearance and characteristics — 
some very valuable, others most pernicious. The higher Fungi include all mush- 
rooms, some of which rank as very nutritious human food, truffles and kindred plants. 
The smallest, known as micro-organisms, or microbes, include the yeast-cells employed 
in the making of wine, and in numerous other ways; the molds which produce moldi- 
ness, mildew, etc., and bacteria of all kinds. 

See Bacteria_, Micro-organisms^ Molds, Mushrooms, Truffles and Yeast. 

GALACTOSE: a variety of milk-sugar or lactose formed by boiling it with dilute 
acid, which is frequently employed in the ripening of cheese. Old cheese is a predi- 
gested food, largely as the result of the action of galactose, which will continue work- 
ing at low temperatures in which bacteria are practically inert. 

GALANGALE: an aromatic root somewhat resembling ginger, imported from 
China. It is used, though less than formerly, as a condiment and medicinally. 

GALANTINE: a name applied to fowls, game, fish or other meat, boned, stuffed 
and roasted — or boiled or braised — then pressed and cut in slices or put in molds, cov- 
ered with aspic jelly and decorated with truffles. 

"Goose Liver Galantine" and "Sweetbread Galantine" are also set in bases of well 
seasoned, fine chopped pork mixture in place of aspic jelly. 

GALLON . See table of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

GAME : any wild bird or other animal used as food, such as grouse, rabbits, etc. The 
term is also applied in a limited sense to animals generally existing in a wild state even 
Avhen partly or wholly domesticated. 

The State and Federal Game Laws in force are so numerous and so varying in 
character and detail, that any attempt to condense or quote from them would probably 
prove misleading — especially as they are liable to change at any time. A recent gov- 
ernment publication consumed fifty-four pages to cover the subject. Copies of the cur- 
rent issues of this, and many other instructive books and pamphlets, can be obtained by 
writing to the Division of Publications, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 

GAMMON OF BACON : a local term for a leg of salt pork. 

GARBANZA or CJiicl; Pea : a food widely used in Mediterranean countries and, 
probably, the "pulse" of the Hebrews. It is much larger than the common pea, grows 
singly in round pods and presents a wrinkled appearance when dried. It forms the 
basis of the 011a Podrida of Spain. 



260 



THE GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



GARDEN BALM, Balm Mint, Lemon Balm: an aromatic herb of 
the mint family, with, generally, a marked lemon odor. It is used 
chiefly for household culinary purposes and in the manufacture of 
liqueurs and perfumes. 

GARFISH: an elongated spear-mouthed fish, which looks like a cross 
between a mackerel and an eel. It is prepared and served in any 
manner suitable for eels. 

GARLIC: a vegetable similar to a small onion but with the bulb 
divided into ten or twelve sections known as "cloves." At certain sea- 
sons it abounds in many pastures and imparts a very strong rank flavor 
to the milk and butter of cows which feed on it. Its main use in cook- 
ery is to flavor soups and sauces and in salads, pickles, etc. 




Garlic — the roots tied 
to a bundle of straw 



GARNISH: a term employed in general culinary pai'lance to include almost any- 
thing dainty in appearance or composition served with meat and fish dishes, etc. It 
may be merely a simple border of parsley, sliced beets, etc., or any one of a hundred 
mixtures, including mushrooms, truffles, crayfish tails, shrimps, cockscombs, vegetables 
cut into, shapes, etc., with or without sauce. 

GARNISHEE: one in whose hands the property of another has been attached in a 
suit against the latter by a third person. He is "garnished," or warned, not to pay out 
any money, or deliver any goods, belonging to the party named, but to appear in 
court as having possession of such property. 

GARUM: a heavily salted and highly seasoned sauce or relish made from fish — prin- 
cipally from those of the Scomber family, as the tunny, mackerel, etc., — in the state of 
fermentation, the flesh itself or the blood and gills being variously employed. The 
Garum of the Romans was generally prepared from the Anchovy (which see). 



GAS. The revolutionizing of general illumination by the substitution of gas for can- 
dles and lamps, is credited to a Scotchman named William Murdock. He conceived 
the idea in 1792 and demonstrated its utility by illuminating his home at Eedruth, 
Cornwall, with gas drawn through seventy feet of piping from the place of manufac- 
ture. He also advertised his invention by carrying portable gas-lamps through the 
streets, the burners supplied by bladders filled with gas. This first product was poor 
in illuminating power, smoky and vinreliable, but Murdock made many improvements 
in it, including in his process its partial purification by passing it through water, 
which is still one of the essential features of modern manufacture. The first illumi- 
nation on a large scale was by a Murdock installation which lighted the Soho Engine 
Works at Birmingham, England, in 1798. The pioneer American gas plant was 
erected at Newport, R. I., in 1812, by David Melville. The first gas company formed 
to light the streets of an American city was that in Baltimore in 1816. Boston fol- 
lowed in 1822 and New York in 1823. ' 

The chief forms of commercial gas now utilized are coal gas, natural gas, water 
gas, producer gas, petroleum or oil gas and acetylene gas. Except where natural gas 




(1) American Grouse (Prairie Chicken) (2) American Partridge (Ruffed Grouse) 

(3) Woodcock (4) Quail 

GAME 



THE GKOOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 26S 



is obtainable, coal gas is the form chiefly employed for street and household illumina- 
tion, household cooking, etc. 

Coal Gas, also known as Illuminating Gas, is obtained by the Destructive Dis- 
tillation (see sub-head in general article on Distillation) of coal, principally bitu- 
minous (or "soft") coal. When used chiefly for illuminating purposes, it is frequently 
enriched by the addition of petroleum gas or benzol, a coal-tar product. The crude 
product is most offensive in smell, but its odor is greatly modifled and reduced by pass- 
ing through a "scrubber" — falling water on a coke bed or perforated iron plates — bj 
purification by oxide of lime or iron, etc. 

The storage tank or cylinder of the gas plant, familiar in general appearance to 
every consumer, is essentially a large "bell" set inside a circular steel framework. The- 
bottom of the bell rests in a deep-water seal and is automatically raised as the gas 
is carried into it. When the tank is raised close to the top of the framework, it 
is full of gas ; when it has shrunk low and the bare frame shows against the sky, the 
supply is very scant. 

Commercial coal gas varies greatly in components but an average analysis will 
show about 46% hydrogen, 40% marsh gas (the principal constituent of natural gas), 
5% olefiant gas or ethylene, which is extremely luminous, and 5% carbon monoxide. 
It is the carbon monoxide which renders coal gas especially poisonous. 

Natural Gas, which flows freely from subterranean sources in various parts of this 
and other countries — generally from beds of coal or petroleum — varies considerably ini 
composition, but marsh gas is its chief component. Pittsburg natural gas shows ao' 
average of 92% marsh gas and 3% olefiant. ,, , 

Petroleum or Oil Gas is obtained by passing, oil through superheated pipes or re- 
torts. It can be made from any fats, oils or grease — even from some city garbage. 

Producer Gas, so-called because made in various types of "producer equipments'* 
or machines, is made largely from low-grade coal, hard or soft. Instead of being- 
secured, as coal gas, by dry distillation, it is obtained by the destruction of the coal! 
by its own partial combustion in closed furnaces, steam being introduced during the- 
process. It was formerly employed chiefly in the iron industry. It is nbt suitable for- 
household purposes but in recent years has become increasingly important as power- 
fuel. 

Water Gas is manufactured from anthracite (or "hard") coal, or coke, and steam_ 
The coal is placed in an air-tight cylinder, ignited and blasted to incandescent heat_ 
The blast is then shut off and dry steam is blown through, the resultant gasi 
being carried by pipes into the reservoir. As soon as the coal begins to cool, the steami 
is shut off and the blast again blows the coal to a white heat, the process being: 
repeated every few minutes until the coal is exhausted. Water gas is excellent for- 
heating purposes, but where it is desired for illumination it is necessary to enrich it by 
the addition of carbon or petroleum gas. 

Acetylene Gas is obtained by the action of water on calcium carbide. It gives a^ 
brilliant white light, but is too expensive for general use in competition with other 
commercial gases. 

Store Illumination. The retailer who relies on gas for store illumination, should 
use the best burners and mantles obtainable and see that both are always in good 

14 



264 THE GKOCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

condition. With proper attention, a store lighted by gas can be made as brilliant as 
if wired for electricity. 

The efficiency and cost of illumination is also affected by the color and coverings 
of the walls and ceiling. If painted white or even tinted a faint grey-cream, and kept 
clean and fresh, fully double the illumination will be obtained from the same number 
of burners as in places where the walls and ceilings are badly soiled or are covered 
with paper or paint of blue, green, brown or red. Next best to the faint grey-cream 
mentioned, are very light-greenish, and light yellow. 

GASOLINE: a light inflammable oil obtained by the distillation of Naphtha. It has 
many uses, being employed in the household, etc., for illuminating and cooking, to 
generate power in automobiles, launches, etc., and for the cleaning of fabrics. When 
carried in stock, care should be taken to comply with all insurance requirements. 

GAUGE, GAUGE ROD. Gauging is the method of determining the quantity of 
liquid in vessels such as barrels, casks, etc. 

The exact capacity of any vessel or receptacle may be obtained by measuring the 
dimensions and then conducting the calculation upon geometrical principles. An 
approximate measurement can be obtained more easily by the average person by 
means of a gauge-rod suitably adjusted for the purpose. The instrument usually 
employed is a diagonal rod, the contents of the cask being inferred from the diagonal 
length, measured from the bung-hole to the extremity of the opposite stave at the head. 
On one face of a square rule is a scale of inches for taking the measure of the diag- 
onal, the scale on the opposite face expressing the contents in gallons. Only approxi- 
mate results are thus obtainable, yet with experience it is possible to measure the 
contents with sufficient accuracy to answer general requirements. 

GEDORT. See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 

GELATINE : is made from various animal substances, but chiefly from the bones and 
the softer parts of the hides, etc., of cattle, by boiling them and treating with steam. 

The best gelatines are generally secured from selected calf's stock — the cheek and 
neck pieces, membranes, skin, fibres, tissues, etc., and the organic parts of the bones. 
The crude gelatine thus obtained is placed in lime water for several weeks until it 
becomes free from all gross matter. It is next washed thoroughly in fresh water until 
it becomes delicate, white and translucent and, when put in the kettle, melts under the 
slightest heat. The liquor is finally drawn off slowly, clarified, filtered and run into 
pans to be cooled, after which it is sliced, dried and granulated. 

It is difficult to test gelatine. Some manufacturers suggest a test with boiling 
water poured over soaked gelatine, attaching the highest importance to the absence of 
odor and color, but this may prove deceptive, as the very poorest gelatine can be made 
both odorless and colorless by bleaching the collogen with sulphuric acid or peroxide 
of hydrogen and many states forbid such bleaching. 

Gelatine, although not a life sustaining food, is used in considerable quantities in 
hospitals and is recommended by physicians as an article of diet, because of its qual- 
■ ity of making some other foods more palatable or more easily digestible. 

Its uses in the ordinary household are many and varied, ranging from adding 
body to soups, to making candies, ice creams and desserts. 



THE GK0CEK''S encyclopedia 



265 



GENOA CAKE: a fruit cake with chopped almonds on top. "Seed Genoa" has 
caraway seeds instead of the almonds. 

GEODUCK: a huge clam found on the Pacific Coast. One often serves as a full meal 
for several persons. 

GERVAIS. See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 

GHEE: a sort of butter used by the natives of India, prepared generally from buffalo 
milk. The milk is boiled in large earthen pots for an hour or two, then allowed to 
cool, a little curdled milk called "dhye" being added in order to make the whole coagu- 
late. After a lapse of some hours, the top five or six inches of the contents of each 
pot is taken off and placed in a larger earthenware utensil, in which it is churned, by 
means of a piece of split bamboo, for about half an hour. Hot water is then poured 
in, and the churning is continued for half an hour longer, by which time the butter has 
formed. The butter is allowed to become rancid and is then melted in an earthen 
vessel and boiled until all the water has evaporated. A little salt or betel-leaf, 
is added and it is finally poured off into suitable vessels in which it can be preserved 
from the air, bottles being commonly used for the purpose. 

GHERKINS. Several varieties of the common cucumber, gen- 
erally those with prickly skins, are specially cultivated for 
gathering while still small to pickle as "Gherkins." 

The original Gherkin, or Jamaica Cucumber, is a distinct 
variety native to Jamaica and locally used both fresh boiled 
and pickled. It is about half as thick as long, of light green 
color and prickly to a marked degree. 

GIBLETS : a term which formerly signified only the entrails 
of poultry, but is now applied to parts and trimmings such as 
the heart, liver, gizzard, neck, and ends of the wings and legs. 

GIN. There are on the market an unfortunately large number of "gins" which are 
badly adulterated imitations of the original Jenever of Holland, and they have tended 
to lower the spirit in general public opinion, but the finer varieties, both domestic 
and imported, deservedly hold among the initiated as high position as any other liquor. 

The best gin is made from barley malt and rye, with generally a small percentage 
of corn. Practically all the product owes its flavor, either wholly or in part, to the use 
of juniper berries — its distinctive title being indeed due to this characteristic. In 
Dutch, French and Italian, the same words {jenever, genidvre, ginepro) apply equally 
to the liquor and the juniper plant, and the English "gin" is merely an abbreviated 
corruption of the Dutch "Jenever." 

The name "Geneva," often used to designate Gin, is attributable to a popular 
confusion of ideas caused by the similarity of the Dutch and French names for the 
juniper berry with that of the noted Swiss city. The city of Geneva has never claimed 
prominence in, nor given its name to, the manufacture of gin. 

The numerous varieties may be grouped in two general classes, one commonly known 
as "Holland" Gin, and the other as "British." Each is again divided into Unsweetened 




266 THE GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

or "Dry," and Sweetened, the latter type of British Gin being commonly known as 
"Tom Gin." 

There are four principal steps in the manufacture of Holland Oin. The product 
of the first distillation is called "Euwnat," or "low wines." It is low in proof and 
raw in taste and is re-distilled to form "Enkelnat," which is higher in proof and shows 
some gin character. The Enkelnat is re-distilled into "Moutwyn," which is the foun- 
dation of all Holland Gin. From it, by a fourth distillation, each distiller makes a 
number of varieties — coriander seeds and various roots being added to the juniper 
berries used in flavoring. 

Holland Gin is generally made in several strengths, the milder to be bottled with- 
out blending, the stronger to be used for blending with neutral spirits, the former 
being decidedly superior. The most famous variety is "Schiedam Schnapps," named 
after the city of Schiedam, where more than 200 gin distilleries are in continuous 
operation. To the composition of Schiedam water is attributed much of the high repu- 
tation of its gins. 

British Gin is made, both in Great Britain and this country, by first producing the 
highest grade of neutral spirits and re-distilling several times in a fractionating still, 
so as to eliminate practically all of the fusel oils, etc. When the spirit has reached 
the proper degree of purity it is drawn off into an old style "pot-still," and again dis- 
tilled in conjunction with Juniper berries, and certain other flavoring berries and 
herbs — the latter varying in nature, as each manufacturer aims to produce a liquor 
of distinctive flavor. 

Many of the lower class "gins" sold are merely alcohol flavored with essences. 

Gin should be kept in a moderate temperature and always well corked. 

Cordial Gin: is flavored with gpices and heavily sweetened. 

Orange Gin: is flavored with orange peel or its essential oil. 

Sloe Gin : is made by steeping sloes in strong gin for a number of weeks, then filter- 
ing the liquid and diluting to the desired degree by the addition of water. 

GINEP, or Spanish Lime: a fruit which resembles a plum in appearance, but 
of flavor suggesting the grape. Both the pulp and seeds are edible, the latter being 
sometimes roasted and eaten like chestnuts, 

GINGER: in its commercial form, is the root-stock of the ginger plant (see illus- 
tration in Color Page facing 580), a perennial reed-like plant with annual leafy stems, 
three to four feet high, which grows freely in moist places in all tropical climates. 
The root is gathered when the stalk withers and is immediately scalded, or washed 
and scraped, in order to kill it and prevent sprouting. The former method, applied 
generally to the older and poorer roots, produces Black Ginger; the latter, gives 
White Ginger. The natural color of the "white" scraped ginger is a pale buff — it is 
often whitened by bleaching or liming, but generally at the expense of some of its real 
value. 

White Ginger of the first grade should be large, light-buff throughout, soft and 
even in cutting and of strong characteristic flavor. The present supply comes chiefly 
from Jamaica, the Malabar Coast of India and the East Indies. "Cochin" and "Cali- 
cut" are titles borrowed from the two Indian cities of those names. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 267 

African ginger is dark, but has an excellent, strong flavor. "Borneo" ginger is 
merely a former trade term for some white ginger — none is exported from Borneo. 

Japan Ginger, usually blanched or limed before shipment, is of fine appearance, 
large and smooth, but is much inferior in strength to the other varieties mentioned. 

Preserved or Conserved or Canton Ginger consists of young green roots boiled and 
cured in syrup and put up in pots and jars. The principal consumption is of the 
imported Chinese product, but there is an increasing sale of West Indian. 

Crystallized dinger is also made from the younger roots. The best grades, from 
roots selected for uniform size and appearance, are called "stem ginger." 

Other well known articles which have the root, or extracts from it, as a founda- 
tion are Oinger Ale, Ginger Beer, Jamaica Ginger (an alcoholic extract of the root) 
and Ginger Tea. 

Medicinally, ginger — as Jamaica Ginger, etc. — is a grateful stimulant and carmi- 
native, being much used for dyspepsia, colic, etc. It is also frequently employed to 
disguise the taste of nauseous medicines. Ginger Tea is an old-fashioned remedy for 
colds. 

"Switchel" is a summer drink, once very popular in the haying fields, made from 
ginger, molasses and water, with a little vinegar added to give it acidity. 

U. 8. Standard Ginger is ground or whole ginger containing not less than 42% of 
starch by the diastase method; not less than 46% of starch by direct inversion; not 
more than 6% of crude fibre; not more than 8% of total ash; not more than 1% of 
lime, and not more than 3% of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid. 

U. 8. Standard Limed or Bleached Ginger is limed or bleached ginger containing 
not more than 10% of ash; not more than 4% of carbonate of lime; and conforming 
in other respects to Standard Ginger. 

GINGER ALE: if of good quality, consists of distilled water, ginger, lemon and 
other flavors (such as sarsaparilla), the product being finally carbonated to give 
the effervescence desired. Inferior products frequently contain red capsicum ("red 
pepper") partly or wholly in place of ginger. 

Ginger Ale is greatly improved by adding a sprig or two of bruised mint to the 
glass shortly before drinking. 

GINGKO NUT: the nut of the maiden-hair tree. It is eaten roasted, principally 
by the Chinese. See also Nuts (Food Values). 

GLACE FRUIT: another title for Crystallized Fruit (which see). 

GLIADIN. See matter following title of Gluten. 

GLOUCESTER CHEESE. See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 

GLUCIN: a very sweet coal-tar product resembling Saccharin (which see). 

GLUCOSE — 'Natural : is a technical name given to a group of sugars found in fruit, 
honey, etc. The most important examples are Dextrose and Levulose, frequently 
called "grape sugar" and "fruit sugar," respectively. Invert Sugar, formed by the 
action of acid, digestive juices, heat, etc., on Sucrose — the technical name for the 



268 THE GEOOBE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

ordinary "sugar" of general use, commercially extracted from sugar cane, sugar beets, 
etc. — is a mixture of equal parts of Dextrose and Levulose, the best natural example 
being found in honey, which consists of from 50% to 90% of Invert Sugar. 

The principal forms in which "Glucose Sugars" occur as the result of commer- 
cial manufacture are : Commercial Glucose, also known as Corn Syrup, Starch Syrup, 
Liquid Glucose, Confectioners' Glucose, etc., and Commercial Dextrose, or Starch 
Sugar, Corn Sugar, etc. 

Commercial Glucose: the form most widely used as a food product, is in this coun- 
try made from Corn Starch (see articles on Coen and Corn Syrup) ; in Europe, chiefly 
from potato starch, there being known also as Potato Syrup. It ,ds a thick, syrupy, 
mildly sweet, nearly colorless product and, as employed, gives much the same effect 
as Invert Sugar formed from Sucrose. Its principal food uses are in the form of table 
syrup (see Syeup), in the manufacture of jams, etc., and in confectionery. It is especi- 
ally valuable in candy making. It is not nearly as sweet as Sucrose or ordinary 
sugar, but it has certain distinct and valuable qualities of its own — it does not readily 
crystallize, does not "grain" or disintegrate and possesses the property of imparting 
softness and elasticity to special varieties, such as caramels. 

The principal ingredients of Commercial Glucose are Dextrose, Maltose and Dex- 
trin. Dextrose has already been referred to. Maltose is one of the results of the 
action of acids or malt diastase on Starch — it is of special interest as being the form 
of sugar into which the starch of food is converted during the process of digestion. 
Dextrin, which resembles a gum more than a sugar (see Dextrin), is always found 
in connection with Maltose during the malting of grain, and in connection with Dex- 
trose and Maltose in the manufacture of Commercial Glucose. 

Commercial Dextrose is manufactured in a manner similar to Commercial Glucose, 
except that the product is evaporated to solidity (see Corn Sugar). U. S. Standard 
Starch Sugar or Brewer's Sugar contains not less than 70% of Dextrose ; Climax or 
80% Starch Sugar, not less than 80% ; and Anhydrous Starch Sugar, not less than 95%. 

GLUE: is obtained from the hides and hoofs of oxen and a great variety of other 
animal refuse. 

The raw material is first steeped for fourteen or fifteen days in milk of lime, then 
drained and dried by exposure to the air. This constitutes what is called the "cleans- 
ing" or "preparation" ; and, after being so treated, the "glue stock," as it is called, may 
be kept for a long time and transported to any distance without suffering decomposi- 
tion. Before conversion into glue, the "stock" is generally again steeped in weak 
milk of lime, and then well washed and exposed to the air for twenty-four to thirty 
hours. It goes next to copper boilers, two-thirds full of water and fitted with per- 
forated false bottoms to prevent burning, each boiler being filled and piled up with 
it. Heat is then applied and the whole is gently boiled or simmered until the liquor on 
cooling shows firm, gelatinous consistence. The clear portion is next run off, a very 
small quantity of dissolved alum being added, into another vessel, where it is kept 
hot by a water bath, and allowed to remain for some hours to deposit its impurities, 
then being passed into the "congealing boxes" and allowed to cool. 

The next morning, the cold gelatinous masses are turned out upon wet boards 
and cut horizontally into thin cakes with a stretched piece of brass wire, and then into 



THE GRO'CEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



269 



smaller cakes with a moistened flat knife. These small cakes are placed on nettings 
to dry and are later dipped one by one into hot water and slightly rubbed with a 
brush wetted with boiling water, to give them a gloss. Finally comes a stove-drying 
process and the glue is ready for market. 

As soon as the liquor of the first boiling has drained off, the undissolved portion 
of the skins, etc., left in the copper is treated with fresh water, and the whole opera- 
tion is repeated again and again as long as any gelatinous matter can be extracted — 
the product grading as second and lower qualities. 

Fish glue is made from fish-sounds and other parts of fish membrane. 

Liquid glue is made by dissolving dry glue and adding nitric acid in the proportion 
of one ounce to a pound, or by adding to it three times its weight of strong vinegar. 

Light, clear glues are considered the best and are always preferred, irrespective of 
strength, for special purposes such as joining light woods, etc., where transparency is 
of paramount importance, but the only certain means of ascertaining the comparative 
strength of glue of any color is by a practical test. 



GLUTEN: the principal protein component of wheat and other grains, is composed 
of vegetable fibrin and a small quantity of gliadin. It is greyish in color and exten- 
sible, while fresh and moist, like caoutchouc. It may be separated from wheat or rye 
flour, etc., by making a paste and washing in successive waters until all starchy mat- 
ter is removed. It is the large proportion of gliadin in the gluten of wheat flour that 
is responsible for its special tenacity and, consequently, peculiar excellence for bread 
making among people who prefer light bread and for macaroni, etc. 

GOOBER, or Otiber: the popular Southern name for the Peanut (which see). 

GOOD-WILL. In purchasing or selling a store, a good rule for estimating the value 
of the "fixtures" and "good-will" is to allow one-half to two-thirds of their original 
cost for fixtures, and to take the net profits of the previous year or six months as the 
value of the good-will. There should be a written agreement that the seller shall not 
enter into the same business within a certain limit of distance, or for a certain period. 
It has been held that, by common law, when the territory so proscribed is reason- 
ably limited in extent, its prohibition may be for life; when the time is limited to, say, 
five or ten years, the prohibition may be absolute for that period. Protection for five 
years in the city of location should be sufficient for an exclusively retail business. 

GOOSE. Geese have been raised as pets or 
for the table as far back as history reaches and 
they are known and enjoyed to-day in every part 
of the world. They are, perhaps, the most popu- 
lar in Germany, where they are eaten in a great 
many different forms — fresh cooked, smoked, 
salted, etc. Especially famous items are Smoked 
Pomeranian Goose Breast and Pokelgans— the 
latter being goose flesh, salted, stewed and pre- 
served in fat. 

Goose fat is also highly regarded by many 
races. It is largely eaten in Germany in place 

African and Toulouse Geese 




270 



THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



of butter — particularly by Hebrews, as its use on bread, for example, is permissible 
■with meat, whereas it is a violation of the Talmudian law to eat butter and meat 
together. It is also valued there, and elsewhere, for many culinary operations. 

In this country the most popular varieties of domestic geese are the Grey African 
and the Grey Wild Goose, which is "wild" only in name! 

The Qrey African is a large bird, the market weight of the adult gander often 
reaching fifteen pounds. It is distinguished by a large head with a black knob in 
front and a heavy dewlap under the throat. The knob is seen only in this and the 
Chinese varieties. Its legs are set so far back that it carries itself almost erect. The 
meek, breast and under-parts are of varying shades of light grey, and the back, wings 
and tail are dark grey. The Grey African is especially valuable for market purposes 
ibecause of its rapid growth, making eight to ten pounds in about ten weeks. 

The Grey Wild is a lighter bird. The head is black, 
with white on the sides, the bill and neck black, the 
neck shading to grey, the wings and back dark grey, the 
ibreast light grey, the under parts white and the tail 
feathers, shanks and toes black. 

Two other noteworthy varieties of large size are the 
Grey Toulouse and the White Embden. 

The Grey Toulouse, of light grey plumage shading 
to white, and of compact shape, matures later than the 
others and is often called the "Christmas Goose" be- 
cause it is ready for the markets at about the time the 
holidays begin. It is of convenient and compact shape, 
but the flesh is coarser and less palatable than that of 
the two preceding types. It is named after the city of 
Toulouse, France, where it is bred in large numbers. 

The White Embden, with white plumage, blue eyes 
and orange-color bill, shanks and toes, offers a large 

square deep body with a round full breast. white CWnese Goose and Gander 

Two of the best known of the smaller varieties are the Brown and White Chinese 
Geese. They are not favored by large growers, but are an excellent type for the 
farmer who devotes only a portion of his time to his poultry yard, as they are hardy, 
easily fattened and good layers. The plumage of the White Chinese is pure white on 
all parts, with knob and bill of orange-color and shank, toes and web of orange-yellow. 

The Colored Egyptian or Nile Geese are the most beautiful of their race, but they 
are bred solely for ornament and therefore are entitled to no consideration among 
their more useful cousins which offer up their succulent goodness to the appetites sur- 
rounding the dinner table. Mixed grey and black predominate in their upper plumage, 
the breast shading to chestnut, the wings relieved by white epaulettes, and the tail 
feathers of glossy black. The under-bodies are light buff or yellow with black pencilings. 

Geese under favorable conditions will live to a great age, but for table purposes 
one year is quite old enough ! The age can be tested by the upper bill — if it will bend 
or curve in the middle, the bird is young. The firmer it is, the older the bird. 

Young geese — variously known as "green geese" and "goslings"^ — are in season 
from July to November. 

See also Foie Gras, made from goose livers. 








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GRAPES 



THE GllOCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



273 



Wild Geese. The best known varieties of wild geese are the Canada and Brant. 

The Canada is so much the most abundant variety that it quite generally carries 
the title of "Wild Goose" without respect to the other varieties which belong equally 
within the classification. It is also the largest, weighing from eight pounds upwards. 
The head and neck are black with a white band underneath, the back is of grey- 
brown, and the under parts vary from grey to white. 

The Brant is a much smaller bird. The head, neck, upper breast and shoulders 
are blackish streaked with white, the back is of brownish-grey shading to white at 
the tail, and the under parts are ashy grey to white. 

GOOSEBERRY ( See Color Page of Berries and also accompanying half-tone illus- 
tration) : a fruit of the same general family as the currant but much larger — attain- 
ing in general cultivation here to a diameter of three-fourths of an inch. The skin 
of the wild berry is hairy or prickly, but this characteristic has been reduced by cul- 
tivation to almost perfect smoothness or, at most, a few soft hairs. In this country, 
very little of the ripe fruit is consumed, but the green berries are popular in pies, etc. 
They also make good sauce because of their peculiar tartness. 

Green gooseberries are very easily preserved. The best method is to cook them 
until the skins burst and then put them up in fruit jars, no sugar being used until 
shortly before serving. They can also be preserved for a considerable length of time 
without cooking — carefully sort out those bruised or otherwise damaged, then place 
the sound fruit in bottles until the latter are nearly full, fill with water so that all the 
berries are covered, cork well and store in a cool cellar. 

English gooseberries show a greater variety of color — white, green, red, yellow, 
etc.— and average larger than the American, often reaching a full inch in diameter and 




Gooseberries 



274 



THE GBOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



an inch and a half in length, but the American are generally firmer and therefore 
better for preserving. 

GORGONZOLA: a cheese of Roquefort style. See general article on Cheese. 

GOULASH or Elulash: a kind of meat stew which originated in Hungary and is 
now popular here, both as a restaurant item and in canned form for home use. It 
consists generally of beef garnished with potatoes, onions, paprika sauce, etc. 

GOURD: a genus of plants which includes pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, etc. In 
popular usage, the term is applied principally to the calabash from which water dip- 
pers are made, and the many non-edible but ornamental gourds of fancy gardening. 

GRAHAM BREAD. See sub-head in general article on Bread. 

GRAHAM FLOUR: "unbolted" flour, containing part or all of the branny covering 
of the wheat. It takes its name from a Sylvester Graham, who first claimed for it 
great nutritive value. 

GRAIN. ( 1 ) Any small, hard seed, such as a grain of corn or wheat, and hence taken 
to express the whole class of edible seeds. (2) Any small particle, as a grain of sand 
or a grain of sugar. (3) A measure of weight, the smallest used — 1 lb. avoirdupois 
equals 7000 grains. 

GRAM. See Metric System in Tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

GRANADILLA: the fruit of several varieties of the passion vine. The largest type, 
a native of tropical America, is an oval fruit, sometimes reaching a size of six inches 
in diameter, with a soft sweet-acid pulp. 

GRAPES: the fruit of vines of many species, both American and European. They 
are largely consumed as a fresh fruit, expressed for grape juice, dried as "raisins" 
and made into wines, brandy, vinegar, etc. The fermented juice also gives Cream of 
Tartar (which see). 

The vines live to a great age under favorable circumstances, attaining, if per- 
mitted, enormous size — a single vine often giving an annual crop of several tons. The 
general rule is, though, to confine them to close and moderate growth of "bush" size. 

The juice and flesh of the fruit con- 
tain from 121/^% to 25% grape sugar, 
1% to 3% of nitrogenous substances, some 
potassium and other salts and some tar- 
taric, malic and citric acids; the seeds- 
contain tannin, starchy matters, fat and 
oil; and the skins, tannin, cream of tar- 
tar and coloring matter. It is the com- 
bination in fermentation of the volatile 

substances in the grape which produces a huge Cal.Jornia grape vme supported by sixty posts and covering 

=> ^ 1^ a third of an acre. It frequently produces 5,000 bunches a 

the hoUOUet of wines year, the bunches often weighing 6 to 8 lbs. each 

^ and measuring 12 to 14 inches in length. 





Nla&ara 



GRAPES 



Delaware 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



277 



The quantity of grapes now consumed annually for food is enormous, yet one need 
not be very old to remember when a bunch of grapes was a rarity in the city save 
upon the tables of the rich. How much has been done for American health, and thus 
indirectly for American civilization, by the cheapening and popularizing of the small 
fruits during the past thirty years, can hardly be estimated. Best of them all is the 
grape. It appeals to the aesthetic taste as well as to the palate; it is grateful to the 
eye as well as the stomach, and at four or five cents a pound is within the reach of 
the leanest purse. 

In California alone more than 250,000 acres are under grape cultivation. About 
125,000 acres are devoted exclusively to wine making. The product of another 100,000 
acres is dried as raisins or made into brandy. The remaining 25,000 are devoted to 
table grapes, shipped principally to Eastern markets. The total investment in the 
industry in California is estimated at considerably more than |100,000,000. 

Thousands of acres are also under grape cultivation in many other states, 
especially New Jersey, Western New York, Ohio, Missouri, Michigan and Wisconsin. 

Grapes are the only fruit which is plentiful and cheap during times of extraordi- 
nary drouth. A wet season is what the grower fears. In dry weather, the vines bear 
abundantly and the fruit is large and 
well-flavored. In this country it reaches 
its highest perfection in parts of Califor- 
nia, where not a cloud is seen in the sky 
from May till October, and many kinds 
unknown to Eastern vineyards are culti- 
vated there from stocks brought from 
Europe. 




Grape-Growing under Glass. — The vine in the lower picture held eleven clusters with a total weight of 60 lbs. 
The two clusters shown weighed 7^ lbs. each. 



278 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



There is not much variety in the East. The growers believe it most profitable 
to make no experiments, and confine their efforts to the standard types with which 
the public is familiar. 

The four best known Eastern varieties are the. Concord (black), Niagara (green), 
Delaware (reddish) and Catawba (reddish), illustrated in the Co ^orPagres facing 270 
-and 274. Of these, the Concord is the most important from the standpoint of quantity 
■consumed — its various types and offshoots constitute 70% or more of all the table 
grapes consumed in the East and are found to a greater or less extent in every part 
■of the country. They are largely employed also in the manufacture of grape juice 
and wine of claret style. 

The popularity of the Concord is due to its long season and all-round reliability. 
It is the first to appear on the fruit stands and it stays the longest. It seldom fails 
to give a good crop and the fruit is nearly always of good size and color and attrac- 
tive bloom. The low price made possible by its abundance compensates in the general 
market for any inferiority in flavor and composition to choicer varieties. It should 
though be "turned over" as quickly as possible, as it does not keep well after ripening. 

The Niagara is the best known American green grape. It is a showy berry of fair 
quality and low price, ripening soon after, or together with, the Concord. 

The Delaware, reddish in color and the smallest of the four varieties, is a grape of 
especially fine quality — both for table purposes and high class wines. It comes into 
the market a little later than the first Concords. Its fine sweet aromatic flavor makes 
it a prime favorite in spite of its small size, but it is not a prolifc bearer and its 
market price is generally double that of the Concord. 

The Catawba, the latest in the market, is particularly interesting as a native Ameri- 
can grape and equally esteemed for table purposes and wine making — especially of the 
finer types, as domestic "champagnes," etc. It takes its name from the Catawba 
River, N. C, its original home. The berry is medium in size, oval to roundish in 




The stunted trunks of grape vines resulting from constant pruning to increase the crop 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 279' 

shape, of a dull purplish red with lilac bloom and of excellent flavor. It is, however, 
often picked when immature, before its best qualities have developed, and other grapes- 
of similar appearance are too frequently sold under its name. 

The Catawba is an especially good keeping variety, with care often being held for 
sale until March or even later. 

The best known of the California products for table purposes are the Muscat or 
Muscatel, a large, sweet and fine flavored green or "white" grape, and several choice- 
"black" grapes — among them, the Hamburg, Gros Golman, Black Morocco, Tokay and 
Empress — the berries generally large, varying in color from red to almost black and 
very "fancy" in appearance, the bunches occasionally weighing up to twelve pounds 
each. 

The Seedless, or Thompson Seedless, a small slender green grape, is the variety 
sold dried as California Sultanas (see Raisins). 

The most important of Southern grapes is the 8cuppernong (which see). 

The imports of fresh grapes consist chiefly of the large meaty Spanish "white" 
berries commonly known as "Malagas," from Malaga, the principal port of shipment, 
and "Almerias," the latter being generally the larger and of finer flavor. They reach 
our markets during the Fall and Winter months, packed usually in cork dust in kegs- 
weighing about forty pounds. Because of their firmness and excellent keeping quali- 
ties, they occupy an unique position in the trade. When unpacked, they should be 
carefully brushed with a soft brush to remove the cork dust. 

The title "Malaga" is frequently but incorrectly applied to any large oval white 
grape. 

There is also a smaller but regular importation of fine hothouse grapes from Eng- 
land and Belgium, principally of the Muscat of Alexandria, Hamburg and Gros Golman- 
types. They are generally packed in boxes containing six to seven pounds each, the 
boxes strapped together in pairs — two boxes being known in commercial parlance as; 
a "strap." 

Fancy grapes can be kept in good condition for several weeks by wrapping each 
bunch in oil or tissue paper, encasing with cotton wool and tying each end, and keep- 
ing in a cool place. For shipment, the bunches are further packed in wood-wool in cases. 
More common varieties may be held without injury for from six to eight weeks by 
packing in dry sawdust in boxes and storing in a temperature averaging 38° to 40° 
Fahr. " 

See also American Wines and general article on Wines. 

GRAPE FRUIT, or Pomelo [Golor Page opp. 282). 
The Spaniards introduced the Pomelo into Florida, but 
recognition of its value was deferred for a long time, 
partly because its peculiarity of flavor was not at first 
acceptable to the American palate, and partly because 
of lack of care in its culture and poor judgment in 
marketing. Now, however, it has conquered the market 
completely, both North and South, and is to-day the 
prime favorite, though the highest-priced, of breakfast 
fruits. 

The species of the citrus family to which the Grape 
Fruit or "Pomelo" belongs, includes also the Shaddock, 

A bunch of Grape Fruit 




280 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



which it supplanted in the general markets. The Pomelo obtained its present name of 
"Grape Fruit" because of the clustering, grape-like groups in which most varieties 
grow. ., •: I , , 

Going further back, the name Pomelo comes from the Dutch Pompelmoes, and 
Shaddock from Captain Shaddock, who first carried it into the West Indies. To the 
Shaddock belongs the variety known in Europe as the "Forbidden Fruit." 

Grape Fruit is often misjudged because of a mistaken but rather widespread 
habit of eating it before it is ripe — it should be allowed to mature just as fully as 
any other fruit. Most varieties do not attain their full richness until December— 
and from then on, through April and even into May, they are generally found at their 
best. 

The Grape Fruit does not contain as much citric acid as the lemon, but it is 
decidedly antiscorbutic, and possesses some of the bitter tonic quality of cinchona. To 
obtain its full medicinal value, it should be eaten without wine or sugar, but the addi- 
tion of either, or both, makes it very delicious. 

The present supply comes principally from Florida, California and the West 
Indies. Increasing quantities are imported each season from Porto Rico. 

GRAPE JUICE. Pure grape juice is simply the expressed juice of the fruit, carefully 
filtered and promptly sterilized to prevent fermentation. Its principal components 
are grape sugar and small quantities of albuminoids, potassium tartrate and tartaric 
and other acids. 

Grape juice can be easily made at 
home. Press the grapes, heat the juice 
to not under 170° Fahr. nor over 190° 
Fahr. in any form of a double boiler, 
settle for twenty-four hours, bottle care- 
fully, and then heat the filled bottles by 
immersing them to their necks in hot 
water and gradually increasing the heat 
until they are nearly at the boiling point. 
Then cork and seal or paraffin the tops. 

Careful filtration will improve the 
appearance of the product. 

The color of the grape juice thus 
secured will nearly always be white or 
yellowish instead of the purplish red of 
the greater part of the commercial prod- 
uct, as there are only a few grapes which have pink or red juice. The red color can 
be obtained by pouring the hot juice, before the final immersion, into a receptable 
containing the skins of red grapes — almost any shade of red may be thus secured, 
according to the variety of grape used and the length of time the juice is allowed to 
remain on the skins. This process also adds other substances, chiefly tannin, to the 
product, the advantage or disadvantage of which depends upon individual tastes — 
the result more closely resembles ordinary sweet red wine, though it. is still non- 
alcoholic. 

As many people find grape juice too sweet, it is often better enjoyed when served 
diluted with water — either plain or carbonated. 




A Grape Fruit Tree 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 281 



GRAPE SEED OIL: closely resembles olive oil. It is used in Europe both for 
culinary and illuminating purposes. 

GRAPE SYRUP: formerly a popular item, is grape juice evaporated to syrup con- 
sistence. 

GRAPE SUGAR. See matter under general title of Glucose. 

GRAPPA: an Italian brandy. 

GRAVES WINE. See Bordeaux Wines (White). 

GRAYLING: a Southern fresh- water fish of fine flavor, generally weighing from 
one to five pounds. It is in season from September 1 to January 30. 

GRECQUE: a sieve or apparatus placed in coffee pots for holding the grounds. 

The term is also applied to a coffee-pot furnished with a Grecque. 

GREEK WINES. Centuries ago, Greek wines were considered the finest in the 
world and they still hold a prominent place in the favor of European connoisseurs, 
but they are little known in this country. They are generally much stronger and 
heavier than French wines and some are treated with resin and flavored with spices. 

Among the best known varieties are St. Elie (Santorin), of sherry style; Mavro- 
daphne, also light and delicate ; "Morea" and Camerite, dry and red ; Nectar, dark red, 
sweet and light ; and a number of richer sweet types as Malvasia or Malvasier ( Malm- 
sey), red and gold; Red Santorin, one of the world's flnest sweet red wines ; Hi/mettos, 
white and ruby, resembling the Gironde wines; Achaier, in sherry and sweet-white- 
port types, and Santo, a syrupy spirituous "Muscat," white and purple. 

On the Morean peninsula — especially the vicinity of Corinth, Nauplia and 
Patras — large quantities of red and white wines are made from the small seedless 
Corinth grapes when the weather conditions are unfavorable for drying the crop for 
export as "currants." 

The term Patras, from the gulf of that name, is frequently employed as a general 
title for several varieties — among them a red wine resembling spirituous natural Port ; 
a white wine, both still and sparkling, of Rhine Wine style; and several Muscats 
and Corinth Wines. 

GREEN KERN : is dried green wheat. It is used chiefly for soups and in stews. 

GREENGAGE: a famous variety of sweet plum (see Plums). It originated in 
France, where it is known as Reine Claude, from Claudia, Queen to Francis I. Its 
English title is after a clergyman named Gage who introduced it into England. 

GREEN GOODS. A term sometimes employed to cover all fresh fruits and vege- 
tables. See article on Vegetables. 

GREENS: a general term for any leaves, either cultivated or wild, served as a 
cooked vegetable, as Spinach, Dandelion, etc. 



282 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

GREEN SLOKE: a green-spored seaweed of the same type as Lavee (which see). 

GREEN TURTLE: the most highly considered species of large Tuetle (which see). 

GRENADIN SYRUP: the general title of Pomegranate Syrup. See Fruit Syrups., 

GRISKIN, of Pork: the loin, the choicest lean part of the hog. 

GRISSINI: an Italian-style stick bread. See Finger Eolls. 

GRITS: a name applied to any of several varieties of coarsely ground grain, such- 
as Hominy Grits, Wheaten Grits, Oaten Grits, etc. They are generally consumed as 
a breakfast dish, but during the winter some families serve them for supper. 

GROATS: the hulled grain, whole or broken, of wheat, oats, barley, etc. In the 
household, it is used for preparing gruel for invalids and sometimes for thickening 
broths and soups. 

GROCER. Since the Grocer as we know him in America is directly descended from 
his English compeer, the early history of the latter may properly be considered as also- 
belonging to the Western branch of this ancient trade. 

Prior to the opening of the twelfth century, established shops for the sale and 
barter of commodities were little known in England. Pedlars, or chapmen, traveled, 
from hamlet to hamlet with packs of fine cloth, jewels, wine, salt, spices, tallow and 
wax, but, as may be judged from their stock, the traffic of these men was confined 
almost entirely to the nobles of the castle and the priests of the monastery. Such 
necessary articles as salt and tallow were sold to the common people, but these pedlars, 
found most of their profits in the sale of luxuries to the wealthy. 

Later, as pedlars became more numerous, the Market was developed in town,^ 
while the Fair supplied the country districts with a means to sell and exchange goods. 
This latter institution served the double purpose of providing a place where goods 
that could not be obtained in the town markets were procurable and also a wider 
opportunity to dispose of ordinary commodities. 

The shops of that fore-runner of the Grocer, the "Pepperer," or "Spicer," were 
undoubtedly established in London many years previous to 1180, as a mention of a 
Pepperers' Guild of London is found as early as that year. These tradesmen dealt 
in pepper, cloves, nutmegs, mace, ginger, frankincense and other spices then brought 
across Europe from remote India. Spiced drinks and richly spiced foods were greatly 
in vogue among people of wealth, as food at that early period was coarse and not 
always wholesome. This guild of Pepperers ceased to exist shortly after 1338, in which 
year a heavy loan was extorted from it by Edward II. 

The earliest use of the word "Grocer," or "Groser," occurs in 1310 in the city 
record report of London. The term Grocer probably originated through certain 
mediaeval traders who "engrossed" large quantities of merchandise. It has also been 
attributed to the leading merchants of that time who bought only "in gross" {en 
gros), or in large quantities. 

The fifteenth century in England finds nearly all of the various trades formed 
into guilds, and these guilds were in many cases provided with full authority to rule 




GRAPE FRUIT 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 285 

the affairs of their occupation. This power was received either directly from the 
King through a special charter, or, if in London, by a delegation from the Lord 
Mayor. Each trade was supposed to be responsible for, and preserve, its "good name 
and fame." 

That greatest of all guilds, the Grocers' Company of London, was founded in 
1345, and the history of this organization is to a large extent the history of the grocery 
trade in England for over four hundred years. In 1427 this guild was given the exclu- 
sive privilege of superintending the public weighing and such management of the 
King's Beam remained long with them. As far back as 1394 the Grocers were 
empowered to "garble" (inspect and cleanse) all groceries in the city of London. They 
were given the right to enter any store and inspect the merchant's stock and when 
these official garblers found goods that were impure or spoiled they had full authority 
to arrest, try and punish the offender. And punishment of offenders under the Pure 
Food Laws of that period, and later, did not always stop at a fine ; it was often found 
more elfective to place the guilty one in stocks and then burn his corrupt wares in 
such propinquity to his nose that the full offensiveness of his misdemeanor was made 
powerfully evident to him. The Grocers' Guild retained this office of garbling up to 
the end of the eighteenth century. 

In 1562, during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a statute was passed^ which pro- 
hibited any person from engaging in any craft or occupation unless he had served a 
seven year apprenticeship in the particular trade which he intended to enter. This 
law retained its power until about the middle of the eighteenth century. 

From the early days of the guild down to the opening of the past century the 
Grocers appear to be the most prominent and influential of all trades-bodies in Eng- 
land. The great Levant trading company was an oflf-spring of the Grocer's Company, 
and in 1600 a number of the leading grocers of London formed the famed East Indian 
Company and were thus responsible to a large extent for the building of the Anglo- 
Indian empire. 

From 1231 to 1898 no less than eighty grocers held the office of Lord Mayor of 
London and all but about fifteen of these eminent men were knighted, some of them 
on the field of battle. The annals of the English grocery trade are replete with names 
of notable Lord Mayors, magistrates, clergymen and soldiers. England has had a 
grocer Lord Chancellor and at least one of her national poets, Abraham Cowley, was 
a son of this ancient trade. And as evidence that great grocers are still being produced 
it is only necessary to skip to the twentieth century, and Sir Thomas Lipton. It was 
in the latter part of the sixteenth century that the now famous school of Rugby was 
founded by Lawrence Sheriff, the favored grocer of "Good Queen Bess." Many 
other prominent grocers of this period interested themselves in education with the 
result that numerous schools for both the poor and the prosperous were established. 
In the fifteenth century the grocery trade is described as the "trade of gentility," as 
the city companies drew many apprentices from the younger sons of the country gentry. 

The famed pageantry of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was largely the 
work of the Grocers' guild. These pageants were often very costly and elaborate. 
Gorgeous floats were built, the best actors employed and on many occasions poets of 
national reputation were engaged to write the verse. Figs, dates, raisins and many 
other luxuries were thrown to the people by negro boys on the backs of "stage" camels. 
Such celebrations were usually given on the occasion of a grocer's election to the 
exalted office of Lord Mayor of London. 

15 



286 THE GUOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Until 1617 the grocery trade maintained full supervision over all drugs and other 
goods sold by apothecaries — in fact, the apothecaries were part of the Grocers' guild. 
The separation of these two trades in that year was the result of a long period of agita- 
tion on the part of the physicians and many dissatisfied members of the drug trade. The 
division was finally brought about by King James who was inimical to the Grocers' 
Company' and a friend of the apothecaries. 

The introduction into England, about 1650 , of tea, coffee and chocolate resulted 
in a great impetus to the grocery trade. The demand for tea, and later for coffee, 
increased with remarkable rapidity and in a very few years these beverages — in spite 
of the denunciation with which they were first greeted by both the doctors and the 
clergy — became, with sugar and spices, the chief staples of the trade. 

Owing to the failure of the National government to provide the kingdom with an 
adequate supply of small coinage, the grocers of England, from 1648 to 1679, and again 
for fifty years beginning in 1767, coined their own money, or tokens. This coinage 
was mostly in small denominations, though many of the larger companies made gold 
j)ieces. These pieces were given in change for the King's money, and as most of the 
grocers struck off their own coins one can readily imagine the merchant of those 
times preparing for a day's business by having his apprentices stamp out a quantity 
of small change. Many of these coins were highly artistic indicating that much pride 
was felt in their appearance by the issuing grocer, who in many instances had his 
likeness, a reproduction of his store front, or his own, or the Guild's, coat of arms 
stamped on the face. 

It was in the latter part of the eighteenth century that the Grocer first began to 
advertise. The newspaper was quite extensively used by many merchants, while "trade 
cards" were popular with all grocers of the time. Besides the name, address and 
announcement that the issuer was a "tea dealer, grocer and cheesemonger," these cards 
usually bore ilhistrations of Chinese tea drinkei"s, and various other subjects of direct 
bearing upon the grocer and his stock. It is in the early years of this century that 
record is found of the practice of selling sugar at cost, and also at an actiial loss, a 
fact that may be of interest to the modern grocer! 

With the nineteenth century came many trade innovations that directly affected 
the Grocer. One of the first department stores was established in London in 1849 by 
Henry Harrod, a grocer. The multiple shop or chain of stores idea dates from 1885 
and wlien first carried out brought much hardship to the small dealer, as even at the 
very beginning these large companies sold most staples at a loss. The first journal 
of the trade, "Tlie Grocer," was established in London in 1862 and was immediately 
recognized as supplying a long felt want. 

A recent estimate places the number of grocery stores in the United States at 
141,600. And thus the Grocer, who was anciently a purveyor to the rich alone, has as 
the centuries passed, developed and expanded into the broader dignity of dispenser 
to all classes of the necessities as well as the luxuries of life. 

GROUND CHERRY, also known as Allcelcengi, Hush Tomato, Strawberry Cherry, 
Strawberry Tomato, and Winter Cherry: the fruit of a very productive plant which 
grows wild in many parts of the world — in this country, most freely in the cornfields 
of the lower Mississippi Valley — and has recently been added to the list of cultivated 
crops. It is about the size of a cherry, generally orange-yellow or red, but also some- 
times green and purple in color, and juicy and slightly acid in flavor. It matures 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 287 

inside a bladder-shaped calyx and, if left in the husk, can be kept through the winter. 
It is equally good raw and in the form of preserves. 

'GROUND NUT: another name for the Peanut (which see). 

(GROUPER: a Southern fish found in three chief varieties — Black, Red and White. 
In weight it ranges from five to ten pounds, and even as high as twenty pounds, and 
in shape is a cross between a carp and a bass. The flesh is firm but coarse, and of 
•only second quality. It is in season from November to March. 

'GROUSE. The title "Grouse" is applied to a large family of American game birds, 
the most important of which are the Huffed Grouse, Prairie Chicken, Sharp-Tailed 
Grouse, Dusky Grouse, Black Heath Cock, Sage Grouse, Capercailze and Ptarmigan. 
In the East, custom generally reserves the title "grouse" for the Prairie Chicken and 
applies the name "(American) partridge" to the Ruffed Grouse. Both of these birds 
^re shown on the Color Page facing page 260. 

The market '^Grouse," or Prairie Chicken, the latter name due to its resemblance 
to the domestic hen, averages about 31/2 lbs. a pair. Its upper plumage is brown with 
blackish and white markings, and the breast and under parts are whitish with brown 
and black marks. 

The market "Partridge," or Ruffed Grouse, also called "pheasant" in some parts 
of the country, takes its true name from the "ruffs" of feathers at each side of its head. 
It is the most prized member of the grouse family because, generally, the most deli- 
cate in meat and corresponds closely to the Gelinotte of Russia. It is larger than the 
English or Scotch Grouse. The plumage on the upper part of the bird is of chestnut 
varied with yellowish-brown, white, black and grey; the breast is buff-colored, the 
under parts whitish with brown marking, and the tail, long and of grey-brown or yel- 
lowish color. It feeds principally on fruits, herbs and seeds — to which diet is attri- 
l)uted the excellent flavor of its flesh. The average market weight is 2% lt»s. a pair. 

The Canadian Ruffed Grouse is similar in general appearance except that grey 
instead of chestnut is the predominating color of the plumage. 

The Sharp-Tailed Grouse, also called "Prairie Hen" in some parts of the country, 
is a little larger than the Prairie Chicken, of lighter color and with longer, more 
pointed tail. 

The Dusky Grouse, also called "Blue Grouse," "Grey Grouse," "Wood Grouse," 
etc., has the upper plumage blackish-brown mixed with lighter brown and grey, and 
the under parts bluish-grey and white. It is also distinguished by its rounded tail of 
broad dark brown feathers. The adult attains a weight of two and a half to three 
and a half pounds. The flesh is exceptionally delicate and as white as that of a domes- 
tic hen. 

The Black Heath Cock, or "Spruce Grouse" or "Canada Grouse," is a rather smaller 
bird than the Ruffed. The name "Spruce Grouse" refers to its favorite winter diet 
of spruce tree shoots. Its upper plumage is greyish, with shining rich bluish-black 
markings and its under side black and white. The tail is black, tipped with a reddish- 
yellow brown. The under part of the female is reddish-brown with black markings. 
The flesh is rather darker than that of the other varieties named. 

The Sage Grouse is the largest American Game fowl, excepting the wild turkey, 
attaining occasionally a weight of eight pounds. It is distinguished by its grey back. 



288 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

with darker markings, black breast and long tail. Its favorite diet is composed of the 
leaves and shoots of the sage brush, and when this is adhered to exclusively the result 
is an over-strong sage flavor in the flesh. Its food is, however, generally varied and its 
flesh consequently as pleasing and delicate as that of the more highly rated prairie 
chicken. 

The Capercailze is a bird of large size and glossy black plumage. The hen is 
smaller than the cock and mottled in color. 

The Ptarmigan is the extreme northern variety of the grouse family, making its 
habitat in Alaska and other parts of the Arctic regions. During the summer its 
plumage is generally grey and brown with black feathers in the tail, but the costume 
is changed for white with the approach of the winter snows. 

The best known, largest and most abundant type is the White Ptarmigan, also 
called Willow Ptarmigan and Willow Grouse. The flesh of the young bird is white 
and delicate, but that of older specimens is generally rather dry and sometimes bitter 
when willow buds have formed too large a share of its diet. 

The Rock Ptarmigan is a smaller variety. It has the same general appearance, 
but is distinguished by a black line from its bill to the eye. 

The White Tailed Ptarmigan is an exceptionally handsome bird formerly 
slaughtered in great quantities to obtain its feathers for millinery purposes. 

GRUEL: coarse meal or groats boiled with water to a proper consistence and 
strained. It is variously flavored to suit the palate, but the addition of a little white 
sugar and flnely powdered Jamaica Ginger, with or without a glass of sherry, is the 
least likely to offend the stomach. Nutmegs, cinnamon, etc., frequently disagree 
with invalids. Milk or butter is also sometimes added. 

GUANABANA: the West Indian name of the SouE Sop (which see). 

GRUYERE: the French form of "Swiss Cheese." See general article on Cheese. 

GUARANA, or Brazilian Cocoa: is prepared from the seeds of a climbing plant. 
When roasted and ground, the resultant flour is made into small rolls which resemble 
chocolate. The infused result is closely allied to Tea, as the seeds are rich in theine. 

GUAVA {see Tropical Fruits facing 'page 588) : the fruit of the guava tree, of which 
there are about one hundred species, growing abundantly in tropical America, 
Mexico and the West Indies. That of the cultivated varieties average about the size 
of a hen's egg or larger and is of many colors and shapes. It is almost equally deli- 
cious raw, cooked and canned; as jam, jelly, "cheese" and syrup. 

The raw fruit is eaten with sugar and cream, the yellow-fleshed White Guava 
being generally preferred for dessert purposes. It is, though, very seldom for sale 
fresh except in the South as it is extremely perishable— when mature, it will not 
remain in good condition for more than three or four days, and it is not practicable to 
gather it green and ripen it afterwards as in the case of some other fruits. 

The most common varieties for preserving are the red apple-shaped and the yel- 
low pear-shaped. The former is usually rather small, but is of exceedingly fine flavor. 
Both are heavy bearers — under favorable conditions a single tree will produce annually 
several bushels of fruit. 



THE GEOCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 289 

Guava jelly is usually marketed in screw-capped glasses or in neatly wrapped white 
wooden boxes. The product generally rated the highest is that made in Florida from 
Brazilian fruit — it is firm, of choice flavor and brilliant color. 

Guava cheese is the fruit reduced by boiling, the minor grades consisting principally 
of the pulp residue left after the extraction of the jelly. It is yellowish or reddish 
in color and of a glutinous texture. It should be solid enough to slice well and is 
most appropriately served with the cheese course. The best qualities are very fra- 
grant and delicious. 

Guava syrup is generally dark in color, thick in consistence and very rich. 

Guava wine may be best described as a "lady's wine" — delicate in flavor, mildly 
sweet and generally of a golden amber hue. 

Guava vinegar is sometimes prescribed for digestions that do not readily accept 
other vinegars. 

GUILDS. The guilds so prominent in the early history of Europe, were societies 
organized for mutual aid in sickness, social amusement, religious purposes, trade 
regulation and protection, etc. They played a noteworthy part in ancient Greece 
and Kome but they attained their fullest development in Teutonic countries — espe- 
cially in England — during the Middle Ages. The most influential of all were the 
Trade Guilds, which may be divided into the Guilds Merchant and the Craft Guilds. 
The former included merchants and land owners generally. The latter were con- 
fined to special trades or crafts and were most prominent in the larger cities, as 
in Loudon. They exercised a general supervision over their respective trades and 
many of their rules and decisions have been perpetuated in modern statutes. The 
authority vested in the London Grocers' Guild, the "Grocers' Company of London," 
is described in the article on the Grocer (which see). Reference is there also made 
to the Levant Trading and East Indian Companies, to whose enterprise was largely 
due the great expansion of England's commerce and the foundation of her Eastern 
empire. Similar in aims and scope were the great Dutch Trading Guilds which car- 
ried their commercial ventures over the entire globe and still exist in China, Japan 
and the Pacific. 

GUINEA FOWL. The guinea fowl, a native of Africa but now found in nearly 
every part of the world, is, compared with the "chicken," a new arrival in the poul- 
try yard. It belongs to the same natural order, Gallinae, as the common domestic 
fowl. It was raised as a table bird by the ancient Romans, but later was apparently 
entirely overlooked, not coming into vogue again for centuries. It is not as 
thoroughly domesticated as some other kinds of poultry, but both supply and demand, 
particularly for high class trade, have been steadily increasing of late years. Its 
popularity is due both to the excellent quality of its flesh, especially in young and 
caponized birds, and to its slightly "gamey" taste, resembling somewhat that of the 
partridge. It serves as an acceptable substitute for game when that is unobtainable 
or out of season. 

The "Pearl" guinea fowl, the most common poultry type, has purplish-grey 
plumage evenly dotted with white, the ears and sides of the head white, the helmet 
horn-polored, sometimes replaced by a crest of feathers, the face and neck bare, the 



290 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

wattles bright red and the legs reddish-yellow. The "White" guinea fowl is another 
highly prized bird and some judges claim superiority for crosses between the "Pearl" 
and "White" varieties. 

In general appearance the guinea fowl retains nearly all the characteristics of 
the wild bird, the only marked difference being the change of the legs from dull-grey 
or brown to reddish-yellow. 

The birds are of marketable size commencing with the early autumn, the usual 
age being from five to eight months. A "Squab Guinea" should weigh from three- 
quarters of a pound up to one and a quarter pounds; a "Guinea Chick" from one- 
aud a half to two and a quarter pounds. 

They are generally sold, like game birds, unplucked or with only the breast 
leathers removed, their handsome plumage making them conspicuously attractive. 
As their feather coats are very thick, this method also makes them appear larger than 
they really are. 

Tlie tests for age given in the article on Poultry apply to the guinea fowl, 
except tliat a purplish breast is to be expected. The breast meat is lighter in color- 
than tliat of other parts of the body, but the flesh throughout is darker than that of 
chicken. Good market birds should have full breasts and fleshy limbs. 

The birds may be cooked and served in almost any way employed for poultry 
or game birds of similar age and size. The food value is about the same as that of 
chicken. Boiled cereals, such as "hominy," are an acceptable accompaniment in place 
of potatoes. 

Many connoisseurs allow the guinea fowl to hang for some days until just before- 
the moment of "turning" in order to accentuate the gamey flavor. 

Guinea fowl eggs — -rounder than hen's eggs and about half the size — are not gen- 
erally appreciated by the American consumer, but they are highly esteemed in- 
Eiirope, where they are classed as little inferior to the very delicate eggs of the plover. 

GUINEA PEPPER: a name sometimes applied to Cayenne Pepper (see Pepper). 

GUINEA PIG: a small animal native to South America, best known in this coun- 
try and Europe as a domesticated cage pet. The wild animal is generally orange and' 
black on the upper parts, shading to yellowish undei'neath. Domesticated speci- 
mens are usually orange, black and white iu marking. Those who have experimented 
with it as a table delicacy pronounce it "good eating," the flavor resembling 'possum. 

GULL: a name popularly applied to a geaus of natatorial or swimming birds which' 
includes a great many varieties, the plumige of most of them white, with a slaty or 
greyish upper mantle. The most common American types are the Great Black Head 
Gull and the Herring Gull. Their fish diet renders their meat too rank and coarse- 
to be generally popular, but their eggs are in some sections an important item of 
local consumption. 

GUM: viscid matter exuded from various trees and plants, extensively used in the- 
arts, medicines and manufactures — in the making of "gum" or mucilage, confection- 
ery, etc. Among the principal varieties are Gum Arabic from the stems of the Acacia 
tree. Gum Tragacanth (which see) and Chicle (see Chewing Gum). 

Dextrin (which see) is used as a substitute in various lines of manufacture. 



THE GfiOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 291 



GUM SYRUP, or Plain Syrup: retailed in bottles for sweetening fruit and alco- 
holic beverages, is made by dissolving sugar in boiling water. 

GUMBO. See Okua. The title "Gumbo" is in the South also applied to a rich 
Creole soup of mixed vegetables, meats, herbs, poultrj^ shellfish, etc., which generally 
contains Okra as one of its ingredients, the compound title of each style bearing the 
name of the chief character ingredient, as Chicken Gumbo, Shrimp Gumbo, Okra 
Gumbo, etc. 

GUMBO FILE: is any Gumbo Soup to which "File," the dried powdered young 
leaves and leaf buds of sassafras, is added just before taking the soup from the fire. 

GUNNY BAGS. Gunny is coarse jute or hemp sacking, used for wrapping cotton 
bales, etc. The bags are employed for shipping raw sugar and similar commodities. 

GUNPOWDER: is an explosive formed by a mechanical mixture of Saltpetre 
{Xitrute of Fotassiuiii) , Charcoal and Sulphur or Brimstone, the proportion of these 
ingredients varying slightly with different manufacturers. With minor modifications, 
the best grades of modern make consist of 75% Saltpetre, 15% Charcoal and 10% 
Sulphur. It seems extraordinary but it is a fact that the earliest known formulas 
correspond closely to those of the standard powders of to-day. 

It has been found difficult to obtain accurate information as to when Gunpowder 
was invented, or by whom. The combination of saltpetre with other substances for 
making fire-darts, Greek-fire, and other explosives resembling gunpowder, is said to 
have been known in the earliest ages, principally among the Far Eastern nations. 
The "Gentoo" laws supposed to have been formulated about the time of Moses, 1500 
years before the Christian Era, refer to cannon and guns, in the use of which gun- 
powder or some explosive substance must have been used. History also relates that 
during the Macedonian conquest about 400 years B. C, King Philip used "field artil- 
lery." Some authorities credit the Chinese with being acquainted at a very early 
period with substances resembling gunpowder. It is doubtful though if gunpowder was 
used to any great extent before the introduction of firearms about 1320 A. D. 

"Black" gunpowder has recently been superseded by smokeless powder to a great 
extent, but, because of its comparatively low cost, it is still largely used for shotgun, 
ammunition and in rifles and pistols. 

The three standard grain sizes are Fg, FFg and FFFg, from coarse to fine. For 
shotgun ammunition, FFg and FFFg are recommended, the finer size giving the 
greater velocity to the shot. Fg is suitable for rifle cartridges containing 40 grains 
or more to a charge; FFg for the smaller sizes of rifles. FFFg is the quickest, and is 
especially adapted for revolver and pistol cartridges, where all the power must be 
developed in a short barrel or cylinder. 

Gunpowder is ordinarily packed in metal kegs, half-kegs and quarter-kegs, con- 
taining respectively 25, 121/2 and 614 pounds avoirdupois, and in tin canisters contain- 
ing one pound, one-half pound and one-qiiarter pound. Some manufacturers are also 
using a paper "Keg" holding one pound of powder — this style of packing making an 
attractive and handy container. 

The oldest gunpowder manufacturer in the United States is the Du Pont Com- 
pany of Wilmington, Delaware, which was established in 1802. Its mills have 



292 THE GBOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

continuously supplied the United States Government with explosives since that date, 
besides furnishing sportsmen with a standard article for their enjoyment. 

Only limited quantities of gunpowder packed in kegs or canisters may be stored 
on the premises. Insurance companies generally allow 25 pounds to be stored with- 
out additional premium. In some states a special license is required before it can 
be handled. The restrictions on the carrying, selling and shipping of the commodity, 
lave caused the majority of dealers to meet the demands of their customers with 
loaded shot shells and metallic ammunition for rifles and pistols. Ammunition of 
this character may be carried in stock in any quantity without affecting insurance and 
withoiit special license. 

Smokeless Gunpowder, is manufactured in two principal classes, "bulk" and 
"dense." Bulk powder gives equal strength to an equal bulk of Black or common 
gunpowder, the weight though being only about one-half. Dense is so manufactured 
that it occupies only about one-third the space of its equivalent in black gunpowder. 
The respective merits of these two types is a matter of individual opinion, each having 
its adherents. The up-to-date manufacturer produces both varieties and the shooter 
takes his choice. 

Smokeless gunpowders of both types are manufactured for use in shotguns, rifles 
and pistols. It must be borne in mind, however, that those designated for shotguns 
must not be used in rifles, and vice versa. 

In composition, the various smokeless powders differ but slightly, the hulk type 
being chiefly made from a mixture of nitro-cellulose and metallic salts with a moderat- 
ing agent, while the dense powders are generally composed of nitro-glycerin and nitro- 
cellulose. 

Like black powders, smokeless gunpowder is packed in kegs, fractions of kegs, and 
canisters. 

As in other lines of merchandise, unscrupulous powder manufacturers are con- 
stantly offering inferior products to the unsuspecting public. It is wiser to stock only 
regular and reliable brands than to risk life and property by purchasing unknown and 
unstable powders. 

HACKBERRY or Sugarherry : the fruit of the Nettle Tree. It is of pleasing sweet- 
ness and aromatic flavor, and, like the American persimmon, is at its best after it has 
been touched by frost. 

HADDOCK {See Color Page facing 250) : a silvery-grey sea fish, varying from one 
and a half to seven pounds in weight, of the same genus as the cod and very plentiful 
in the North Atlantic, off both the American and European coasts. It is in season 
all the year. "Deep sea" catches are generally considered the best. Large quanti- 
ties are cured by drying, smoking and salting. Smoked Haddock is best known as 
"Finnan haddie" (which see). 

HAGGIS: a national Scotch dish which consists of a well cleaned sheep stomach 
filled with the minced, blanched and cooked sheep's heart, liver, lungs, etc., mixed with 
oatmeal, onions, beef suet, herbs, etc., cooked from two to three hours before serving. 
Haggis is now sold in can form, for this purpose being cooked first in well but- 
tered molds instead of in the stomach. 




Virginia Ham 
Boned Shoulder 



(2) Bacon 

C4) Westphalia Ham 



THE GROCERY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 295 

HAKE {see Color Page facing 250) : a fish of the cod tribe, plentiful along the coasts 
of Europe and eastern North America, large specimens attaining a length of four 
feet. The meat is coarse, flaky and white. It is consumed both fresh and salted in 
the same way as cod, but is considered less choice. 

HALIBUT {see Color Page facing 250) : a large flat-fish, longer than the flounder, 
covered with scales and showing brown above and white on its under side. It is very 
abundant on most northern coasts from Norway to the United States, and is often of 
great size — some specimens have weighed five hundred pounds. It is in season all the 
year and is largely eaten both fresh — generally broiled in the form of steak — and 
cured by salting and smoking. In England it is known as the "workhouse turbot" 
because of its cheapness. 

"Chicken Halibut," much the best eating, is the young fish, averaging two to ten 
pounds in weight. 

Halibut is often substituted for turbot. It can, however, be readily distinguished 
in the whole fish as the turbot has spots on the back and the halibut has not. The 
turbot is also much wider for its length than the halibut. 

HAMS {see Smoked Meats facing page 292) : are the hind legs of the pig, above the 
hock joint. They are generally sold salted and smoked, but also salted only, being 
then used generally for boiling, and fresh-boiled, in the last-named condition chiefiy 
for retailing in slices or by the pound as "Pork Steak," "fresh pork," etc. 

The curing process in the best qualities consists substantially of trimming, 
chilling, immersing for from forty to sixty days in a brine composed of table salt, 
granulated sugar and a trace of saltpetre (the last-named to fix the color), washing, 
drying by hanging in steam-heated apartments and smoking, the hams remaining in the 
smoke-house at a moderate temperature for about three days. Hickory wood or 
mahogany sawdust are considered the best for smoking, but other woods are occa- 
sionally employed, as for example. Juniper Brush in Germany for Westphalia Ham, 
to impart a distinctive flavor. The final step is wrapping the hams and sewing into 
canvas or burlap bags. 

In the manufacture of the cheaper qualities, the salting is more speedily per- 
formed by "pumping" the brine into the ham. The time allowed for smoking is also 
considerably reduced, a higher degree of heat being maintained in the smoke-house. 

A Skinned Ham is a large ham with the skin and fat cut off down to the shank. 
It is purchased principally by retailers who wish to sell it in small quantities. 

A Boneless Ham is a cured ham, soaked, boned, the fat trimmed off and tied in 
a cloth and boiled for several hours. 

An American Short Cut Ham is one cut short so as to expose the marrow, and 
well rounded on the butt, most of the fat being taken off the face down to the shank. 

A Long Ham is cut from the side by separating the hip bone from the rump, the 
foot unjointed at the joint of the knee. 

A Manchester Ham is the same as a Long Cut Ham, except that it is cut shorter 
on the butt. 

A Stafford Ham is the same as a Manchester, except that the hip bone is taken 
out at the socket, thus exposing the knuckle. 

What was formerly known as a "Picnic" or "California" ham is the shoulder with 
from five to eight pounds of the butt trimmed off. 



296 THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

As haiiij like all other cured pork, loses considerably in weight by the natural 
evaporation of moisture and grease, it is advisable for the retailer to purchase only 
in small quantities so as to make as quick a turnover as possible. Some hams, as 
Virginia, are sold by their first weight as stamped on the canvas, irrespective of loss 
in weight while being held. They should always be kept in a cool dry place — never 
exposed to the sun in window displays, etc. 

Among the best known of imported hams are: Westmoreland and York (English) ; 
Westphalia (Germany) ; Bayonne (France) ; Sprague (Hungary) and Spanish. 

In purchasing a ham, it is best to choose one that is moderately fat and that 
weighs from twelve to sixteen pounds. 

Fat is essential to a good ham — if it is lean, it is nearly always lacking in flavor 
and tenderness. The famous Virginia hams from lean Virginia hogs are exceptions to 
this rule, but their delicacy is attributed to the animals' forest diet of roots and acorns 
and other nuts. 

A ham much under the weight mentioned is generally lacking in flavor, as the 
meat is ordinarily too immature. It can be used for boiling, but it is not even for that 
as desirable as a part or whole of a larger ham. On the other hand, if the ham is 
very large, the muscle is liable to be a little tough. 

For the average small household, the best way of using a ham is to reserve the 
center for broiling and frying in slices, and to boil the remainder. 

Sliced ham should never be cut more than one-quarter of an inch thick — one- 
sixth of an inch is still better. It is not necessary to saw through the bone — with a 
sharp knife, cut clean to the bone and divide the slices in the center. The broiling 
or frying should be done over a hot fire, but it should not be sufficiently fierce to scorch 
the meat. It should always be eaten fresh cooked, as broiled or fried ham will speed- 
ily toughen. 

To properly boil ham, first brush it off thoroughly to remove every particle of 
mold, soak for an hour in cold water and then wash thoroughly. Next, with a very 
sharp knife, shave off the hardened surface from both the face and butt. Place over 
the fire in cold water, let it come to a moderate boil and keep it steadily at that point, 
allowing it to cook twenty minutes for each pound of meat, replenishing the supply 
of water as fast as it boils away. When cooked, remove the skin — it will easily peel 
off if it has been properly boiled — and dish with the fat side up. The service is ' 
improved by dredging black pepper in spots on the upside, sticking in a few whole 
cloves and garnishing with parsley. 

A roasted ham is merely a boiled ham nicely browned in a hot oven. It can be 
rendered more appetizing in appearance by spreading egg-moistened bread crumbs or 
cracker dust over the fat side before putting in the oven. The ham should rest in a 
pan with a wire bottom, or, if that is not possible, should be so blocked that the flesh 
does not rest on the pan. 

HARD TACK, Ship Biscuit, Pilot Bread: large hard biscuits of plain dough, kiln- 
dried. They are prepared principally for army and navy commissaries, but in some 
places there is a steady private demand for them, the broken biscuit being relished 
when added to soups and stews. 

HARE: a class name for a large family of small game animals, including all of 
the Leporidae except the rabbit. There are from thirty to forty different varieties. 



THE GllOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 297 



including the "Common Hare," Polar Hare, Marsh Hare, Mountain Hare, etc., a num- 
ber of them native to North America. 

The hare is generally bigger than the rabbit, with longer ears and feet and wider 
muzzle. The common European type averages larger than the American and has still 
longer ears, feet and hind legs. Some varieties of the hare and rabbit are very similar 
in appearance, but the division is a natural one and the two types can always be dis- 
tinguished by their young — those of the hare are born highly developed with full coats- 
of fur and their eyes open ; those of the rabbit are born blind, naked and helpless. 

The most common type of American hare is known in many sections as the "Jack- 
rabbit." It has always been a more or less popular article of game food, eaten fresh,, 
but it is not as a rule sufficiently plentiful to encourage commercial packing. 

The Belgian Hare is a large variety of Eabbit (which see). 

The points given for the selection of rabbits apply equally to hares. 

HARICOTS FLAGEOLETS. See Flageolets. 

HARICOTS VERTS : young string beans bottled or canned, imported from France^ 

HASLETS: the liver, lungs, heart, etc., of food animals, especially of swine and sheep.. 

HAWS: the fruit of the Hawthorn, known under various names and found in 
numerous varieties all over the world — the English "May," the Summer Haw or Yellow 
Thorn, etc. The berries — ^yellow, orange, purple or red in color — are more useful than 
is generally known. They vary in size and flavor, but there are a number which make 
a pleasing breakfast or dessert fruit, and as siich are popular in the south of Europe. 
They are also used in the manufacture of Hawthorn Liquor, an intoxicant, and 
cooked for various pastry and dessert items. 

In some parts of the United States the term "haw" is applied to the Sloe. 

HAZEL NUTS. See matter under title of Filberts. 

HEAD. The most generally desirable head for home cooking is that of the calf, but 
lamb's and pig's are also popular. With the exception of those from black sheep, thej 
should be thick and white. 

HEAD CHEESE, or Brawn : pickled meat trimmings, principally of pig meat, 
variously spiced and flavored, retailed in bulk, canned (then generally encased in 
jelly) and in large sausage casings (see Sausages). 

HEART. Beef heart is an economical and pleasing dish if properly prepared. In 
purchasing, see that the fat around the top is clear and lively in appearance. Calf's 
heart is smaller but more tender and delicate in flavor. Lamb's heart is generally 
sold with the lights. 

HEMP : the inner fibre of several plants, the various grades being used in the manu- 
facture of cordage, sheeting, etc. The most widely cultivated are the numerous- 
varieties of the GannaUs Sativa, an annual of the nettle family which attains an aver- 
age height of from four to eight feet, grown chiefly in India, Russia, Argentine, and 



298 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

the United States. Manila Hemp is the fibre of a plant of the banana family, grown 
almost exclusively in the Philippine Islands. The finest grades are made into shawls 
and the coarser into ropes, etc. 

Hemp Seed: as it concerns the retailer, is best known as a food for canaries 
and other cage birds. 

Hemp Seed Oil: is a green oil extensively employed in Holland in the manufac- 
ture of soft soap. In Russia, it is used for food purposes by all classes. 

HERBS. A great variety of plants belong under this heading and their uses are 
very numerous — (1) as vegetables, (2) for fiavoring soaps, sauces and pickles, (3) 
to make herb or medicinal teas, etc. Those used principally as vegetables are fre- 
quently, termed Pot Heris, or are designated by the still wider title of ^'greens." 
Those employed chiefiy for flavoring purposes — the varieties particularly considered 
in this article — are generally known as Sioeet Herbs. Among the most popular types 
are Basil, Bay-leaf, Chervil, Dill, Marjoram, Mint, Parsley, Sage, Savory, Tarragon 
and'Thyme. All of these, and a number of others of less common use, are described 
in their alphabetical positions. A "bouquet" or "faggot" of herbs is a bunch tied 
together for ready sale. 

Dried Sweet and Medicinal Herbs, both whole and ground, are largely prepared 
by such farming communities as the Shakers. They are sold chiefly in cans or pack- 
ages, in the latter case being first pressed into cakes of various sizes, principally 
1-oz. and %-lb. and then securely wrapped. They should be kept in a dry place as 
they readily absorb moisture and become moldy. 

HERMETIC AL SEALING: the closing and sealing of a can or other vessel so as to 
render impossible the admission of air. 

HERMITAGE: the wine produced in the hilly Hermitage district bordering on the 
river Rhone, north of Valence, Prance. The name is taken from a hermit's cell or 
hermitage built on the summit of a hill near Tain in 1225 by Gaspard de Sterimberg, 
until then a chevalier of the French court. The section is divided into twelve districts 
known as Mas, the most noted of which is the Mas de Greffleux, at the foot of the 
hills. Next in order are the Mas de Meal, Mas de Bessar, and Mas de Baumes. The 
wines are generally known by the names of the districts — Mas M6al, etc. — but the true 
Hermitage wine which first made its reputation is a blending of the grapes or wine of 
the first three — Greffleux, M6al and Bessar. 

The product of the other eight districts — Cocoules, Murets, Dionni^res, I'Ermite, 
Peleat, la Pierrelle, du Colombier and Varognes — is generally considered of com- 
paratively inferior quality. 

The best known Hermitage is the "red" which is a rich deep purple, soft and deli- 
cate in flavor and of fine bouquet, suggesting the raspberry. The white wine of the 
best grades is also very choice — full bodied, smooth and aromatic. 

HERRING. There are several species of this favorite and much used fish, the chief 
being the Glupea Harengus of Northern Europe and America and the Olupea Mira- 
bilis of the Pacific Coast of the United States. The principal American fisheries are 



THE GROCBE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 299 

located along the New England coasts and in British-American waters. In Europe, 
the main herring grounds are those of Great Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia, the 
Netherlands and the North of France. The domestic catch is supplemented by the 
annual importation of from fifty to seventy million pounds of pickled or salted 
herring, chiefly from Holland, Great Britain, Norway and Canada. 

The fish are usually caught in gill nets or scoop nets, the yearly harvest amount- 
ing to many hundreds of millions. The average size is from eleven to fourteen inches. 
The principal season in the eastern market is from October 1 to April 30. On the 
North American coast in the winter, the catch is frozen solid and thus easily shipped 
fresh to the markets for packing. 

When recently caught and cooked by boiling or broiling, herring are both whole- 
some and agreeable for consumption fresh, but the principal demand here is for the 
smoked or pickled fish, as the fresh herring if fried, or if kept long, becomes strong 
and oily and is apt to offend the stomach. The best grades of the cured fish are on the 
other hand highly esteemed as a relish, and salted herring is credited with diuretic 
properties by many physicians— perhaps because of the free quaffing of water or other 
liquids which generally follows its consumption. 

Bismarck herring is the whole fish put up in a pickle flavored with spices, pieces 
of red pepper, onions, etc. 

Bloaters (which see) are half-cured whole herrings. 

Boneless herring, other than that in cans or jars, is the dry cured fish ready pre- 
pared for the broiler. It comes packed in boxes with glass tops and is a quick-sell- 
ing article in a grocer's stock. 

Kippered herring is the fish split, salted and mild-smoked. 

Milchner herring is the pickled soft-roe fish, the roe being converted into a sauce 
by rubbing through a sieve. 

Red herring is English herring salted and smoked. The title is of English origin, 
distinguishing the smoked fish from the "white" herring, preserved by salting only. 

Soused herring is another title for Fielded herring. 

More fancy types include "Delicatess" or Filet (filleted) Herring in Wine Sauce 
or in Oil; Roll Mopse (pickled rolled fillets) ; small fish in Tomato Sauce, etc. 

As an article of food, herrings are of vast importance to a large proportion of 
the population of Europe and the preparation of the cured fish furnishes employment 
for thousands. 

The Dutch herring fishery is conducted by steam and sailing vessels, which use 
tanned cotton gill nets, 360 meshes deep and 720 meshes long, the mesh being two- 
inches stretch-. They are set about six feet below the surface, being held in position 
by leads and corks. From 80 to 150 nets are carried on each vessel. A thousand bar- 
rels are often taken at one haul of the seine. 




An instantaneous photograph of a few members of a "school" of herrint^^ 



300 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



The fish are dressed and salted immediately after the nets are hauled on to the 
vessel — this point is considered of great importance. 

The Dutch fisherman, when dressing herring, is equipped with a short knife, 
a,ttached to the fourth and fifth fingers of his right hand by a string tied to the 
handle. He takes the fish in the left hand, with the belly up and the head forward, 
^nd thrusts the knife crosswise directly through the gill cavities, entering the left side 
^nd emerging from the right. The knife, with edge turned upward or outward, is 
then pulled directly through the tissues, cutting and tearing away the gills. There 
is little apparent effort made to remove anything except the gills and pectorals as the 
other organs come away incidentally. The men become very expert in cutting — some 
■of them can handle an average of twelve hundred fish an hour. 

The removal of the gills and heart results in opening the large blood vessels 
and free bleeding ensues, leaving the flesh pale or "white." 

The fish are next rolled in salt and then carefully packed in barrels in straight 
rows, backs down, each layer at right angles to those above and below and with salt 
between layers, a barrel of salt being required for each four barrels of fish. The 
barrels are finally headed up and stored in the hold until the end of the fishing trip. 
On reaching port, the catch is unloaded and sold at auction. 

The shore buyer generally repacks the fish in order to sort them by size and grades 
of quality, no sorting being attempted on the vessels. Some purchasers or agents 




Thousands of kegs of Scotch herring, ready to ship, Aberdeen. Scotland 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 301 

prefer the sea-packed, unsorted fish, but as a rule dealers or jobbers wish to know 
how many fish are in a barrel and what their quality is. 

For repacking, the herring are first emptied into large vats or tanks, the original 
brine, called "blood brine" or "blood pickle," being carefully saved and poured back 
after re-barreling. Fresh salt is added in the proportion of one barrel to eight. 

Dutch herring barrels, in which the bulk of the catch is marketed, contain about 
■one hundred and twenty-five kilograms (about 275 pounds) of fish. Smaller recep- 
tacles — one-half, one-quarter, one- third, one-sixteenth and one-thirty-second barrels — 
are also used, but are in less demand than formerly. 

In Holland there is no official regulation for packing or branding, but the 
packers have a standard which is generally observed, as it is to their interest to have 
the fish properly packed and labeled. 

Both Dutch and Scotch herring are graded according to the spawning condition 
of the fish. Ripe or full herring are branded "Full" or Vol; those in which the roe 
is undeveloped, as "Matties" or Maatjis, and the spent herring as "Shotten" or Ijlen, 
(or Ij or Ijle). There are several qualities of each of these classes, designated No. 
1, No. 2, etc., and also numerous other grades, as "Mixed" or unassorted, etc. 

HICKORY NUT [see Color Page opposite 414). There is an almost innumerable 
variety of hickory nuts, but all the types of noteworthy food value can be classified 
under the name of Pecans, Thick Shell Shagbarks, or "Western Hickory," and Thin 
Shell Shagbarks. Pecans are treated under a separate heading. Of the other two 
■classes, the Thin-shell are considered the more desirable, the meat being whiter as 
well as more easily obtainable. The Thiclc-shell or Western Hickory often though bears 
very large nuts — frequently to a length of two inches. 

The hickory-tree is a species of the walnut family and is found only in the United 
States. 

HOARHOUND, or Horehound: a bushy plant of the mint 
family native to the south of Europe and Eastern countries, 
growing about a foot high, and with round, wrinkled, almost 
hairy ("hoary") leaves, which contain a bitter principle and 
volatile oil of aromatic but not very agreeable smell. It is used 
as a flavor for candy and also in medicinal syrups for its cura- 
tive properties for coughs and other affections. 

HOCK. See Rhine and Moselle Wines. 

Hoarhound 

HOE CAKE: originally a plain cornmeal cake, so named because the old- 
time plantation "mammy" often cooked it on a hoe on hot embers in front of the wood 
fire. The term is now applied also to a richer "biscuit bread" of cornmeal, baked 
either on a griddle or in an oven. 




HOG AND HOMINY: a recent addition to the list of canned goods. The title 
given was formerly employed in slang phraseology to describe the diet of some country, 
sections of the United States. 

HOGSHEAD. See table of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 



302 



THE GROCBB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HOKEY-POKEY, the Italian OccM-PoccM : (1) a term applied to mixed colors 
and flavors of ice cream, in cake forms, (2) an inferior grade of ice cream sold by 
peddlers. 

HOLLANDS. A term applied to Holland Gin (see article on Gin). 

HOMINY or Granulated Hominy or Orits : is, essentially, white Indian Corn kernels 
with the rough fibrous part removed, broken into particles of uniform size. It is simi- 
lar to Granulated Oornmeal, but considerably coarser. 

A grade of Grits, somewhat lower than that handled by the grocery trade for 
table purposes, is used in large quantities by brewers. 

Pearl Hominy is a larger size Hominy. It is also known as Samp, Coarse 
Hominy and Coarse Orits. 

Hominy is prepared for use by boiling with water or milk. The larger sizes are 
eaten as a dinner vegetable, the finer product as a breakfast dish. When boiling for 
frying, always add some flour just before finishing as that will prevent it from 
breaking and splitting when fried. 

HONEY: is the sucrose secreted by the glands of 
flowers, extracted by the proboscides of the working bees 
and inverted in their crops or honey bags into Invert 
Sugar or Dextrose and Levulose sugars (see article on 
Glucose). At the hive, the bee disgorges his burden 
into the cells of the comb as a reserve supply of food 
for the colony. As thus at first deposited the honey is 
a thin liquid — it attains its later syrupy consistence 
by evaporation. 

A hive of fifty to seventy-five thousand bees will 
yield an average of about one pound of honey daily dur- 
ing the season, the quantity rising to two to three pounds 
a day at the height of the season. If left to their own 
devices, the bees begin their annual work by building 
the combs, the process taking about half their time. 
After many failures, bee-keepers have found that they 
can supply thin transparent layers of pure wax stamped 
into foundations for the cells in such a way as to be 
acceptable to the bees, who complete the cell portion 
much more quickly and proceed sooner to actual honey 
gathering. Man can make more foundation in a minute 
than the bees in a dozen hives could draw out all sum- 
mer. 

Comb Honey is that straight from the hives. The 
little square or oblong frames familiar to the consumer 
are fitted with the comb foundation referred tor;- and then placed in the hives for the 
bees to work in. The bees not only make the honey we eat, but also put it up in pack- 
ages for us! 

Virffin Honey is that which fiows spontaneously from the combs. The term was 
formerly applied to that made by the younger bees before swarming. 




Taking a sM'arra of bees from a tree 




HONEY 



thegrocer's encyclopedia 305 



Strained Honey is that extracted from the combs, generally by centrifugal process 
— the rapid revolving of the combs inside mesh-cylinders causing the honey to 
exude. If the honey has been allowed to ripen sufficiently in the hives, or is properly 
evaporated after extraction, "strained honey" compares favorably in flavor and quality 
with Comb Honey. 

Candied Honey, as marketed, is strained honey evaporated to solidity. It is a 
confection classed with Maple Sugar, etc. 

Ninety per cent, of the honey consumed is sent to market extracted or 
"strained." It is shipped in cans which hold five gallons, or sixty pounds, tAvo cans 
making a case. 

Comb Honey and the better grades of Strained Honey, ai'e sold for table use, 
while dark and coarse honey is used by bakers, confectioners, cracker makers and 
druggists. Hundreds of tons are annually consumed in the manufacture of sweet 
biscuits, as it has the peculiar quality of keeping them fresh and moist. The 
famous "Honey Bread" of Germany and France, lelilcuchen, pain d'epice, will keep a 
year or eighteen months without drying out. 

Honey has been employed as food from the remotest times. In moderation it is 
nutritious and laxative, though some dyspeptic persons find that it aggravates their 
symptoms. Its composition varies according to the food of the bees, their age, the 
season, etc. The invert sugar (dextrose and levulose) ranges from 60% to 90% ; sucrose 
(corresponding to "ordinary" sugar) from nothing to 10%. It was formerly adul- 
terated to a considerable extent by the addition of commercial invert sugar and com- 
mercial glucose, but the presence of either of these adulterants is easily ascertained 
on analysis, and the enforcement of Federal and State Food Laws has practically 
eliminated the fraud. 

The flavors of honey before blending vary as much as, or more than, those of 
fruits. Mountain Sage is very mild ; Buckwheat is so strong as to be almost biting 
to the palate; Basswood has a pronounced mint taste; White Clover is milder than 
Basswood and stronger than Mountain Sage; Alfalfa resembles White Clover, with 
usually a slight mint taste. The wild honey of Cuba, Mexico, etc., is generally highly 
aromatic. 

The comparative merits of honey flavors is largely a matter of individual taste. 
In the East, to describe any honey as "equal to White Clover" is to style it as equal 
to the very finest, yet many judges and all Western consumers consider Alfalfa 
superior to White Clover. 

Other points for judgment are color and density. In this country, light colored 
or "white'^ honey is generally considered the best, but the rule does not hold good 
everywhere as the famous Scotch "Heather Honey" is as dark in color as our Buck- 
wheat — which is in most sections rated as a decidedly inferior product. 

The greater part of our present supply consists of Alfalfa Honey, from the alfalfa 
regions of the AVestern States, where bee-keeping is conducted on a large scale, the 
product amounting to an annual value of several million dollars. 

Southern California honey comes chiefly from Sage and Sumach blossoms, except- 
ing in the San Joaquin Valley, where the bee-keepers depend principally upon the 
Alfalfa flower. Texas furnishes large quantities of Mesquite, Guajilla (pronounced 
wah-he-lia), Catclaw and Horsemint honey; the Eastern States, north of the Ohio 
Eiver and east of the Mississippi, principally Clover and Basswood, and the States 
south of the Ohio, Tupelo, Mangrove and a good deal of Clover. 



16 



30G 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Id all of the honey States, white honey is produced in greater or less quantities, 
but it is usually mixed Avith other honeys, so the flavor cannot be distinguished. In 
Utah, Colorado and parts of Nevada and Idaho we get a pure White Clover without 
any other flavor being added, but only a few carloads are produced. 

England and Northern Europe generally, produce a honey similar to the Scotch 
Heather, but of lesser quality. Narbonne Honey, from the vicinity of Narbonne, 
France, is similar to our White Clover. Kosemary Honey is also very popular in 
Southern Europe, and the famed honey of ilt. Hymettus, Greece, is from Wild Thyme. 
"Poisonous Honey" is found near Trebizond, in Asia, its toxic effects being due to 
the bees having collected it from a poisonous plant. 

Honey should always be stored where it is dry and warm — almost hot. It will 
not be too warm with the temperature at 100° Fahr. If one is fortunate enough to 
have a dry warm garret next to the roof, no better place for storing it can be found. 
Where salt will keep dry, honey is safe. 

A cellar is one of the very worst places that can be found for storing honey. 
There are few cellars in which the air is not somewhat damp, and honey attracts mois- 
ture-very readily. Strained Honey will become thin and will often ferment. Comb 
Honey will lose all of its attractiveness — the beautiful white surface becomes watery 
and darkened and drops of water gather on the cappings and run over the surface. 

If honey, particularly Strained Honey, is kept for a great length of time, especially 
during cold weather, it is apt to change from its original liquid or semi-liquid con- 
sistence to a semi-granular condition. It is then called "granulated" or "candied" 
honey, and the flavor is somewhat changed. Some people prefer it in this condition, 
but it is not, as a rule, so readily salable. The tendency to "candy" is, however, fairly 
good proof of purity. 

Honey Bread. See general article on Bread. 

Honey Cakes. See Lebkuchen. 

Honey Mead. See Mead. 

HOPS. The hop plant is a climber found wild 
in America, Europe and Asia. It has been cul- 
tivated in Germany since the ninth century and 
is now also an important crop in the United 
States, the chief producing sections being New 
York and the Pacific Coast states. It is famous 
for the property of its blossoms in preserving 
beer from bacterial action, while also imparting 
to it an agreeably bitter taste, and it is medic- 
inally valuable as a sedative and narcotic, 
Avhether taken internally or applied externally 
in the form of pillows, fomentations, etc. The ancients ate the young hop shoots as 
v\-e do asparagus, and this custom is still prevalent in parts of England and Germany. 
The roots of the vine are perennial, the top only dying in the winter. The vines, 
which twine with the sun, from right to left, are now generally trained on drop-wires 
or strings or on wire trellis work, the old-style poles being employed in comparatively 
few sections. The blossoms are harvested in the latter part of August and the 




A pole of choice Hops, Oregon 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



307 



beginuiug of September. Thej are cured and 
kilu dried and then baled. 

In the choice of hops, care should be taken 
to select those which are full of lupuUii (the es- 
sential principle), free from mold, and bright 
and silky in appearance — that are the most 
powerfully odorous, and the most free from 
leaves, stems, scaly fragments and sticks, and 
which, when rubbed between the hands, impart, 
in the greatest degree, a yellowish tint and glu- 
tinous feeling to the skin. It is best also to 
select those which are tightly packed, as, unless 
they are very firmly pressed together and quite 
solid, they soon spoil in keeping. 

HOREHOUND. See Hoaehotjnd. 











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^;^JSSHK^ 



Weighing Hops 



HORSE RADISH: a plant allied to the nasturtium or cress family, naturalized 
in many temperate countries. It is grown for its white, fleshy, very pungent roots, 

which are generally grated and mixed with vinegar for use as 
a condiment with oysters, meat, etc. 

Grated Horse Radish is best when freshest — if exposed to 
lieat and air, it rapidly loses its pungent characteristics. Jars 
and bottles in which it is put up should be hermetically sealed. 
When used without vinegar, it is best grated just before serving. 
Horse Radish Sauce is made by placing the sliced root in 
a bottle or similar receptacle and covering with alcohol. The 
sauce can be used without any other addition than a little fresli 
mustard and a little red pepper, or may be added drop by drop 
to any white sauce until the desired flavor is obtained. 

Horse Radish Vinegar is the grated root, together with a 
small quantity of shallots, onions or garlic, red pepper, etc., 
steeped for a week or so in vinegar, and then strained and 
bottled. 

Horse Radish Powder is prepared by grinding the grated 
root, and drying by gentle heat or exposure to a current of 
dry air. When grinding the root, it is advisable to use a meat 
chopper in order to save the eyes ! 

Prepared Horse Eadish of any kind should always be kept 
in a dark, cool place. 

The roots may be left in the ground over winter and dug 
as needed. If dug, they may be kept fresh for some time by burying in cool sand. 

An excellent winter salad may be obtained by sprouting the roots. If they are dug 
in the late autumn, the crowns being left intact, and then buried npriglit in moist, but 
not wet, earth in a dark, warm cellar, the leaves will grow Avhite and tender and of a 
sweet pungency. They should be cut when about three or four inches long and may 
be used singly or mixed with other plant salads. Darkness during growth is essen- 
tial, as if exposed to the light the leaves grow green and tougli and too strong in flavor. 



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Horse Radish 



308 



THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HUCKLEBERRIES. The huckleberry, blueberry, bilberry and cranberry constitute 
the principal members of a large family of edible berries, botanically classed together. 
Cranberries (which see) are easily and naturally distinguished by their red color, but 
the titles of Huckleberry, Blueberry and Bilberry are variously and contradictorily 
employed in different localities. By New England custom, those of bluish color are 
popularly known as Blueberries; those black or nearly so, as Huckleberries. West 
and South of New England, the general tendency is to group all varieties under the 
common name of Huckleberry, in spite of the fact that the market supply is chiefly 
of blueberries. Botanically, blueberries and bilberries are now ascribed to the Vacci- 
nium genus and huckleberries to Gaylussacia. Physically, blueberries and bilberries 
are generally sweeter, milder and larger than huckleberries, and the seeds, though 
more numerous, are so much smaller as to be scarcely noticeable in eating. They 
are also generally bluer than the Common Huckleberry (G. Resinosa), but the color 
distinction is not absolute because of the bluish tint of the Blue Huckleberry or 
Dangleberry (G^. Frondosa) and the nearly black hue of a few kinds of Blueberries. 
The name "Whortleberry" is in the United States applied to the Huckleberry, and in 
Europe to the Bilberry. 

The numerous varieties of huckleberries, blueberries and bilberries range in size 
from that of a currant to a small grape, and in color from light blue to black, and 
ripen from the first of June to the last of August, remaining in the market until 
about the middle of September. They are picked in enormous quantities for use 
fresh as an edible fruit and (both fresh and canned) for pies and puddings. In 
Southeast Maine, vast areas are covered with the bushes. Cultivation is at present 
resorted to in only a few parts, as the wild bushes generally supply enough to meet 
the demand, but it is probable that the future will see greater attention directed to 
the improvement of these berries and their more extensive production. As marketed, 
two or more varieties are often mixed together. 

The first to ripen is the Dioarf Blueberry, borne by a small shrub from six to 
fifteen inches in height, which grows and bears abundantly on the sand barrens and 
hills of Penn- 
sylvania. The 
fruit is also 
known as 
Sugar Berry, 
Sugar Huckle- 
berry, Blue 
Huckleberry, 
Early Sweet, 
Blue Sweet, 
Low Sweet, 
Early Blue 
and Early 
Huckleberry. 
It has a bluish 
coat, w h i c h 
looks as 
though dusted 
with flour. 







^D ^^HQil^^BHaiijHk r 






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Tl ^r 


w 











Blueberries 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



309 



Next come the Low Blueberry, also 
known as the "Blue Huckleberry," the 
Canada Blueberry and the Dwarf Bilberry. 

The Low Blueberry grows on dry 
sandy ground West of the Alleghanies. The 
bush resembles that of the Dwarf Blueberry 
except that the plant is more erect. The 
fruit is large, blue and covered with bloom. 

The Canada Blueberry, found in the 
Pennsylvania mountains and regions fur- 
ther north, is a shrub from one to two feet 
in height, bearing round or oblate blue ber- 
ries, covered with bloom and pleasing in 
flavor, but not as sweet as the fruit of the 
Dwarf Blueberry. The bush is also known 
locally as the "velvet leaf." 

The Dwarf Bilberry, found in northern 
Maine and Canada, is a small shrub from 
two to twelve inches in height, with large 
blue berries covered with bloom. 

The latest in the market are the fruits 
of the High Bush Blueberry of the north- 
east states and the High Bush Hucldeberry, 
both of them widely known as "Swamp 
Huckleberry," from their preference for The High Bush Huckleberry 

moist woodlands and swampy ground. The bushes are tall — from four to twelve feet 
in height — and ragged or straggling in growth. The fruit of the High Bush Blue- 
berry is a dark purplish ; that of the High Bush Huckleberry is nearly black. 

The crop is gathered mainly with steel rakes, similar to those frequently used 
in cranberry picking, a skillful "hand" sometimes collecting more than fifteen bushels 
in a day. Both men and women are employed for the work. The berries are after- 
wards winnowed in a machine which blows out the sticks, leaves and defective fruits. 

The poorer grades are in some sections popularly called "crackers," because 
their tough skins crack when eaten. The term is also applied to the true huckleberry, 
because the bony covering of the seed "crackles" between the teeth. 
















HUMBUGS. The trade is perpetually annoyed by humbugs. We warn grocers 
against all preparations for preserving perishable articles, all schemes for mix- 
ing goods so as to cheat the buyer, and especially against goods which pretend to 
grade with the best and are offered at the lowest figures. 



HUMIDOR: a term somewhat generally applied to any device for keeping cigars 
moist. A stricter trade acceptance confines it to boxes or chests especially con- 
structed for keeping cigars in good condition — accomplished by insulation from con- 
tact with the outside air and the inclusion of a slab or tablet of porcelain, clay or 
other porous material which is moistened from time to time. 

Devices, whether of clay or metal, in perforated tubes and other forms, which are 
set in cigar cases to keep the air moist, are best known as "cigar moisteners." 



310 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



HUNGARIAN and AUSTRIAN WINES. Hungarian wines hold high reputa- 
tion for their tonic qualities, as they contain an unusually large proportion of iron. 
The most famous of all is Tokay (which see). 

8zamorodni is a noteworthy soft, full, white wine made from the same grapes as 
Tokay, but without the selection, or addition, of vine-ripened berries. 

Among other good varieties are i?«ss^i or i?usifer, also of Tokay type; the red and 
white types of Meneser, Villanyi and Ofen, or Ofner, Adelsberger; the red Budai, Egri 
and Szegszarder; the white Magyarater, Nesmelyer, Badacsonyer, Pesti and Somlauer; 
Karloioitzer , of Port style; several Muscats; Hungarian Yermonth and a number of 
Croatian wines. 

Austrian wines resemble Hungarian in general character. The best known are 
divers Muscats; Gumpohlslcir diner, of Sauternes style; Luttenherger, rich and syrupy; 
Voslauer, red and white, and several varieties from Dalmatia — among them the sweet 
Maraschino (made from the grape of that name and having no connection with Maras- 
chino, the liqueur) and aromatic Muscats. 

HUNYADI JANOS. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

HYSSOP: a small bushy herb with leaves of aromatic and stimulant properties 
which grows wild in tlie south of Europe. The tops and flowers are used in making 
"Hyssop Tea." 



ICE AND REFRIGERATION. Va 

rious methods of freezing Avater have 
been in use to a small extent for some 
hundreds of years, but the modern indus- 
try of ice manufacture and refrigeration, 
now of considerable magnitude and great 
importance, dates from about the year 
1870. At that time there were four plants 
in operation in the United States as 
against nearly 2000 now engaged in the 
production of ice for general sale, in addi- 
tion to the very large number of ice and 
refrigerating plants used in the meat, cold 
storage, brewery and other lines. Artifi- 
cial ice was formerly soft and consequent- 
ly of poor keeping qualities, but the present standard product is both hard and lasting. 
The great reduction in the cost of manufacture is attributable to the high efficiency of 
improved machinery. 

The principal methods of modern use are the Compressor, Absorption, Vacuum 
and Cold Air. Nearly all American plants are operated either by the compressor or 
absorption system, the former being the more popular, and anhydrous ammonia is the 
gas most generally employed. 

In the Compressor system, the gas is condensed by pressure and then reduced to 
a liquid by chilling in cooled "coils" or pipes. This liquid is released into another 
coil, known as the "expansion pipe," Avhere it again becomes gas and in so doing absorbs 
heat from its surroundings — converting Avater into ice, or reducing the atmosphere in 






Marking ice for cutting 



THE GROCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



311 



coolino' rooms, 



refrigerator 



cars, etc. The expanded gas goes back to the compressor 



to be used over and over again in the same way. 

By the Absorption method, liquid ammonia is employed as the fundamental 
agent, the gas being released by heating to about 200° to 210° Fahr. The course of 
the gas produced is similar to that in the Compressor method, being chilled into a 
gaseous liquid in a condensing coil and going then to the Expansion Pipes, where its 
action is identical. It is later sucked back into the mother-water tank and the pro- 
cess repeated. In commercial operation, 
the process is practically continuous. 

The action of the Expansion Pipes 
may be either Direct or Indirect. By the 
former, they come in close or complete 
contact with the water or atmosphere to 
be frozen or chilled. By the latter, their 
direct action is on strong brine or on air- 
coils, which are employed as the imme- 
diate agents. The brine may be made 
with common salt, but preferably with 
calcium chloride. 

The principal forms of manufactured 
ice are Can, Plate and Block. 

Can, Ice is olttained by setting cans 

Sawing ice 

of water, previously distilled and filtered 
to remove both impurities and air bub- 
bles, in brine freezing tanks. It is gen- 
erally good in quality but has a tendency 
to be soft in the center. 

Plate Ice is made in oblong tanks in 
which the water is agitated by air-jets to 
remove the air particles and assist the 
freezing action to drive the impurities to 
the center, which remains uncongealed 
and is later run off. The sides of the 
tanks consist of iron plates in contact 
with Expansion Coils. The ice forms on 
these plates — hence its name. As re- 
moved from the tanks, it is obtained in 
blockSj generally about sixteen feet long 
three tons and upwards. 

Block Ice is made in the same way as Plate Ice, except that it is form 
or plate-tanks which are frozen solid, or direct on the Expansion Pipes. 














1 


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eight 



Floating in" the cut ice 

feet wide and one foot thick, weighing 

ed in cells 



Impure and Poor Ice. It is incumbent upon municipalities and individuals to pro- 
tect themselves against the sale of ice, whether natural or artificial, produced from 
contaminated water, as under certain conditions it may prove most unwholesome. 
The increase in population and the growth of manufacturing industries has so 
extended the pollution of lakes, rivers, etc., that in the larger towns and cities the 



312 



THE GROOEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



consumption of local natural ice is often fraught with considerable danger. The use 
of artificial ice from water which has undergone thorough preliminary purification is 
then the only safe recourse, unless natural ice from unpolluted sources can be profit- 
ably imported. 

Ice should always be thoroughly washed before placing in the refrigerator, both 
for hygienic reasons and to avoid clogging the pipes. 

Cheap ice, like most "bargains," is very wasteful. Clear, hard, non-porous ice 
lasts longer and is cheaper in the end. 
For its economical use, good insulation 
in the construction of refrigerators and 
cooling rooms is essential (see Refkig- 
ERATORS). The color of pure ice is deep 
blue, but this is only discernible when 
it is seem in large quantities, as in gla- 
ciers 

See also article on Cold Storage. 

ICE CREAM: originally signified a 
frozen mixture of sweetened milk or 
cream, but the term has for many genera- 
tions been applied to a wide range of 
frozen delicacies of widely differing com- 
position — varying from the original plain 

milk or cream basis to the most fancy Piiims the locai ice-uouse 

French and Italian mixtures, and including alike within its popular significance those 
enriched with eggs and mixed with fresh and preserved fruits, nuts, etc., and the types 
cheapened or modified by a liberal use of cornstarch, etc., for the tastes and demands 
of the public vary widely. In its various forms it is consumed more generally in the 
United States than anywhere else on the globe. In commercial manufacture, a small 
quantity of gelatine or vegetable gum is generally included to add "smoothness" and 
prevent crystallization or graining. 

The manufacture of ice cream has become an important industry. The former 
type of machine freezer, similar to the household freezer, has to a very large extent 
been superseded by self-charging and self-emptying freezing apparatus in which 
mechanically refrigerated brine in sealed coils or chambers takes the place of the open 
tub of ice and salt. In all of the larger factories, and in many of the smaller, mechani- 
cal mixers have also taken the place of the open vats and kettles, and mechanically 
refrigerated dry cold-storage rooms have succeeded the old ice and salt pack for hard- 
ening the ice cream after it leaves the freezer. The output for 1910 of factories sell- 
ing at wholesale alone reached nearly 125,000,000 gallons. 

In all of the bigger cities, the large companies not only deliver ice cream to 
grocers, but also furnish the cooling cabinets in which to keep it. 

For household purposes, junket prepared from pure milk, mixed with whatever 
cream can be spared, is an excellent material for the making of ice cream, giving a 
smooth, delicate article at minimum expense. The junket process renders the prod- 
uct more easily digestible while at the same time thickening and improving its body. 




ICE FISH: a delicate fish of the Great Lakes. See Smelt. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



313 



ICELAND MOSS: a nutritious liclaen gathered chiefly in Norway and Iceland, but 
common also in more southern countries. 

In Iceland, the "moss" is often dried, ground into flour and made into bread, but 
elsewhere it is generally made into a decoction or jelly and as such is considered a 
valuable article of diet for invalids and children, and a useful and popular demulcent 
and emollient in throat and pulmonary affections. The bitter taste noticeable in 
some kinds is removed by a preliminary cooking in hot water or by steeping it in 
sevei'al waters before cooking. It contains about 80% of Lichen Starch. Alcohol is 
locallv distilled from fermented lichen starch. 



ICING: for the ornamentation and "filling" of cakes, consists of very fine sugar 
worked into a soft paste with egg-white or corn syrup, and variously colored and 
flavored — as chocolate, lemon, maple, orange, pistachio, strawberry or vanilla. It is 
generally retailed in glasses or jars. 

ICING SUGAR: very fine pulverized or "Confectioners" sugar. 

INDIAN CRESS. See article under the popular title of Nasturtium. 



INDIAN MEAL: 



ground Indian Corn or Maize. See Cornmeal. 




INDIGO: a vegetable dyestuff of much value, obtained from several plants native 
to India and America. The fresh plant juice is colorless, but 
when the plant is steeped in water and fermentation sets in, the 
coloring matter dissolves in the water, forming a yellow solu- 
tion, which is drawn off from the rest of the vegetable matter 
and agitated and beaten to bring it freely into contact with the 
air for about two hours. This treatment causes the indigo to 
form and settle down as a blue precipitate, which is cut while soft i 
into cubical cakes and dried by artificial heat. To hasten the 
formation of the indigo, a little lime water is sometimes added 
to the yellow solution. " 

Indigo is used in the manufacture of inks and for laundry 
purposes. The best quality has the deepest purple color, will float indigo 

upon water, is glossy, and when rubbed by the nail produces a bright coppery or 
purple-red streak. When the streak is dull and wrinkles, the quality is poor. Com- 
mercial indigo of good quality contains about 50% of pure indigo. The common 
varieties are very numerous, some merchants recognizing sixteen distinct grades. 

Brown and red indigo are also manufactured. 

Artificial indigo is now produced in enormous quantities from Coal Tar. 

See also Bluing. 

INK. The composition of the ink used by the ancients is not well understood, but 
their products excelled ours in blackness and durability. The necessary components 
of ordinary black Writing Ink are gall, sulphate of iron, known generally as green 
vitriol or green copperas, and gum. The gum is added to retain the coloring matter 
and to give the mixture the necessary consistence. Copying Ink is more concentrated 
and contains more sugar, which keeps it moist longer. The Marking Ink used in 



314 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

marking boxes for shipment, etc., is a thin paint, made of lamp-blaclv and spirits of tur- 
pentine. 

INSECTS : of various kinds trouble the grocer, and great care should be taken to 
keep stores free from them, as they destroy stock and drive away customers. Various 
remedies are given under the headings of Ants and Cockroaches (which see), but 
without scrupulous cleanliness no permanent relief can be expected. 

INSURANCE. No dealer deserves credit who does not keep his goods insured. 
Every merchant should be as certain to keep up his insurance as he is to lock up his 
store, and should avoid keeping oils, alcohol, gunpowder, benzine, gasoline, etc., on 
the premises in larger quantities than are permitted by his policy without making 
special provisions, and paying the extra premium. 

INVERT SUGAR: the uncrystallizable sugar of honey, treacle, etc. — a form of 
Glucose (which see). 

IRISH MOSS: a popular title for the seaweed better known as Carragheen 
(which see). 

ISINGLASS: is, properly, gelatine prepared from the air or swim bladder of the 
sturgeon, cod and similar fish, Russia, Brazil and the United States furnishing the 
bulk of the world's supply. It is employed in fining liquors and the manufacture of 
fish glue, etc., and in the household in the preparation of jellies, blauc-mange and 
similar desserts. Gelatine from animal tissue has, however, largely supplanted it in 
cookery on account of its lower price (see Gelatine). 

Japanese Isinglass or Gelatine is prepared from a seaweed (see Kanten). 

ITALIAN PASTE: another name for macaroni, spaghetti, etc. See Macaroxl 

ITALIAN WINES. Italy ranks second in the production of wine, its estimated yield 
being nearly a billion gallons a year. The greater part of this is retained for domes- 
tic consumption, and of the export the United States receives only a comparatively 
small percentage, the bulk going to South American countries, but the demand here 
is increasing — especially for Chianti as a general table beverage of Ioav price, and for 
some of the finer varieties, particularly of the Sparkling Wines. 

Chianti is a light wine, ruby-red in color, agreeablj' sub-acid, and, in the best 
varieties, of a very delicate bouquet. It is distinguished by being bottled in attrac- 
tive straw-dressed, belly-shaped fiasks. It is in its prime during its fifth or sixth year, 
but is palatable at half that age. 

There is also a steady sale of Italian Vermouth (which see), and a limited 
market for Marsala, a wine resembling Madeira, but lighter both in body and color, 
which originated in Sicily. It was at one time very popular, especially as a "ladies' 
wine." Sicily also produces a noted Malmsey. 

Other well known Italian Wines are Laeryma Ghrisii, from Southern Italy, the 
choicest being produced on the slopes of Mt. Vesuvius — both "white" and red in the 
"still" types, and the white also in "Spuniante" or sparkling (chamiaagne) style; Capri. 
still — red and "white" — from the Island of Capri at the entrance of the Bay of 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 315 

Naples; Asti, red, dry, both sparkling and still, from Tuscany; Falerno, still — red and 
"white"; Barolo, still, resembling Burgundy, but somewhat dryer; Barhera, resemb- 
ling Barolo; Malvasia (Malmsey) and Malvasia 8pumante ; the red NebMolo and Neb- 
hiolo ^^l)ll)nante from the Nebbiolo grape, and several white Moscato (Muscat) wines, 
including Sifacusa, or "Moscato di Siracusa," Moscato di StramboU, and Moscato 8pu- 
inante, resembling Sparkling Moselle. 

Vino Santo is a very sweet wine made from dried graijes of varieties especially 
heavy in sugar. The bunches are hung on strings until shortly before Easter, being 
then pressed for use as an altar wine at that season. It is also popularly consumed 
as a liqueur wine. 

JAGGERY: a coarse brown sugar made from the juices exuded by various palms in 
India which are tapped as our sugar maples are, the sap being collected in vessels 
attached to the trees and crystallized into sugar by boiling. Jaggery when fermented 
becomes Palm Wine, and this distilled furnishes the East India Kum known as 
Areack (which see). 

JAM. The title "Jam" is generally applied to that class of preserve in which the whole 
fruit pulp is cooked together with water and sugar without regard to the preservation 
of the shape of the fruit — differing from "preserved fruits" or "preserves," which retain 
in some measure the original forms, and from "jellies," which are distinguished by 
the removal of the pulp tissues and are also generally more "solid" in body, 

The highest class jam contains no other ingredients than the particular fruit of 
its title, cane sugar and water. Those of popular use and moderate price contain large 
proportions of apple juice or pulp and commercial glucose, in addition to the "charac- 
ter" fruit. When manufactured under proper supervision to insure the use of good 
stock and pure glucose, correctly labelled so as to avoid misrepresentation and sold 
at a commensurate price, such jam compounds are just as wholesome and to the aver- 
age palate nearly as pleasing in taste as "pure" jam. They are a distinctly desirable 
addition to the food supply, as they offer to people of moderate incomes a plentiful 
supply of sweet "spreads" at, in many cases, less than half the cost of manufacturing 
"pure" jams. To some people, furthermore, the apple-glucose product is more accept- 
able as being less cloyingly sweet than many varieties of pure jams. 

Though the use of fresh apple stock and pure glucose in the manufacture 
of "strawberry" and "raspberry" jams, etc., is entirely permissible under proper condi- 
tions, supervision by competent authorities is necessary to avoid the use of apple or 
other stock of poor quality, as it is easy to disguise such use by the addition of sac- 
charin, artificial colors, etc. 

The presence of a considerable amount of the pulp of the fruit after which the 
jam is named, does not always warrant the assumption that it is a high class product 
— for large quantities of more or less exhausted fruit pulp of all kinds are commer- 
cially obtainable as the result of the manufacture of extracts, high class jellies, etc. 

The fruits chiefly used for jam and jelly making are Apples, Apricots, Cranber- 
ries, Currants, Oranges, Pears, Plums. Quinces. Tvaspberries and Strawberries. 

JAMAICA GINGER. See article on Ginger. 

JAMAICA PEPPER: a name frequently applied to Allspice (which see). 



316 



THE GEOCBR-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



JAPANESE ARTICHOKE, or Chinese Artichoke, oi 

Oroivn of Japan : a root of the Jerusalem artichoke order, 
native to Western Asia, now cultivated in Europe and also 
lately to a limited extent in this country. Its manner of 
growth is shown in the accompanying illustration. The 
divided tubers are small, inclined to shell shape, with a thin 
skin of whitish-brown or ivory-white. The flesh, under 
proper cultivation, is white and tender. It is in season 
generally commencing with October, and is cooked in any 
way that is suitable for the Jerusalem artichoke. It is used 
as a vegetable, in salad compositions or as a garnish, prin- 
cipally in the last-named manner. 




Japanese Artichoke 



JAPANESE GELATINE or Isinglass. See article under the title of Kanten. 

JAPANESE PERSIMMON. See article on, and Color Page of, Persimmons. 

JARS: glass or earthenware receptacles for liquids, preserves, etc. The ordinary 
glass preserving jars should be stocked by the grocer about the middle of May, before 
the early berries arrive. They continue in demand until all the fresh fruits are out 
of the market. 

JELLY: the juice of fruits or meats, evaporated or thickened to a semi-solid con- 
sistence. High class meat jellies thicken principally from the gelatine extracted from 
the bone in cooking; high class fruit jellies from the "pectin" in the fruit juices. 

The best fruit jellies are made by cooking the fruit in a small amount of water, 
then pressing the juice from the pulp, adding sugar to the juice, evaporating it to the 
proper consistence, pouring it hot into the glasses and sealing. In many cases the 
juice is clarified during the evaporating process. For some kinds, as the finest apple 
jelly, no sugar is added. 

Cheaper jellies are made principally from minor grades of apple juice — from 
cores and parings of canning establishments, etc.- — commercial glucose and a varying 
quantity of the juice of the "character" fruit, together with coloring matter, citric 
acid, or similar articles, to help give the jelly consistence, and frequently saccharin, 
etc., for increased sweetness. 

' In addition to the many brands put up in glass, etc., by well known manufactur- 
ers, very fair qualities of some types are in certain sections sold to the trade in five 
and ten pound pails to be retailed by the pound. Care should be taken to keep such 
goods closely covered, for if one fly can spoil the ointment of the apothecary, it can 
also ruin a grocer's good name! A wooden spoon should be used for dishing out, 
as metals are apt to turn the bright color of the jelly to a dull, undesirable hue. 

JELLY POWDERS : consist generally of powdered gelatine, sweetened and artifici- 
ally flavored and colored. The most popular flavors are chocolate, lemon, orange, 
raspberry, strawberry and vanilla. 

JERKED BEEF: beef dried in the air after a brine immersion. The industry origi- 
nated in Uruguay, where the beef so preserved is known as "Tasajo." 



THE GBOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



317 



JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE: the tuber of a species of 
sunflower, somewhat resembling the potato in general char- 
acteristics, but sweetish in flavor and more watery and less 
nutritive in composition. There are two principal types — 
one long and with red skin, the other round, knobby and 
white. They are generally boiled and pickled or eaten with 
vinegar, but some people enjoy them raw, eating them with 
salt, like radishes. They make excellent soup. The name 
"Jerusalem" is a queer twist from the Italian word Girasole, 
meaning "Sunflower." 




Jerusalem Artichoke 



JEWELERS' RED or ROUGE: a fine powder of metallic oxide, used for polishing 
gold and silver. It is obtained chiefly by calcining either yellow oxalite of iron or sul- 
phate of iron. The coarser, darker residue of the calcination of sulphate of iron, used 
for the same purpose, is known as Red Crocus. 

JOHNNY CAKE: a popular term for any kind of plain corn bread. It originally 
signified a cake of cornmeal, salt and water, baked in the ashes or on a board before 
an open fire. 

JUJUBE: the fruit of a spiny shrub of the buckthorn family, 
in some parts eaten uncooked, but more often dried and sold as 
a sweetmeat. It looks somewhat like a date and is generally red, 
though sometimes yellow in color. It contains a large percentage 
of nutrients and is highly rated medicinally for its demulcent 
properties. 

The jujube has given its name to the famous confection 
"Jujubes," or "Jujube Paste," but the latter is generally made of 
gum-arabic and sugar. 

Jujube 

JULEP: is a word which came into our language from the Persian, its Eastern proto- 
type signifying "sweet drink." As "Jalap" it was formerly used in medicine to describe 
a mixture compounded to make some drug more palatable or convenient. In this coun- 
try it now means a beverage in which either whisky or brandy are mixed with sugar, 
cracked ice and some flavor, generally mint. 

JULIENNE: a term applied (1) to shredded potatoes, (2) to a garnish of vegetables 
such as carrots, turnips, cabbage, celery, etc., cut in thin strips, and (3) to clear soup 
or consomme containing shredded vegetables. Dried "Julienne" for soups is retailed in 
packages. The name is from a famous chef, Jean Julienne. 

JUNE BERRY, or Service Berry: the edible purple fruit of the Shad Bush, a 
small tree found in several varieties in many parts of North America. The "Service 
Berry" is of peculiar interest in the West, for it often formed the sole food of the 
Mormons and other pioneers in their days of hardships and privations. It is also 
known as the "Bilberry" in some sections. 

The name Service Berry is occasionally applied also to the edible fruit of several 
shrubs and trees of the Mountain Ash family, the berries resembling tiny apples. 




318 



THE GllOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



JUNIPER BERRIES: the dark blue, pungent, aromatic berries of the evergreen 
Jumper shrub, commercially important because of their use for flavoring gin. A nice 
flavor is given to corned, beef by adding a muslin bagful of crushed juniper berries to 
the brine. 



JUNKET: is made of sweet, luke-warm milk quickly turned by the addition of a little 
rennet (dissolved junket tablets). Sweetened and flavored with vanilla, or dusted 
with cinnamon or nutmeg, or eaten with berries, fresh or preserved, it is a pleasing 
dessert. The addition of a very small amount of sherry improves its flavor. 

JUTE: the flbre of a tall, slender herb of the linden family, native to Asia but 
naturalized in many countries. It is used in the manufacture of carpets, bags, etc. 
The greater part of the sugar, raisins, spices, etc., from the Indies, both East and 
West, come to us in Jute "gunny-bags." 

KAI APPLE: a large South African fruit 
which makes a very good preserve. 

KALE or Borecole : a variety of cabbage dif- 
fering from the common cabbage chiefly in the 
open heads of leaves, used in the household as 
"greens." The different types show a great 
diversity in leaf form — some are plain, others 
are waved or curved, many of them being beauti- 
fully patterned. The coloring varies from green 
to red-brown or purple. 

KALSOMINE. See C.\lcimine. 





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isaa^i -:. :&' ■'l.'A.aiJBI^^KS^lHBfci 


m 


|^9Hbp 


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WpiH^ 


'^^m 


^W' ^v 


WW 


^^i' 



Emerald Isle Kale 



KANGAROO TAILS. The flesh of the various members of the Kangaroo family — 
the big grey Kangaroo, the Wallaby, etc. — is an important food item among the natives 
of Australia, and hunting the larger animals is a favorite sport of white residents. 
Kangaroo meat proper seldom reaches the United States, but there is a limited impor- 




The exquisite leaves of four varieties of striped and variegated Kale 



T H ]■: G li C E R "■ S E N C y C L P E D I A 



319 



tatiou of canned Kangaroo Tails. When preparing for tlie table, first warm the can, 
then draw off the jelly and gravy and make it into a hot sauce with port wine and 
seasoning, strain, add the pieces of tail and serve with croutons of fried bread around. 

KANTEN, Japanese Gelatine, Vegetable Isinglass, Agar Agar: prepared in great 
quantities in Japan from the Gelidium family of seaweed. It is pearly white, semi- 
transpai^ent, tasteless and odorless and is marketed in stick and block form — "Slender 

Kanten" and "Square Kan- 
len." On analysis, it shows 
about 60% carbohydrates 
ami 7% protein (see Food 
Values). 

Kanten is used by the 
Japanese in the prepara- 
tion of jellies, soups, etc., 
and for clarifying Saki or 
Ivice Spirit. The two to 
three million pounds which 
are annually exported to 
this country and Europe 
are employed in the manu- 
facture of food products — 
to thicken jams, jellies, ice 
cream, etc. — in gin distil- 
leries, and in the textile, 
silk and other industries. 
Under the name of Agar Agar it is used in making culture media in bacteriological 
work. 

Bengal Isinglass, Ceylon Moss and Chinese Moss are similar, related products. 
Gelidium seaweed grows abundantly on the Pacific Coast of the United States and 
at some points along the 
Atlantic, and apparently 
offers a good opportunity 
for the manufacture of 
domestic vegetable isin- 
glass. 

KEG: a small barrel or 
cask, made in various sizes. 

As manufacturers' customs a bundle of "Slender Kanten " 

differ, kegs should not be accepted as five, ten or twenty gallons, etc., without gaug- 
ing them. 

KELP or Bladder Weed: an edible seaweed distinguished by its streamer-like leaA^es, 
found on both Northern coasts. The largest variety, known as the Giant Bladder 
Weed, has leaves which average from thirty to forty feet in length. 

Kelp is in this country used almost exclusively as a fertilizer, but following 
Japanese methods of preparation — drying, shredding, etc. — it would undoubtedly meet 




Bar or "Square" Kanten 




320 THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

with favor as a food product — for use in soup, or boiled as a vegetable for service 
with meats, etc., or moistened with milk as a breakfast food. In Japan, the various 
preparations of Kelp are known as "Kombu" and are largely consumed. 

KEROSENE or Goal Oil: a mixture of liquid hydrocarbons distilled principally 
from Petroleum (which see). If of good quality, it is nearly colorless. It is 
closely related to the British Paraffin Oil and in England is sold as "American 
Paraffin Oil." 

As kerosene is of a highly inflammable nature, laws have been passed in different 
states which restrict its sale for illuminating purposes to certain degrees of "flash" or 
fire- test. It is safe at 130° flash, and is said to lose some of its qualities when further 
refined. Its boiling point should be above 170° Fahr. It should always be kept in a 
cool dry place and, so far as possible, closed against contact with the atmosphere. 

To Test Kerosene Oil, put a small quantity of the oil in a cup, set in a tin of water 
and slowly warm the water, noticing the degree of heat in the oil by keeping a ther- 
mometer immersed in it. ,When the temperature rises, put a lighted match, or better 
still, an electric spark, quickly over its surface at intervals. As soon as the gas or 
vapor given off by the heated oil "flashes" or burns, its test is determined — that is, 
if it ignites when the mercury stands at 120° Fahr., it is oil of 120° flash test. 

KETCHUP: one of several styles of spelling Catsup (which see). 
KHULASH: a Hungarian beef stew. See under title of Goulash. 

KIDNEYS: Beef, Veal, Lamb. A good kidney is light in color and firm to the touch. 
If dark red, it is less choice. If dark and soft, it is probably from an old or poorly 
fed animal. Veal kidney is the most delicate. 

KILKIES. See matter under title of Sprats. 

KINGFISH ( See Color Page opposite 240 ) : one of the finest of American fishes, found 
along the Atlantic coast, both north and south, and in season from May to October. 
It averages one to two pounds in weight, larger specimens attaining a length of fifteen 
inches. The variety caught off the Northern States is distinguished by darker, more 
pronounced stripes than those of its Southern relations. The head of both types 
resembles that of the mullet. 

KING, or King of Siam, ORANGE: a large rough-skinned tangerine type (see 
Oranges). 

KIN-KAN: another name for the Kiimquat (which see). 

KIPPERED: applied to herring or salmon, means that they are split, salted and 
smoked. The word "kipper" is a Scotch term to describe a salmon after its spawning 
period, at which time, not being valuable as fresh fi^h, it is generally smoked or pickled. 

KIRSCH or Kirschwasser: a liqueur distilled from fermented sweet black cherries 
— the finest types from the sweet aromatic small black Avild cherry. The pulp of the 




KUMOUAT 



LOOUAT 




THE grocer's R N C Y C L O P E D I A 323 

fruit is first cruslied and allowed to ferment, then a certain quantity of the cherry 
kernels is added and alloAved to steep, the juice being finally expressed for distillation. 

KIRSCHMUSS : a thick unsweetened jelly made from the juice of sweet black 
clierries, in common use in Switzerland. It is eaten with sweet butter and bread. 

KISSES : a popular name for meringue, and some other, candies. 

KISSINGEN. See article on Mineral Waters. 

KIT: a term chiefly applied to a wooden vessel containing one- 
tenth of a barrel, used in the packing of salt mackerel, but also, 
in some sections, to containers for other fish, salted butter, etc. 

KOHLRABI : a variety of cabbage with a turnip-like thickened 
stem, or "root," growing just above the ground. The leaves, when 
young and tender, are eaten as greens, but the "root" is the better 
part. The plant is also called the "cabbage turnip." 

Kohlrabi 

KOLA NUT: a brownish bitter seed or nut, about the size of a chestnut when fully 
matured, growing in pods, bean style, on a small West African tree. It is credited by 
the natives with the property of allaying thirst and promoting energy. It is also said 
to be efficacious in purifying water and in counteracting the effects of over-indulgence 
in intoxicating liquors. Analysis shows that the Kola Nut contains from two to three 
times as much caffeine as the coffee bean and it is for this stimulating property that it 
is principally used commercially in extracts, tonic beverages, etc. 

KOLCANNON. See Calecaxnon. 

KOONTI or Indian Bread Boot : a Florida plant whose roots give a meal or flour 
resembling arrowroot. 

KOSHER, or Kasher, MEAT: is primarily meat from an animal or bird that has 
been killed by a Shohet, an expert meat inspector, under the laws of the Jewish 
Talmud. 

A strictlj^ Kosher butcher must buy all his stock alive, the animals being generally 
killed in the slaughtering house by a Shohet. Great care is taken to avoid exciting 
the animal to be killed, for its death must be as calm, speedy and sudden as possible. 
Bullocks, calves, sheep, etc., are killed by cutting their throats with a special knife, 
the blade of which is about twenty inches long and two inches wide and is kept as 
sharp and highly polished as a razor. The cut almost severs the head from the \hh]\ 
and the carcass is allowed to bleed as freely and as long as it will — the object being 
to clear the flesh of blood as completely as possible, the consumption of blood being 
forbidden by the Jewish law. Chickens, geese, etc., are decapitated with a similar 
knife and are allowed to bleed in the same manner. 

When the bleeding has ceased, the carcass is opened and a most minute examina- 
tion of the lungs, entrails, etc., is made. The slightest defect will result in the sholiet 
condemning the entire animal as Tref {Tercfah, Treife) — unfit for food. 



324 THE GllOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

If the animal is pronounced Kosher, the meat undergoes the next operation of 
Forging — the i-emovai of all bloody veins and gristle. Because this operation involves 
a great deal of labor if applied to the hindquarters of bullocks and sheep, that part 
of the animal is in this country generally classed as Tref, even when the carcass in 
general is Kosher, and is sold to Gentile butchers. The hindquarters of calves and 
lambs are retained and treated like the remainder of the carcass. The Forging is 
properly followed by applying salt to complete the extraction of the blood. 

It is because of these special precautions that Kosher Meat ordinarily commands 
prices higher than the average of the retail markets. 

Kosher Corned Beef is Kosher Beef prepared bj', first, a thorough soaking in fresh 
water, next bedding for some time in dry salt and then a second washing before immer- 
sion in the brine, where it must remain for twenty-four hours. 

All fresh fish of the scaly varieties may be eaten without the intervention of the 
Shohet, but the ordinarj^ salt and dried fish of commerce come under the ban, 
because of the possibility that some matter not Kosher may have been employed in 
preparing them. 

Swine, hare, frogs, snails, fish without scales or fins, as eels, etc., are among mod- 
ern foods which come under the classification of Tref. 

The refusal of all meat that is not Kosher is a matter of religious principle with 
the orthodox Hebrew, but the practical advantage is that the careful personal inspec- 
tion by the Shohet guarantees him fiesh in absolutely healthy condition, his religious 
law thus protecting him against the many diseases liable to result from the consump- 
tion of the flesh of unhealthy animals. 

As applied to other foods, as "Kosher Bread," "Kosher Butter," etc., the term 
signifies special care and cleanliness in preparation and manufacture. The vessels 
and utensils used in handling them must never be allowed to serve for any other pur- 
pose and sliould be cleansed and inspected with great exactness. 

Kosher Sausage is sausage in which the meat used comes within the definition of 
Kosh er. 

KUMISS, Kumyss, or Koumiss: was originally fermented mare's milk prepared by 
the Kalmucs, but for European and American purposes it is made from cow's milk. 
Yeast cultures and a little sugar-syrup are added to the milk — the sugar because 
cow's milk does not contain as much lactose as mare's — and it is allowed to ferment 
for about twenty-four hours. The result is a slightly sour milk, effervescent from the 
carbon-dioxide and very slightly alcoholic. Its use, both as a beverage and in the sick 
room, is largely increasing, as it is refreshing and nourishing. When drawn from the 
bottle and poured a few times from glass to glass, it becomes thick like whipped cream 
and is then most palatable. 

Matzoon, or Zoolak (which see), is a similar preparation of cooked whole milk. 

KUMMEL: a noted liqueur, the most esteemed varieties being those of Russian and 
German manufacture — ^among them Allascli, Eckau, Getreide and Gilka. The essen- 
tial ingredient is caraway seed extract, but the finest types also include bitter almonds, 
orris-root, angelica, anise, etc. See general article on, and Color Page of. Liqueurs. 

KUMQUAT, or Cumquat : a very small orange, native to ' China and Japan, now 
under general cultivation. The fruit is generally oval in shape and the size of a small 



THE grocer's encyclopedia ' 325 



plum (see Color Page of Kumquats^, opposite 320). The rind is sweet and aromatic, 
and the pulp acid — the entire fruit, rind and all, is eaten by many people. It also 
serves, quartered or sliced, as an excellent and very ornamental addition to fruit and 
nut salads, and is very good candied or otherwise preserved whole, and as Jelly, mar- 
malade, etc. 

The Kumquat ■ tree grows naturally to a height of six feet, but is usually dwarfed 
to two or three. At state dinners in China, and occasionally at fashionable banquets 
here and in Europe, the little trees are placed before the guests that they may pluck 
the fruit direct from the branches. 

LABELS. Every year improves the grade of the labels on all kinds of food and other 
grocery items, and by judicious purchases of suitable packages and good arrangement 
on the shelves, the appearance of a store can be very much improved. Some standard 
goods are put up under very plain labels, generally the original designs under which 
they were first sold, but poor labels, and especially those of slovenly appearance, gen- 
erally indicate equal neglect in preparing the contents. 

A dealer who desires to build up a lasting trade should never allow a misleading 
label to bear the name of his establishment — if it is not "Pure Maple Syrup," be wise 
and honest at the same time and label it "Prime Syrup — Maple Flavor." Loud colors 
and flashy designs offend the best buyers, and with the present facilities for color- 
printing and good artistic designs there is no excuse for a label less creditable than 
the article which it covers. The American Grocer says: "Some manufacturers have 
taken a very brave and commendable stand in this matter by so defining their prod- 
ucts that the exact character is indicated on the label. When, for instance, honey- 
comb has been put up in jars with corn syrup, the fact of its presence and the reason 
therefor has been stated on the package. Where a preservative has been used, this 
has been indicated. Such a course clears the atmosphere and begets confidence all 
around." 

Experience teaches that consumers are quick to decide whether an article is 
wholesome or not, and if the exact nature of a food product is defined, a conclusion 
is much sooner reached than if its true character is concealed. A manufacturer 
should not be required to disclose formulas, and it is a question whether he should be 
obliged to make known the character of special products, if they are not prejudicial 
to health ; but so long as there are questions in dispute, the easiest way and best way 
is to be frank with the public and to win confidence by plainly stating on the label 
the true character of the product. 

LACTOMETER: an instrument employed to test the specific gravity of milk. By 
"specific gravity" is meant its weight in comparison with that of water, which 
is taken as a standard for all solid and liquid substances. Unadulterated milk is 
heavier than water — a can full of milk, for example, may weigh three pounds heavier 
than if full of water. The use of the lactometer or other test rests on the fact that a 
body will sink deeper into a light than into a heavy liquid. When a standard at 
which milk may be considered unadulterated is adopted, milk into which the lactom- 
eter will sink deeper is said to be of low specific gravity — which may mean that 
water has been added to it. 

LACTOSE: the chemist's title for Milk Sugar (which see). 



326 THE GKOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



LAFAYETTE: a small light-colored panfish, weighing up to half a pound, found 
along the Atlantic coast. It is in season from the middle of August to November. 

LAGER BEER. See general article under heading. of Beek. 

LAKE TROUT: a large American fresh- water fish. See article on Trout. 

LAMB: is generally understood to be the meat of sheep under twelve months old. 
It is much more difficult to keep it in good condition than mutton and it also varies 
greatly in quality — lambs being very tender animals, their flesh is easily injured by 
rough treatment, by storms, or by poor food. The color and quality of the fat on the 
back and around the kidneys affords the best test of quality — it should be white, even- 
colored and hard. The cuts are known by the same titles as mutton cuts. See dia- 
gram in article on Mutton and also Color Page opposite. 

Ordinary spring lamb comes into season during March, but is best from May to 
July. "Hot House" Lamb is very early spring lamb obtained generally by stimula- 
ting breeding by transferring the sheep from cool to warmer climates. 

LAMB'S FRIES: lamb's testicles. They should be parboiled, cut in halves and 
skinned, before seasoning and cooking. 

LAMB'S LETTUCE, LAMB'S QUARTER: local names for the salad plant 
described under the title of Corn Salad. 

LAMPBLACK: soot that is produced by burning rosin, turpentine, pitch, oil or 
other substances in ways that produce the maximum volume of smoke. It is used 
principally in the manufacture of paints, blacking and marking inks. Its quality 
depend!? upon its lightness of weight and intensity of color. 

LAMPREY: an eel with some of the characteristics of the finned fishes, which 
reaches a length of one and a half to two and a half feet. It is in season during 
April and May, leaving the sea at that time to ascend the rivers to spawn. Its flesh is 
soft, glutinous and delicate, but most people find it very difficult to digest — hence the 
popular credence in the legend of the death of King Henry I from eating too many 
lampreys. In England, it is popular in the form of Lamprey Pie and Potted Lamprey. 

LANDRAIL: a kind of .Sxipe (which see); 

LARD: is hog's fat separated from the tissue by boiling or rendering. The residue 
is known as lard stearin. 

Lard is put up in kegs, barrels, tierces and small cans. Its quality varies very 
much with different houses. If pure, it should be white, of the consistence of oint- 
ment and free from any disagreeable taste or smell. 

Leaf Lard is that made from the leaf fat which lies around the kidneys. The 
next best in quality is that from the back, and the poorest that from the small intes- 
tines. The greater part of that marketed is obtained by the melting together of the 
whole fat, except the leaf fat. 

Compound Lard is generally a mixture of lard stearin and cottonseed oil. 




(1) Short Saddle 
(3) Rib Chop 



(2) Loin Chop 
(4) Forequarter 



LAMB 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 329 



The most common fraud in the sale of lard is the substitution of "compound" 
for pure lard. 

New tierces will soak from two to three pounds when filled with hot lard, but if 
they weigh over that amount claim should be made on them. The most honest of 
packers are liable to have trouble with tares. 

Lard should be stored in a dry, cool, dark place — moisture, light and high tem- 
jierature affect its quality. 

LARD-OIL: a valuable lubricant for machinery. If of good quality, it is pale-yel- 
lowish or nearly colorless, of slightly fatty odor and bland taste. It becomes opaque 
at or below 32° Fahr. Admixture of cotton-seed oil is not readily detected, if 
only refined and very pale grades are employed, but any deep-colored lard oil, or one 
having a pronounced yellow tint, is open to suspicion. 

LARK. The common lark is seldom eaten in this country, but in Europe it is looked 
upon as a wholesome and delicate game bird. In France it is most popular in the 
lark-pie which has helped to make the reputation of the city of Pithiviers. 

LASAGNE: a kind of Macaroni (which see) in the form of ribbons. 

LAVENDER: a perennial plant now grown principally for its flowers, which are 
used in making perfumes or for sale dried for sachet bags, etc. It was formerly very 
popular as a pot-herb and for flavoring jellies. 

LAVER: an edible seaweed found on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It is a 
food item of importance in Asia and in some parts of Europe. In Scotland and Ire- 
land, under the name of "Sloak" or "Slook," it is boiled and served with butter, pep- 
per, vinegar, etc., or fried in bacon fat after boiling. It is especially good as an accom- 
paniment for cold meats. It is best to cook it in a porcelain saucepan, as it is liable 
to act on metals. 

Laver is rich in protein, averaging from 30% to 35% (see Food Values). 

LEAKAGE: the waste of any substance as a result of an opening or defect in a 
containing vessel of any kind. Allowance is made for leakage only when it can be 
proved that the goods were not shipped in proper condition. 

LEAVEN: dough which has become sour. It was formerly employed in breadmak- 
ing, a small quantity being added to new dough to excite fermentation and cause it to 
"rise." Its use is, though, liable to produce a disagreeable taste and odor in the bread, 
and it has been almost entirely superseded by yeast. See Bread. 

LEAVENED BREAD: any kind of "raised" bread (see Bread). 

LEBEN: a form of fermented milk, the raw milk being raised to blood-heat before 
adding the ferment. 

LEBKUCHEN or "Sweet Calces" or "Honey Calces": a famous variety of German 
cake, composed of a great diversity of ingredients, the most important being flour, 



330 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



honey, sugar, spices, alcohol, almonds, citron, orange peel, etc. A characteristic fea- 
ture of its manufacture is that the dough is allowed to "rest" for a considerable time 
before baking, so as to permit a better amalgamation of the flavors and other properties 
of its components — many makers hold it in cool, dry places for several months before 
sending it to the ovens. The best known varieties are White Lebkuchen, Brown Leb- 
kuchen, Bremen Pepper Cake, Thorner Lebkuchen, Baseler Lebkuchen and Nurem- 
burg Lebkuchen. Both imported and domestic lebkuchen are sold here, the principal 
demand being during the winter holidays. Good lebkuchen will remain fresh for a 
year or eighteen months, the honey used in its manufacture keeping it moist. 

LEEK: a form of onion cultivated for the blanched lower parts of the 
leaves, commonly called the "stems," and the bulbous roots, both of which 
are used in cookery, chiefly in soups and stews. In flavor they resemble a 
very mild ordinary onion. 

LEGUME: a word applied botanically to the one-celled, two-valved seed- 
pod of plants of the Leguminosae order, to which belong the many varieties 
of beans, peas and lentils. In popular usage the title has been extended 
to the fruits of the plants. Legumes, also sometimes classed as "Pulse," 
are among the most valuable of vegetable foods. 

LEICESTERSHIRE SAUCE. See general article on Sauces. 

Leek 

LEMON {Color Page opp. 332). The lemon is a member of the citrus family, which 
includes oranges, grape fruit, etc., and is probably native to the north of India. The 
fruit is usually oval, wrinkled or furrowed, of various shades of yellow and, gen- 
erally, with concave oil-cysts in the rind. Its chief merits are the abundance of citric 
acid contained in the pulp and the quantity of oil yielded by the rind. California 
produces an ever increasing quantity, but not yet enough to supply the demand, from 
135 to 180 million pounds being imported from Italy every year. 

The fruit is gathered, while still green, as soon as it has reached a marketable 
size, irrespective of the stage of maturity — -if allowed to ripen on the tree, it becomes 
coarse and of poor quality. A flourishing grove is ordinarily picked once every 
month. The picker is frequently provided with a steel measure or gauge attached to 
his thumb, all fruit as large as, or over, the size of the gauge being clipped from 
the tree and placed in a bag suspended by shoulder straps (see opposite page). 

After picking, the lemons are washed and then sorted according to their color — 
dark green (unripe) ; silver green (partly ripe) and yellow (ripe). The unripe and 
partly ripe are placed in storage, separately, to "cure," i. e., to color and mature. The 






^^ 







A California lemon orchard, showing irrigation ditches 



THE GROCEK'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



331 



tree-ripened fruit are usually shipped at once, because 
of their poor keeping qualities. The curing of the un- 
ripe fruit covers from two to four months, their keep- 
ing quality depending largely on the care exercised in 
the control of temperature and humidity during the 
process. 

For market purposes, California lemons are gen- 
erally sorted into two or three, and sometimes four, 
grades, based on the general texture of the skin — on 
appearance, whether scarred or not, color, form and 
general "style." Size is not considered in this grading. 
The best or Fancy fruit must have good color, fine tex- 
ture, normal form and no scars, and be heavy and juicy. 
Thin-skinned lemons are generally considered the best. 
The next lower grade is called Choice. The third, 
Standard, includes fruit which may be irregular in 
shape and badly scarred and discolored but is still of 
fair fruit value. The fourth or lowest quality is known 
as Culls. 

After grading, the lemons are sized by hand, rang- 
ing from 180 to 540 to the box, running generally from 
240 to 490. The most desirable sizes are those ranging 
from 300 to 360 to the box. 

The life of the lemons after leaving the packer depends also upon the care 
exercised in handling — they readily deteriorate if damaged by bruising or other abra- 
sions of the skin. The only practicable method for holding them in large quantities 
for any considerable length of time is by cold storage. At a temperature of 40° Fahr., 
they will remain unimpaired in quality for eight to twelve weeks. For household pur- 
poses, if refrigerator space is not available, they keep much better when immersed 
in fresh cold water than if left to dry out on a shelf. 

The photograph on page 332 is of some of the huge, rough-skinned lemons fre- 
quently seen in Italy. They sometimes reach eight and nine inches in length, 
with weight and width in full proportion. 







ffi 






V^gjj 


NT 


/■ 


1 


H^^iJil "' 


vv.'f| 


|B 


p^*^ '^'^^B 




1 


IK. 


">»^^l 


I 



Picking lemons— clipper in his right hand and 
steel measure attached to his left thumb 



LEMON BALM (herb). 



See matter following title of Garden Balm. 



LEMON EXTRACT. First class lemon extract consists of lemon oil (which see) dis- 
tilled in strong alcohol, or lemon oil and lemon peel macerated in alcohol, filtered and 
bottled. In the former case, the extract is generally colored by the addition of a 
small amount of yellow coloring removed from the lemon peel used. 

Terpeneless lemon extract is made from terpeneless lemon oil, /. e., lemon oil from 
which the terpene or hydro-carbon components have been extracted. The claim is 
made that the terpene, which constitutes the major portion of lemon oil, is of little 
importance as regards flavor and odor and is in many respects undesirable, as 
extracts prepared from oil containing it are liable to acquire an unpleasant odor with 
age and exposure to the air because of its oxidation products. Terpeneless oil has 
the additional advantage that it is to a greater extent miscible with Avater solu- 
tions than the unmodified oil. 



332 



THE GUOCEK'S ENCYCLOl'KDIA 



The characteristic odor and flavor of 
lemon oil, both unmodified and terpene- 
less — and hence also of lemon extract — 
are due chiefly to the citral contained, to- 
gether with some citronella and a small 
quantity of other related bodies. 

Many of the cheaper "lemon ex- 

' tracts" are merely weak washes made by 
shaking unmodified lemon oil in diluted 
alcohol, about 25% to 30% pure, and then 
removing the oil which separates. Such 
extract maj^ smell fairly good in the bot- 

I tie, but it is of little value in flavoring 
articles to be cooked, for when alcohol 

.falls below 40% in volume it will take up 
only a very small percentage of the un- 
modified lemon oil. 

Imitation lemon extract is largely 
made from oil of lemon grass, a grass-like 
plant, widely cultivated, especially in In- 
dia and Ceylon, which has an agreeable 
smell and a warm, bitter, pleasing flavor. 

LEMON JUICE. In addition to its 
wide use in making lemonade and for 
general flavoring purposes, lemon juice is 
a valuable article medicinally, particularly 





INDEBWOOD i 



Large rouj 



( UNDERWOOD, M. ^ 

li-skinned lemons of Southern France 
and many parts of Italy 



Picking Lemons near Palermo, Sicily 

for use as an anti-scorbutic, and it is so 
recognized by the U. S. Pharmacopeia and 
all other medical publications. Its chief 
component is citric acid, in an average 
proportion of about 7%. 

Bottled Lemon Juice, if of good qual- 
ity, is the pure clarified juice of fresh, 
sound lemons, and retains all the prop- 
erties of the juice freshly expressed. It 
should always be kept in a cool place and 
the contents of the bottle should be con- 
sumed as soon as possible after opening. 

LEMON OIL. Almost the entire supply 
of the oil of the lemon rind is pro- 
duced in Sicily and is still obtained by 
hand processes — the small factory output, 
which is darker in appearance, being prin- 
cipally employed to heighten the color of 
the hand-made oil. The two most widely 
used methods are known as the "two-piece 
sponge" and the "three-piece sponge," the 




LEMONS 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 335 

distiuotiou referriug to the uuinber of pieces into which the rind is cut. The former 
generally produces oil with the smallest percentage of water to be afterwards sepa- 
rated, but that from the latter is said to tilter more rapidly and keep clean longer. 

For the three-piece method, the lemons are cut lengthwise into three slices. 
The pulp is first removed^the juice to be expressed and sold to the manufacturers of 
citric acid, and the residue to be used for animal food — and then the peel is put into 
large baskets and stored in a cool place for some hours until it is considered in the 
proper condition for pressing. 

Each workman engaged in extracting the oil has in front of him a tin-lined copper 
bowl and holds in his left hand a medium-sized sponge of superfine quality, which has 
previously been very carefully washed. He also holds other small sponges between 
the fingers of the same hand to prevent the loss of any of the oil, which is very vola- 
tile. With the right hand he takes a piece of peel from the basket and squeezes it 
against the sponge, thus forcing the oil through the pores of the rind into the sponge. 
When the sponge is full of essence it is squeezed into the bowl. In order to make sure 
that the peel has yielded all the essence that can be pressed out by hand, the overseer 
from time to time tests the rejected peel by squeezing it close to a flame. If there is 
any essence left, it is forced through the flame and produces a flash of light. (Chil- 
dren try the same experiment with orange peels. ) The used peel is put into brine 
and sold to manufacturers of "candied lemon peel." 

When the bowls are full, they are set aside for a short time to permit the impuri- 
ties to settle and then the contents are carefully decanted, the clear essence going into 
large tin-lined copper vessels. Before shijunent. the product is passed through filter 
paper to purify it and give it limpidity, and is finally transferred to copper bottles 
of various standard sizes. 

The quantity and quality of essence yielded varies according to the season. Dur- 
ing IsTovember, December and January, when the greater part of the supply is manu- 
factured, one thousand lemons will give about one and a half pounds of essence. 
Lemons not fully ripe are preferred, as they yield a larger quantity and more fragrant 
quality than those fully matured. A small amount of essence is made during the 
spring and summer, but the product lacks the delicate fragrance of that made in the 
winter. 

LEMON PEEL: is commercially most important for its use in the manufacture of 
lemon oil, lemon extract, liqueurs, etc., but considerable quantities are also retailed 
plain-dried for culinary purposes and preserved in sugar as "candied lemon peel," the 
best grades of the latter being prepared in much the same way as citron peel (see 
Citron ) . 

LEMON SYRUP: if of the first quality, consists of lemon juice, fresh lemon peel 
and sugar. The juice is first boiled with the peel, cooled and filtered, then a little 
water; is added and finally the sugar is put in and dissolved. A lesser grade consists 
of syrup with citric acid and lemon extract added in the proportion of 2 to 1. 

LEMONADE: a beverage made from the lemon, popular both as a means of allay- 
ing thirst and for medicinal purposes, being in the latter case drunk either hot or 
cold, according to the complaint. Itinerant venders of lemonade formerly employed 
citric or tartaric acid, or even a few drops of sulphuric acid, -t-o make their 



336 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



mixture, only slicing a few lemons to float on top and please the eye. This practice 
is not as common as it used to be, but in some sections caution is still advisable. Many 
"lemonade powders" declared to be pure were made in a similar way. Reliable brands 
of lemon or lime juice are the best substitute when, the fresh fruit is not obtainable. 
In England, lemonade is known as "Lemon Squash." 

LENTIL : a nutritive legume, the pods containing each three or four seeds of similar 
circumference to the ordinary pea, but flat and thin in shape. On 
analysis it shows an average composition of Starch 50^2%? Albu- 
minoid material 30%, Sugar 31/2%, and Moisture, etc., 16%. Large 
quantities are consumed in Europe in the form of soups and stews, 
much of the supply being imported from Egypt, and it is steadily 
growing in favor in this country. 

For soups, the tough outer skin is, after boiling, removed by 
straining, and meats are added as a flavor. 

A considerable proportion of the present domestic supply of 
lentils is still imported, but it is probable that the near future will see the market 
fully supplied by growers in the Southwest sections. 

Revalenta Arabica, which has been sold as a dyspeptic food, consists of lentil meal, 
and the lentil probably formed the "red pottage" for which hungry Esau sold his birth- 
right. 




Lentils 



LETTUCE: the chief salad plant of modern days, is probably native to the Greek 
Islands. In England, the type generally known here as Romaine still bears the name 
of "Cos Lettuce," after the Island of Cos, which now belongs to Turkey but was for- 
merly under Greek rule and is noteworthy as the birthplace of Hippocrates and several 
other famous men of ancient Greece. It was first used in England in 1520, and King- 
Henry VIII conferred a special reward upon the gardener who devised the combina- 
tion of "Lettuce and Cherries" for the royal table. 




Growing lettuce under glass— 20,000 heads under this one roof 



THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 331 



The many varieties under cultivation are capable of general classification into three 
principal types — (1) Cabbage or Head lettuce, the most widely cultivated form; (2) 
Romaine (which see) or Gos or Leaf lettuce, and (3) Cutting lettuce, which forms 
no head, being instead cut while the leaves are small and giving in that manner two 
or more crops. 

If the leaves are washed for salad making, they should be thoroughly dried after- 
wards with a towel or napkin. If the head is close and good, no washing is necessary 
after the removal of the outside leaves, as the inner leaves will be quite clean. 

The heart of a head lettuce should be firm, crisp and bleached — a rusty red tinge 
is an indication of overlong keeping. 

Lettuce will keep fresh longer when the roots are left on the plant. 

LICHEN: a moss which grows on trees or rocks. It has many colors and forms, 
from the grey or green covering on stones, and the larger and more bushy types 
attaching to trees, up to the edible forms such as Iceland Moss (which see), which 
grows over large areas and is an important food for man and beast in the Arctic. 

LICORICE or Liquorice. The black licorice rolls or sticks familiar to the consumer, 
consist, when pure, of the condensed juice of the root of the licorice plant, mixed with 
a little starch to prevent it from melting in warm weather. The word "licorice," 
through its Latin form Qlycyrrhiza, is derived from the Greek words for "sweet root." 

The licorice plant is a small shrub of light green foliage, attaining a height of 
about three feet and favoring localities near rivers (see Color Page opposite 338). 
When dug, the root is full of water and the drying process frequently takes from six 
months to a year. It is then sawed or cut into small pieces, six inches to a foot long, 
and carefully sorted, the good and sound pieces being pressed into bales for shipment. 

The bulk of the licorice rolls, paste, etc., of domestic consumption is manufac- 
tured in this country from the imported dried root, the principal sources of which 
are Asiatic Turkey and Kussia. 

The sale of licorice as a candy is merely incidental. It finds its principal use in 
medicine and it is also extensively employed in the manufacture of tobacco and 
liquors, to give color and flavor to Stout, etc. 

LIGHTS: a term applied to the lungs of animals. 

LIMA BEANS: a native American product. See sub-head in article on Beans. 

LIMBURGER CHEESE. See description in general article on Cheese. 

LIME (fruit). The lime is a fruit of the lemon species, grown abundantly in the 
AVest Indies, India and some parts of Europe. It is almost 
globular in shape and is much smaller than the lemon, averag- 
ing only from one to one and a half inches in diameter, but its 
skin is thin and its juice very abundant. As the use of limes 
is steadily extending, the trade can profitably recommend them 
as good substitutes for lemons and as possessing a peculiarly 
agreeable aromatic flavor. Dominica and Jamaica, of the 
British West Indies, send us our main supplies of the fresh fruit. ' Limes 




338 THE GEOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Fresh limes are, liowever, very perishable and they should be kept in a cool, dry 
place. If to be held for a considerable length of time and refrigerator facilities are 
limited, it is a good idea to cover them with dry sand. 

The whole limes are also put up in syrup as a dessert dish, and "candied" as a 
confection, and the rinds are boiled in sugar and dried in the same manner as candied 
lemon peel. 

Lime Juice, in Avhich form the lime is best known to the general public, is put up 
in bottles of attractive appearance and makes a desirable article for all fancy grocers. 
The best qualities come from Dominica and Montserrat, West Indies. Besides mak- 
ing a delicious beverage, it has been for a long time recognized as a useful medicinal 
agent, almost identical in composition with Lemon Juice (which see). 

The color of good sound lime juice should be a very pale straw — if it tends 
toward red, the product should not be accepted at first-class prices. It is advisable 
to select only guaranteed brands, as a considerable percentage of the commercial 
supply consists of juice pressed from fruits in all sorts of conditions. The juice is 
offered in this market as low as twenty cents a gallon, and though this may possess 
good appearance and flavor when fresh, it is liable to acquire a moldy flavor in a 
year or two, and, if the bottles are not hermetically sealed, it will finally turn red. 

Low grade varieties also frequently contain preservatives and artificial coloring 
matter. 

LIME: is commercially made from limestone or other forms of mineral calcium car- 
bonates by the action of heat, as by roasting in kilns. When pure, it is a white, brittle 
substance. "Unslacked lime" is the dry product before the addition of water or its 
absorption from the atmosphere. The addition of water, if not in excess, produces great 
heat. Its chief use is in mortars and cements, but it is also emploj'ed as a fertilizing 
agent, in the j)uriflcation of coal gas, in tanning and for numerous medicinal purposes 
and laboratory processes. Lime is found in many foods and is essential to the forma- 
tion of the human frame. 

Lime Water, when mixed with an equal or greater quantity of milk, is an excellent 
remedy for vomiting caused by irritability of the stomach. A solution of ordinary 
strength is obta^ined by dissolving a piece about the size of a hen's egg in a pint of 
water. 

LIMITATIONS, Statute of. On account of the frailty of human memory and the 
uncertainty attached to long-deferred claims, all civilized countries have established 
limits within which rights may be litigated, the law defining them being called the 
Statute of Limitations. The statute begins to run when the right is complete, i. e., 
when the money claimed is due and payable, subject to certain exceptions in favor of 
minors, persons beyond seas and those non compos mentis. After it begins to run, it is 
not stopped by anything except a payment on account, or an acknowledgment of the debt 
accompanied by an express promise to pay it, which, in some States, must be in writ- 
ing. In either event, the debt is said to be "revived" and the statute commences to run 
anew from the date of such revival. The limitation, being regulated by the various 
State Legislatures, differs widely throughout the United States. 

LING: a fish resembling the whiting, found on the northern Atlantic coast. 




LICORICE (foliage, root, and finished product) 



THE grocer's encxclopedia 341 



LINSEED MEAL or Flaxseed Meal: is usually ground flaxseed oil-cake, but for 
medicinal purposes should be ground flaxseed from which the oil has not been 
extracted. 

LINSEED OIL or Flaxseed Oil: is produced from flaxseed by crushing and press- 
ing. It is amber in color and of a peculiar, rather disagreeable, odor and taste. It 
is sold mainly by weight, seven and a half pounds being reckoned to a gallon, and is 
used in the manufacture of paint and varnish, linoleum, patent leather, printing inks, 
etc. The cake from which the oil has been expressed is commercially known specifi- 
cally as Oil-Oake (which see). 

LIPTAU CHEESE: a goat's milk product. See general article on Cheese. 

LIQUEURS, or Cordials. The numerous beverages classed under this heading differ 
widely in character. Some of them are prepared direct from fruits by fermentation 
and distillation, but the majority may be described in a general way as highly 
sweetened brandy or other spirit, flavored and aromatized with one or more spices, 
herbs or fruits, or with a combination of all three. Their attractiveness is frequently 
enhanced by coloring with vegetable or harmless coal-tar extracts and putting up in 
bottles, etc., of fanciful design. 

It is the great care exercised in their preparation that has held the best known 
liqueurs so high and so long in public esteem — principally among good livers who 
are capable of discrimination. It is, however, so easy to manufacture grossly inferior 
imitations which resemble the original products closely enough to deceive the inex- 
perienced, that caution should be exercised in buying. 

Compound liqueurs are made (1) by bringing the aromatic properties of the 
fruits, herbs, etc., in contact with vaporized, generally alcoholic, liquor; (2) by dis- 
tillation of the liquor following the addition of essences or essential oils (see remarks 
on Natural Essences in the article on Extracts), or (3) by dissolving essences in 
strong rectified spirits of wine. Ingredients, as sugar syrup, which are not volatile, 
are added after distillation. 

The production of liqueurs or cordials is at least as old as the records of civiliza- 
tion. Long before the Christian era, similar fragrant beverages were made both for 
human use and as offerings to heathen gods. Later, "cordials'' — still of the same main 
characteristics, but improved by distillation and the advance of knowledge — were 
prominent in medical practice and graced every festival and celebration. In the IMiddle 
Ages, their use was fostered by the various orders of monks and nuns. To-day, 
France, Italy, Germany and the United States have large interests involved in their 
manufacture. 

Confusion occasionally arises from the Indiscriminate use of the terms Eau de 
("water of") and Oreme de ("cream of"). Properly applied, Eair de (as, for 
example, Eau de Gedrat) means that the liqueur, though sweetened, is not syrupy. 
Creme de (as, Creme de Cedrat) means that sufficient sugar has been added to give it 
syrupy consistence. 

Extraif de ("extract of") and Elixir de ("elixir of"), are used in the same way 
as Eau de. 

Baume de ("balm of") and Huile de ("oil of"), are used in the same way as 
Cre>ne de. 



342 



THE aROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Ratafia (which see) is a generic term often applied to simple, light liqueurs, such 
as Apricot Ratafia, Cherry Ratafia, etc. 

Rosolio, in addition to its specific use, is sometimes employed to signify special 
choiceness. 

The liqueurs most popular in this country are Absinthe, Benedictine, Chartreuse, 
Greme de Menthe, Curagao, Kirsch, Kiimmel, Maraschino and Vermouth. The term is 
also frequently applied to fine old Cognac brandy, choice well-aged Schiedam 
Schnapps (gin), rich old wines such as Tokay, Vino Santo (Italian) and Rivesaltes, 
and very sweet rich wines such as Constancia and the Swiss Glacier, when they are 
used as "liqueurs" at the end of a dinner — but they are not properly in this class. 

Liqueurs should be served at, or a few degrees above, the temperature of the 
average dining room. With occasional exceptions, the small liqueur glasses should 
be used, as little more than a mouthful is required — the idea being, with most 
varieties, merely to obtain a "fillip" to digestion after a meal and to leave a pleasant 
flavor in the mouth. 

Many liqueurs include a number of different spices, herbs, etc., in their formulas, 
but there is generally one principal item which supplies the distinctive character. 
The following supplementary list names these "character ingredients," or other special 
features, in lieu of more lengthy description. The full titles include in many cases 
one or other of the terms "Creme de," etc., previously referred to. 



Abricot — apricots. 

Absinthe.* 

Aldabo (a Cuban imitation of Curagao) — bitter 

orange peel. 
Alkermes — bay leaves and mace. 
Anise, Anisette — aniseed and coriander. 
Apricotine — apricots. 
Aqua d'oro — an Italian cordial similar to Eau 

d'or (see below). 
Akqent, Eau d' — similar to Eau d'or, substituting 

silver for gold. 
Banane, Bananine — bananas. 
Barbados — orange juice. 
Benedictine.* 

Cacao — roasted cocoa beans with vanilla flavoring. 
CafE — coffee extract. 
CANNELLE^cinnamon. 
Cassis — fresh black currants. , 
CEdrat — citron. 
CElEri — celery. 
Cerises — cherries. 
Chartreuse.* 

Chesky (cherry whisky) — cherries. 
CiTKONELLE — Orange and lemon peels. 
Chocolat — cocoa. 
CoRiANDRE — coriander seed. 
CRi:ME DE Menthe.* 

CURAgAO.* 

Eau DE VIE DE Dantzic — brandy aromatized with 
spices, and containing particles of gold 
leaf floating in it. 

Eau d'or, or "Gold Cordial" — Angelica, raisins, 
figs, licorice, etc. So named because 
gold leaf was formerly, and is still 
sometimes, added, as in Eau de vie de 
Dantzic. 

Framboises — raspberries. 

Fraises, Fraisette — strawberries. 



Gentiane — gentian flowers (Swiss). 

Gingembre — ginger root. 

Goldwasser — a German product similar to 

Eau d'or. 
Grenade. Grenadin — pomegranates. 
Kirsch.* 

KUMMEL.* 

LiMONES — fresh and dried orange and lemon peel 

and seeds. 
Macaron — oil of bitter almonds. 
Mandarines — mandarin oranges. 
Maraschino.* 

Mastica de Chios — Turkish Mastic (which see). 
Mazarine — wild cherries. 

Moka — coffee extract and oil of bitter almonds. 
Mt)RES — blackberries. 
Noyau or Noix — oil of bitter almonds. 
Orange — fresh oranges and orange rind. 
Pomeranzen — oranges. 

Parfait Asioue — lemon rind and vanilla essence. 
Pekoe — black tea. 
Persicot — peach flowers and seeds. 
Prune Cognac — similar to Slivovitz (which see). 
Prunelle — sloes. 

Rakia (Hungarian) — very aromatic grapes. 
Roses — rose essence. 
Rosolio — rose and orange-blossom essences, spice.s, 

etc., colored pink. Also, a cordial made 

chiefly from raisins. 
Slivovitz.* 
Trappistine (yellow and green) — absinthe and 

various spices and herbs. 
Vanille — vanilla extract. 
Vermouth.* 

Vino Pino (Cuban) — pineapples. 
Violette — violet essence. 
Yvette — violet essence. 
Zwetschenwasser. See Slivovitz. 



*See description in alphabetical position. 





;f Lfiqueur 



!m eharlreux: 





(6, 



(1) Benedictine (2) Curacoa (3) Creme de Menthe 

(4) Russian Kiimmel (5) German Kiimmel (6) Llq. des Peres Chartreux (7) Maraschino 

LIQUEURS 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 345 



LIQUID MEASURE. See tables of Weights and Measures pi Appendix. 

LIQUORICE: another widely accepted way of spelling Licorice (which see). 

LITCHI, or Lichi: a nut grown in Southern China and sold in a dried state in this 
country. As seen here, it is nearly round and from one to one and a half inches at its 
widest diameter, with a very thin but tough shell, dark brown and granulated in 
appearance, enclosing a dull reddish-brown pulp of raisin-like sweetness, with a round 
flat stone in its center (see Color Page opposite 414). The fresh nut looks like a straw- 
berry, and the sweet pulp enclosed in the rough red skin is then whitish and watery. 

LITHIA WATER. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

LITRE. See "Metric System," in Tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

LIVER. The livers of animals, such as the bullock, the calf and the sheep, contain 
a large amount of nitrogenous matter, but they are generally regarded as indigestible 
articles of diet and are therefore to be avoided by dyspeptics. 

Good, fresh liver should be clear, bright and of a yellowish red. 

Calf's liver is so much in demand by the hotel and restaurant trade that there 
is often none left for the casual domestic buyer. Beef liver is, consequently, often 
substituted for it if the purchaser is uninitiated. The order of quality is (1) calf's 
liver, (2) beef liver, (3) pig's liver and (4) sheep's liver. Sheep's liver is generally 
poor and hard. 

See also Foie Gras (Goose Livers). 

LOBSTER: a fish of the crab species which is rated by many people as the most 
delicate and delicious of all sea food. In addition to its 
consumption fresh, its meat is canned in immense 
quantities, the smallest of the catch retained being gen- 
erally used for the purpose. 

Lobsters weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds 
are not uncommon. It is the weight for size that indi- 
cates the quality — a large, light specimen is never as Lobster Pot 
good as one smaller but heavier in proportion. A nine-inch lobster generally weighs 
about one pound. 

Lobsters are preferably sold alive, so that there can be no doubt as to their fresh- 
ness, and the use of improved shipping packages makes it possible now to deliver them 
alive and in good condition to almost any part of the country, but large quantities are 
boiled as caught and thus shipped. 

The enormous consumption and the difficulties experienced in safeguarding 
natural propagation have resulted in a steady diminution of the supply, but energetic 
measures are being taken by the Government to offset the conditions, and in the 
ITnited States "Sea Nurseries" artificial propagation has already proved so successful 
that it is reasonable to hope for a long and large supply for the future. One of the 
most difficult problems is to prevent the baby lobsters from destroying each other, their 
cannibalistic tendencies making doubly arduous the care required to raise them. 




346 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

The lobster of the Atlantic Coast is distinguished from others of the family by 
its immense claws (see Color Page opposite). The native "spiney lobster" of the Pacific 
Coast, and the Cuban and French lobsters have no claws, but are characterized by 
their "horns," or remarkably well-developed antennae. 

On the Atlantic Coast, lobster fishing is conducted all the Avay from Labrador to 
Delaware, but the coasts of Maine and Nova Scotia are the most fruitful sections. 
Nova Scotia is also noted for its large canneries. 

Lobsters hug the shores of rocky coasts during the summer and are then more 
easily obtained than in the winter, when they go farther to sea. They are caught by 
means of "pots" or traps — box-like affairs, averaging four feet long and two high, 
made of laths or iron bars. The entrance, on the end, is funnel-shaped and of netting 
or wood, so formed as to make ingress easv, and egress laractically impossible. The 
pot is baited with fish, weighted and sunk to the bottom of the lobsters' feeding 
ground, generally about a half mile from shore, its location being marked by a buoy 
bearing the owner's name. The fisherman empties the pot through a door at the top, 
and throws back into the water the lobsters under the legal size — which is regulated 
by state legislation and varies from time to time. 

It is estimated that but two lobsters out of every ten thousand reach maturity, but 
to counteract this alarmingly small percentage, a ten-inch lobster produces about ten 
thousand eggs at a time, and doubles her product with every additional two inches of 
length. The young lobster casts his shell four times before the characteristics of 
the adult are assumed, and until the fifth cliange, which is reached at the age of from 
three to six weeks, it remains near the surface of the water and is destroyed by the 
million, both by storms and surface-feeding fish. After this period, its habitat is the 
bottom of the sea, where it feeds principally on fish, alive or dead indifferently. It 
grows only during, or immediately after, its annual moulting or casting of its shell, 
but at that time the rapidity of its development is wonderful. 

Lobsters are very voracious in their habits, and frequently have very animated 
combats among themselves, during which one of the combatants is reasonably sure to 
lose some part of a leg or claw — another member grows in its place, but it is always 
smaller than the original. 

Shellfish, and especially lobsters, afford more phosphorus than any other food. 
They are perhaps, unconsciously, on this account much eaten by the nerve-racked 
workers of the great cities. 

Lobster Butter or Paste: is cooked lobster "coral" or roe, pounded to a paste, 
mixed with butter, etc., and rubbed through a sieve. The term "coral" had its origin 
in the appearance of the lobster eggs after conking. 

LOCKSOY: rice boiled to a paste and drawn into threads, imported from China. 
It is used to thicken soups. 

LOGANBERRY: a California product, a cross of the black and red raspberry. 

LOGWOOD : a tree cultivated principally in the East and West Indies. Tlie wood 
yields a principle which is employed as a dye, generally darkish-red in color. 

LONDONDERRY-LITHIA. See article on Table and Medicinal Miner.\l Waters. 




L [.i\ fl.sh 
Prawns iCookedj 



Cooked Lobster. Crab and Crayfish 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



349 



LONGAN: a fruit-nut resembling the 
Litchi, but generally smaller, much es- 
teemed in China and Malaysia. The in- 
terior, when fresh, is a sweetish pulp 
enclosing a single large seed. It makes 
excellent preserves and is exported both 
in that form and plain dried. 

LOOFAH. See Towel Gourd. 

LOQUAT: a yellow, generally oval, 
plum-like fruit, a near relative to the 
medlar and sometimes, but incorrectly, 
called the "Japan Plum." It is very 
agreeable to the taste when fully ripe. 
It can be eaten in almost any manner, 
raw or cooked, that serves for other 
fruits. The down should be carefully 
wiped off before serving to eat raw. See 
Color Page opposite page 320. 

LOVAGE: an aromatic plant, now used 
chiefly in the manufacture of confection- 
ery. The blanched stalks were formerly 
consumed as a salad vegetable of the same 
type as celery and are still popular for 
that purpose in some parts of Southern 
Europe. 

Scottish Lavage, a similar plant of 
the same species, grows wild on the Shet- 
land Isles, north of Scotland, and is there 
used as a popular article of diet. 





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Loquats 



LOVE APPLE: the former name for the Tomato (which see). 

LOZENGES: are made in many different styles and shapes — square, circular and 
oval. They are composed of farinaceous matter, sugar, gum or gelatine, etc., 
variously flavored, and are employed both in medical practice and as candy. They were 
formerly the main candy supply of the country villages. 

LUCCA OIL: a trade name for fine Olive Oil (which see). 

LUNCH TONGUE: a trade name for canned tongue (see Tongue). 

LYE: is, in strict parlance, water impregnated with an alkali, but in general usage 
the word is applied to all forms of soap-making alkalies, from the "mother lye" of 
wood ashes, formerly used in farm life to make soft soap, up to the metal drums of 
caustic potash and soda imported from Europe. 



IS 



350 



THE GEOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MACARONI : is considered by the general public as a typical and peculiarly Italian 
food, and Italy is probably entitled to the credit for her early appreciation of its virtues 
and her fidelity to it after adoption, but history credits its invention to the Chinese 
and its European introduction to the Germans. The Italians are said to have learned 
the art of making it from the latter. History, however, also informs us that, by the 
time the fourteenth century had rolled around, Italy was the only European nation 
enjoying macaroni, and that she held for a full hundred years the secret of the method 
of its manufacture. Later, some enterprising Frenchman introduced it into Prance, 
and with great success, for it is on record that King Louis XIII ordered a dish of 
it from an inn-keeper at Tours who had made a great reputation for its preparation. 

The above is briefly the European idea of the history of macaroni — but it is dis- 
puted by the Japanese, who claim priority in its use by hundreds of years. The 
Japanese delight especially in a very fine kind of vei'micelli, cut into lengths of six to 
ten inches and tied in bundles. This variety is also peculiar in that it is flexible. 

The essential point in the manufacture of macaroni is that the meal or "semola" 
be from hard, very glutenous wheat, the kind known as "macaroni wheat" in this 
country. The best imported macaroni is made from the blending of various grades of 
semola obtained from Taganrog wheat — a very hard Russian variety, both imported 
from Eussia and raised from Russian seed in Southern Italy and France. 

By the original European method, the wheat is first steeped in water, then dried 
by heat, ground and sifted — both the husks and a considerable percentage of starch 
flour are thus separated, leaving a coarse meal, high in gluten and corresponding 
closely to the wheat "middlings" marketed here as wheat "farina" for consumption 
as a "cereal." The lessening of the starch proportion is advantageous, as in cooking 
its expansion tends to break the pipes or 
make them stick together in a pasty mass. 

In general modern manufacture, 
coarsely ground flour is moistened with 
the smallest possible quantity of boiling 
water, and thoroughly mixed, by ma- 
chinery, until smooth and "tough" and 
then kneaded in a special machine 
kneader known as a "gramola." The com- 
pleted dough goes into the cylinders of 
the press, where tremendous pressure is 
brought to bear on it by means of revolv- 
ing screws, and it is slowly passed out at 
the bottom of the cylinder through the 
small holes of the "trafila," as the per- 
forated plate is called. 

The form of the trafila fixes the char- 
acter of the product — for "macaroni" and 
similar varieties, there is in each hole ;i 
steel pin which gives the "pipes" their 
well-known hollow or tubular form. With 
smaller holes without pins, the trafila 
produces "spaghetti" and similar solid 

types. For flat, noodle-like or ribbon cutting off the macaroni strings as they come out of tlie 'trafila" 





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MACARONI AND SIMILAR PASTES 



(11 


Vermicelli 


(6) 


MezzanelU 


(11) Tagllarlnl 


(21, 24, 25) Ditall Llscl 


(2) 


Spagliettial 


(7) 


Mezzani or 


(12) Llngulne 


(22, 23) Ditall Risati 


(3) 


Spaehcttl 




■■Macaroni" 


(13) Trcnette 


(26) Rigatonl 


(4) 


Forallni or 


(8) 


Zltoni 


(14) Fcttuccelle 


(27) BomboUotls 




Macclieroncelli 


(9) 


Mezzani Rlgatl 


(15, 16) Lasagne Rlcce 


(28 to 40) ■■Fancy Pastes"— seeds. 


(S) 


Foratl or 


(10) 


Zltoni Rlgatl 


(17. 18) Lasagne Llscl 


stars, alphabets, animals. &c 




Pcrclatelll 






(18, 20) Tubettl 


(50) Curled Vermicelli 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



853 




Drying Spaghetti on canes 



varieties, a flat opening takes the place of 
the round hole. 

The short kinds are cut off by auto- 
matic rotary knives as the paste comes 
out of the trafila. The long varieties are 
cut off at the proper lengths by hand. 

Next comes the drying — in Italy gen- 
erally accomplished by outdoor exposure. 
The long solid pastes are looped over 
canes, the others are generally spread on 
frames. When sufficiently dry, they are 
carefully inspected, sorted, weighed and 
packed. 

When outdoor exposure is not pos- 
sible, as, for example, in paste manufac- 
ture in the Eastern United States, a 
special drying room is used, the frames or canes being placed in tiers. 

The proportion of profit in paste manufacture depends to a considerable extent on 
the care in drying — on the vigilance exercised in ensuring an unvarying temperature 
of the proper degree. If the air is allowed to become too moist, the entire batch may 
be ruined by mildew or souring ; if too hot, it may spoil by over-rapid drying and con- 
sequent cracking or damage to its texture, and if the room is draughty, loss by crack- 
ing is again the result. 

The average American consumer has no idea of the number of forms, a hundred 
or more, in which the paste is made by Italian manufacturers. They range from 
lasagnes^ short, flat pieces from one to two inches wide, cut out, and sometimes 
molded, by hand, to fidellini, long thin threads, the flnest of which are many times 
smaller than vermicelli, which is the smallest type generally known here — and, in 
between, a great variety of forms and 
sizes — tubular, solid-round and flat, long 
and short, stars, dots, crescents, little 
animal shapes, etc., the last-named varie- 
ties being cut from thin sheets of the 
dough. See Color Page, opposite page 
350, illustrating a number of different 
types. 

Macaroni should be kept in a dry, 
cool place. Under proper conditions it 
will remain good for a long time, but 
it is not generally advisable to risk de- 
terioration by laying in a large stock. 

In cooking, be careful to put it into 
boiling, and salted, water. Cold water 
will spoil the best macaroni. The water 
must be kept fully boiling for from 
twenty to thirty minutes until the maca- 
roni is tender. When done, drain well 

and season or dress to suit individual Drying the "pastes" in the open air near Naples. Italy 




354 THE GBOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

tastes. The idea is to have every tube thoroughly tender, but each tube whole, 
separate and without pastiness. 

In Creole cookery, macaroni, spaghetti, etc., is freely added to many soups. 

If macaroni, after proper and careful cooking, is pasty or does not retain its shape, 
it is of poor quality and probably made from the wrong variety of wheat. Cooking 
is the only really conclusive test, consequently it is not good policy to stock heavily 
any macaroni by a new or unknown manufacturer until you have tried it by cooking 
some. 

MACARONI BREAD: that made from Macaroni Wheat. See Bread. 

MACARONI WHEAT: another name for Durum Wheat, so called because it is 
accepted as the most suitable of American-grown wheats for the manufacture of 
Macaroni (see articles on Macaroni and Wheat). 

MACAROONS. There are two leading varieties of the sweet biscuits known as 
Macaroons — those made of almond meal, and those of shredded cocoanut. They should 
be handled as fresh as possible, and should be kept in a dry, moderately cool place, 
protected from the air. 

Macaroons were first made by an order of nuns at St. Emilion, France. 

MACASSAR OIL: is, properly, the product of a tree of the Sapodilla family, grown 
in the Macassar district of Celebes, one of the East Indian Islands, but the trade article 
frequently consists of, or contains, cocoanut and safflower-seed oil. Its chief use is 
in the perfumery trade. 

MACE: is the inner covering which envelopes the nutmeg (see Color Page of Spices). 
It closely resembles a lacerated membrane, being blood-red and somewhat fleshy when 
fresh. It is prepared for the market by being carefully flattened out and dried for 
several days in the sun, much of it becoming red-yellowish during the process. It is 
used both in "blade" and ground form to spice soups, sauces, puddings, etc., its flavor 
closely resembling nutmeg, but being, to many tastes, even more pleasing. It also fur- 
nishes a strong, yellow, volatile oil, and a red, buttery, fixed oil which, mixed with other 
substances, is known as Nutmeg Balsam. 

The bulk of the supply coraes from Banda (the best), Penang, Singapore, Celebes 
and, though only to a comparatively small extent, the West Indies. Care should be 
taken to choose that with a deep orange color and clear, transparent, wax-like appear- 
ance. Dull looking parcels are not desirable. 

"Macassar," "Papua," and "Bombay" mace are fictitious titles sometimes given to 
a wild product, the mixing of which with cultivated mace is rated as adulteration. 

U. 8. Standard Mace contains not less than 20% and not more than 30% of non- 
volatile ether extract; not more than 3% of total ash ; not more than 5% of ash insolu- 
ble in hydrochloric acid and not more than 10% of crude fibre. 

Mace should be always kept in air-tight glass bottles or tin boxes. 

MACEDOINE: a mixture of cut fruits or vegetables of different colors. Vegetable 
Mac^doine is now retailed in bottles, tins, etc., for use in soups, as a vegetable dish and 
for garnishing. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 355 

MACKEREL {see Color Page opposite SOi). The Common Mackerel, considered by 
many the most beautiful of all fish which find their way to our markets, make their 
appearance in early spring in immense shoals or "schools" off the coasts of Virginia 
and Maryland. Striking northward, they visit successively Cape May, Sandy Hook, 
Block Island, Cape Cod and various other points. They can be traced as far as 
Labrador. How much farther they go, no one can tell. They are, for the most part, 
caught in drift nets, shot into the sea from fishing smacks, but seines or single nets 
are often used. 

The mackerel ranges in length up to seventeen or eighteen inches, the average 
market size being twelve inches and the weight from three-quarters of a pound to one 
pound. It varies in color from multi-hued to white, with dark-blue stripes on the 
back. It is full grown at about four years. The young fish are known as "spikes," 
"blinkers" and "tinkers." "Spikes," the smallest marketed, are five to six inches long 
and five to seven months old. "Blinkers" are a size larger. "Tinkers" are those 
approaching, but under, nine inches in length and are supposed to be about two years 
old. 

The fresh fish is in season only from April to about September, but the greater 
part of the catch is consumed salted, smoked and canned — whole or filleted, "soused" 
or pickled, in oil, wine sauce, etc. 

Salt mackerel are shipped first in barrels, to be later repacked according to the 
demands of the trade. They are carefully graded for the market as 1, 2, 3 and 4. 
No. 1 quality must not be under thirteen inches, free from taint, damage and rust, and 
fine, fat fish. No. 2 must be fat and free from rust, and not less than eleven inches. 
No. 3 consist of the best left after the selection of Nos. 1 and 2. No. 4 is the result 
of the three preceding assortings, but must be entirely free from damage or taint to 
pass muster. 

The location in which mackerel are caught has an influence in determining their 
commercial value. The finest European catches are those taken off the coasts of Ireland 
and Norway. The best sold here are from the New England shore waters, the June 
catch being considered superior to the spring and fall crops. 

In addition to the home supply, from twenty to thirty million pounds are imported 
annually, principally from the United Kingdom, Norway, Canada, Holland and 
Sweden. 

The packing and re-packing of mackerel is an extensive business, and the result 
of the repacking is not always satisfactory to dealers or consumers. A barrel of mack- 
erel should weigh two hundred pounds. Two half-barrels, then, should weigh one hun- 
dred pounds each, but it happens sometimes that half-barrels scale fifteen to twenty 
pounds under that amount. The same remark applies to repacking in smaller quanti- 
ties. A "kit" is a fifth of a half-barrel and ought to contain a full twenty pounds. 
Retailers should carefully weigh packages or contents and refuse their custom to 
firms which violate the principles of business honesty. 

The mackerel is much esteemed, its flesh having an agreeable flavor, but, as 
usuallv prepared for the table, it is not readily digested on account of its large propor- 
tion of oil. This difficulty vanishes with proper cooking — by simmering it after boil- 
ing for a considerable time — three or four times as long as for any other fish, except 
salmon. In preparing it for cooking, it is nearly always preferable to wipe it dry with 
a clean cloth instead of washing it. 

See also Spanish Mackerel and Food Values. 



356 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 







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A hand Wine Press, Madeira 



MADEIRA: a "white" wine of fine 
flavor and rich quality, usually fortified 
by the addition of clear spirit, produced 
in the Island of Madeira, a Portuguese 
possession, situated about 300 miles from 
the Coast of Morocco. It was at one time 
a very fashionable wine and has again 
increased somewhat in vogue. It is con- 
sumed in considerable quantities in Great 
Britain and Continental Europe. 

Madeira is exported in both casks 
and bottles. If circumstances warrant, 
it is generally preferable to purchase in 
casks, and bottle the wine after its receipt 
here, as, with the exception of very old 

stock, it is apt to throw a considerable sediment when shipped to colder cli- 
mates. Among the varieties most worthy of notice are Yerdeilho, in both rich and dry 
styles; Malmsey, very sweet and soft; Sercial, or "Serceal," very dry with a nutty 
flavor, and Bual, or "Boal," which in the best qualities possesses an exquisite bouquet. 
It should be stored in a moderately warm place and it generally ripens better in demi- 
johns than in bottles. It should be served at about the temperature of the average 
dining room and can be decanted without disadvantage if so desired. 

Large quantities of spurious "Ma- 
deira" are made in Prance, Spain and else- 
where, but an abundance of the genuine 
wine is easily obtainable by those who 
specify it — the annual production of the 
Island having for many years averaged 
10,000 pipes, as against a total annual 
export of between 6,000 and 7,000 pipes. 
The name "Madeira" is applied to 
numerous sauces, cakes, etc., but in actual 
practice other wines, such as sherry, are 
generally used. 




Transporting wine from tlie courtyard, Madeira 

carcasses of animals (see article on Meat) 
proper method is to discard them entirely. 



MAGGOTS. These destructive pests 

are the larvae of flies. They are found 

feeding upon many foods, especially the 

If they appear in vegetables, the only 



MAIGRE: a term applied in cookery to dishes prepared without meat, poultry or 
game, and in which butter is used to the exclusion of lard, beef suet, etc. They con- 
sist chiefly of eggs, flsh, vegetables, etc., and are eaten by Catholics on occasions which 
interdict the use of meat, as the term is generally understood. The word originally 
signified "lean," "poor," "scanty." 



MAITRANK. See item under heading of May Wine. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 357 



MAIZE: the distinctive title of the grain generally known in the United States as 
Corn (which see) or Indian Corn. 

MAIZENA: another name for Cornstarch (which see). 

MALAGA GRAPES : Spanish grapes exported from Malaga. See Grapes. 

MALAGA WINE: a delicate wine from Malaga grapes. See Spanish Wines. 

MALDIVE FISH, or "Mummalon": an East Indian fish, sold canned at fancy 
grocery stores. 

MALLARD. See Ducks (WiW). 

MALMSEY, Malvoisie, Malvasia: are titles correctly applied only to wines from 
the Malvasia grape — which takes its name from the Greek island of Malvasia, where the 
type was first produced. So highly was it then esteemed that "Virgil described it as 
"New Nectar." "Malvasia" grapes were later cultivated in many parts of the world — 
in Spain, the Canary Islands, Madeira, Prance, Italy, Greece in general, etc. — chiefiy 
nowadays in the first three. They are of fine flavor, though less strongly characterized 
than Muscats, and yield a soft and pleasing wine of delicate bouquet, which with age 
develops a liqueur style. The wines vary in tint from light to purple or brown, being 
subject both to differences in methods of manufacture and in vine selection, the Mal- 
vasia grape being found in numerous varieties and in white, purple and black colors. 

MALT: grain in which Diastase has been developed by allowing it to sprout. It 
is used in large quantities in the manufacture of beer, whisky, malt extract, etc. The 
grain is first steeped in tubs of water for from forty-eight to seventy-two hours until 
it starts to germinate and is then spread on floors in a layer from eight to twelve 
inches deep, being turned over every twenty-four hours during the four days of the 
process in order to prevent "heating" and to ensure even growth. It is next kiln- 
dried and screened to remove the sprouts and is then ready for the market. When 
made by the "drum" system, the desired uniformity is even more thoroughly assured by 
putting the steeped grain in large revolving drums which keep it constantly moving 
as it grows. : 

Barley is the grain chiefly malted, but rye, oats, etc., are also so treated in con- 
siderable quantities. \ 

Caramel Malt is that roasted especially dark. 

The great commercial value of the Diastase thus developed is its property, in 
solution under high temperature, of transforming starch, first into dextrin and then 
into a fermentable sugar. One part is capable of converting 2,000 parts of starch. 
Malted Barley or other grain contains only 1/800 part of the substance, yet this is suf- 
ficient to convert the starch of cereals of twenty times the bulk of the malt, as well as 
that of the malt, into fermentable sugar. The grinding of the grain in the manufacture 
of beer, whisky, etc., is to bring the Diastase more readily into contact with each 
minute particle of starch content. 

The Commereml Diastase employed in baking and for some other purposes, 
instead of the malted grain itself, is a hard, white, solid substance obtained by 



358 



THE GBOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



digesting the germinated grain in a mixture of three parts of water and one part of 
alcohol, then pressing and filtering. 

MALT BREAD. See sub-head in general article on Bread. 

MALT EXTRACT : a nutritious and invigorating beverage growing in public favor. 
So many varying qualities are offered, some of them differing little from ordinary beer 
or ale, that merchants are best guided by the reputations of the firms marketing them. 
True malt extract is a syrupy liquid obtained by the maceration and digestion of 
malt, generally barley malt, followed by fil tration and concentration. It should con- 
tain from 70% to 80% residual extract, chiefly maltose, including about 2% diastase. 

MALT LIQUORS. Within this c\?iSsi&ca.tion come Ale, Beer and Stout {or Porter), 
described under special headings. 

All malt liquors should be stored in a clean, dry place— a cellar preferably — with 
a uniform temperature of 44° to 50° Pahr. 

MALT VINEGAR: is obtained from barley malt, beer, ale, etc. See Vinegar. 

MALT WINE: a tonic beverage obtained by the fermentation of a mixture of sugar 
syrup, brewer's "wort" (see article on Beer), hops and raisins. 

MALTED MILK: is milk combined with extract of malted grain, reduced to a 
powder by the vacuum process. It is used as a pleasant and nourishing beverage, 
both hot and cold, as an addition to broths, etc., for invalids, and in many other ways. 

MALTOSE: one of the "sugars" obtained by the action of malt or diastase on 

starch. See Glucose. 

MAMMEE, or Mammee Apple, or 8t. Domingo, or South American, "Apricot" : 
a tropical fruit about the size of a small grape fruit, sometimes round and sometimes 
angular in shape. The thick outer rind and the central seedy pulp are bitter in flavor, 
but the intermediate flesh is aromatic and agreeable. It is eaten both raw and pre- 
served. It is related to the Mangosteen, but not to the Mammee Sapota in spite of the 
resemblance in name. 



MAMMEE SAPOTA or Mammee or 
Sapota: a large, generally oval-shaped, 
fruit of the Sapodilla family. Good speci- 
mens average a pound and upwards in 
weight. The skin is coarse in texture and 
light coffee-colored and granulated in ap- 
pearance; the flesh is salmon-crimson in 
color, a good deal like that of a soft musk- 
melon in texture, and enclosing one, two 
or three long, generally shiny-black, 
seeds. 




MANDARIN ORANGE: 



Mammee Sapota 

a small variety of the tangerine type (see Oranges). 




Two Types of MANGOES 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



361 



MANGO {see Color Page) : a fruit be- 
lieved to be a native of Soutliern Asia 
but now grown in nearly all sub-tropical 
and tropical countries and found in many- 
different slirpes, sizes and colors. The 
kidney shape is the form most generally 
seen, but some are nearly round and 
others long and narrow, either crooked 
or straight. The size ranges from a little 
larger than the biggest plum up to a 
weight of four pounds or more. The 
color may be either red, green or yellow. 

The quality varies as greatly as the 
other characteristics. The seed-stone of 
inferior grades is large and the flesh is 
so fibrous as to be of very little value, but 
in the best types the fibre is a negligible 
quantity and the stone is surrounded by 
a large mass of juicy, aromatic, generally 
orange-yellow pulp. 

In addition to its use as a fresh fruit, 
the mango forms the basis of most Ohut- 
neys of East Indian type and is also 
canned and otherwise preserved. 

A majority of the mangoes imported until quite recently were of the poor, fibrous 
kinds — which compare to properly cultivated varieties as a crab apple to a 




Picking Mangoes, Mexico 




Seed of mango of fine quality — the 

fibres reduced to a short, felt- 

lilie covering 



Seed of fruit of medium grade, but 

with fibres long enough to be 

somewhat objectionable 



Seed of common wild mango, with 

fibre running through the 

entire pulp 



362 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Spitzenberg! — but there is to-day a constantly increasing supply of the choice fruits. 
The principal season is from April to the end of June — the fruit from Mexico, the 
West Indies, etc., arriving first and the 
Florida product a little latter. The best 
are those from India-style trees. 

A little practice is needed to acquire 
the art of eating a mango gracefully, yet 
without losing any of the aroma which 
distinguishes it. 

The fine fibreless varieties are the 
most easily eaten. Such fruit is best pre- 
pared by cutting through the skin and 
turning it back in a broad band, as 
shown in the accompanying illustration, 
or by making an X cut on each side, peel- 
ing the corners back as far as possible, 
and temporarily laying the skin in 
place again to prevent the aroma from 

escaping. The pulp can then in either The test way of preparing a fine Mango for consumption 

case be eaten with a spoon, like a cantaloupe, turning the skin back as necessary. 

A third method sometimes employed, but requiring considerable deftness and only 
appropriate for immediate service and consumption, is to halve the fruit lengthwise 
with a sharp knife, remove the stone and serve the two halves as one would cantaloupe. 

With a less delicate fruit, a better way is to cut the skin in a circle around each 
end and make seven or eight lengthwise incisions from circle to circle. The skin can 
then be easily lifted in strips and the flesh cut off in sections, lengthwise, as, or just 
before, eating. 

To slice a mango and let it stand before serving, as is customary for peaches, is to 
lose much of its delicate flavor — and to try to eat it out of hand in the nonchalant 
manner and care-free mind with which you tackle an apple, for example, is to wish you 
had gotten into a bathtub to perform the operation! 

The principal objection that the fruit merchant has to the mango is that it is 
rather easily damaged in transportation. 

MANGO MELON, or Vegetable Peach : a small round melon with yellow skin and 
white flesh, cultivated chiefly for domestic "Mango Pickles" and preserving. 

MANGO PEPPER: a mild sweet pepper, yellow and waxy in appearance, highly 
esteemed in the South for pickling. 

"MANGO PICKLES" : a popular domestic title for pickled stuffed young melons 
(preferably Mango Melons), mango-peppers or cucumbers. 

MANGOLD- WURZEL, or Mangel-Wurzel : a large coarse type of beet, grown prin- 
cipally for cattle food. 

MANGOSTEEN: the fruit of a tree native to the East Indies, distinguished by 
long oval leathery leaves and a flower like a single rose. Many travelers award it 



THE GEOCER^S ENOTCLOPEDIA 



363 



the title of "the world's choicest fruit." It is generally about the size of a small to 
medium orange, and in exterior appearance slightly suggests the pomegranate. Inside 
the thick pulpy rind, the flesh — a soft, juicy, rose-tinted or creamy pulp, enclosing the 
seeds — is divided orange-style. Its flavor, best uncooked, is sweet and slightly tart — 
enthusiasts says that it combines all the good qualities of the pineapple, grape, peach 
and strawberry, and physicians consider it especially wholesome. It unfortunately 
does not lend itself readily to transportation. See Tropical Fruits facing page 586. 




r THE anyuTB tapioca co. 



Manioc Roots 



MANGROVE: a tropical fruit of sweet and pleasant flavor, eaten both fresh and 
preserved. A mild light wine is made by fermentation of the juice. 

MANIOC or Cassava: a large, woody tropical plant botanically known as ilf»m/iot, 

whose roots furnish the Cassava-starch and 
Tapioca of commerce. It is variously known in 
the West Indies and South America as Manioc, 
Mandioca, Cassava and Cassada, as well as by 
various other titles, and as Vbi Tanah in Java 
and the Malay Peninsula, now the principal 
United States sources. The roots range in size 
from a diameter of one and a half to eight inches, 
and from eighteen inches to four feet in length, 
growing in clusters which average from five to 

ten pounds each but often reach thirty pounds and upwards. 

There are two principal types, the "sweet" and "bitter." Tapioca (described 

under its own heading) is generally made from the former, but both are equally 

valuable for the production of the commercial starch or "flour," which is the form in 

which the bulk of the importations is utilized in 

this country — in the manufacture of compressed 

yeast, as a sizing material, in the textile indus- 
tries, for glazing twine, etc., as a laundry starch 

and in various other industries. 

The Manioc root is an important native food 

in several tropical countries. In South America, 

a meal obtained by drying and grating is baked 

in thin cakes which are both nutritious and 

pleasing in taste. An interesting fact is that no 

water is added to the meal, sufficient adhesion 

being secured by the softening of the starch par- 
ticles by the heat applied. 

The Sweet Manioc is cultivated to a limited 

extent in Florida and other Southern States. 
The juice of the Bitter Manioc gives Gassa- 

reep (which see). The Manioc riaat 

MANNA: a species of sugar extracted chiefly from the Manna Ash, native to the 
mountainous parts of Southern Europe, by making small incisions in the stems. It 
is principally used medicinally. The best quality is known as Flake Manna. 

The name "Manna" has also been applied to numerous special food preparations. 




364 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MANNACROUP, or Manna Groats: a kind of semolina or Faeina (whicli see). 
Another more expensive variety consists of the seeds of the aquatic Manna Grass. 

MAPLE SUGAR and MAPLE SYRUP: are made from the sap of several varieties 
of the maple tree, native to the northern United States and Canada. The three chief 
varieties are the Kock Maple, which contains the largest percentage of sugar in the 
sap ; the Hard Maple and the Soft Maple, the last-named containing the least. 

The sap is collected by "tapping" the trees about three feet from the ground. The 
tap hole is bored about an inch deep with a three-eighth inch bit ; the spout is driven 
into this, and a covered tin sap-bucket is hung on the spout. It is the wood imme- 
diately under the bark which gives the sap — the largest amount coming from the ring 
made by the growth of the tree during the preceding year. 

The gathering season commences in the spring, generally during the month of 
March, just as the winter is breaking up and the general rule is thawing days and 
freezing nights. It ends when the trees begin to bud, as at that time the sap under- 
goes a change and the sugar content decreases. 

The percentage of sugar varies from 1% to 4%, being affected by many circum- 
stances — the variety of the tree, its location, the character of the soil, climate, etc. 
There are usually three or four "runs" during a good season and the first is generally 
the sweetest, averaging then from 3% to 4% of sugar. Each succeeding run is gener- 
ally less sweet and in consequence the product is of a darker color because of the 
longer boiling required. 

The quantity of sap depends to a great extent on the growth of the tree during 
the preceding summer and upon the weather conditions during the tapping season. 
Under good conditions, a tree large enough for two spouts will yield enough to pro- 
duce three or four quarts of syrup or six or seven pounds of sugar. 

After its receipt at the sugar-house, the sap is evaporated in sap-pans and syrup- 
pans to a syrup. For Maple Syrup, this product is strained, filtered and clarified by 
the addition of milk, cream or egg white and is then ready for the market. 

Maple Sugar is made by condensing the syrup until of the proper consistence. It 

is then stirred and "grained" and poured 
into molds or tin pails and allowed to cool. 
The evaporators vary in size according 
to local requirements — a machine two feet 
wide by eight feet long will handle the sap 
from three hundred trees. The largest 
made is six feet wide and twenty-four feet 
long, and will boil the sap from four 
thousand trees. The average Vermont sugar 
camp has from twelve to fifteen hundred. 
Maple Sugar making now and Maple 
Sugar making as it used to be, are very dif- 
ferent things — what the industry has gained 
in facility, it has lost in picturesqueness. 
The old style camp with its primitive ap- 
pliances is no more. The kettle was long 
ago superseded by the "pan" and the latter 
again by the evaporator, and the trough has 




COPYEIGIIT, 



Tapping a Sugar-Maple Tree 



THE GKOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



365 




Gathering the Sap in a Sugar-Maple orchard 



become a mass of crumbling decay. Tbe women 
and children are kept at home and no longer 
know the old-time delights of "sugaring off," 
though in the Arcadia of the past their services 
were not despised and the whole household set 
up its abode in the woods. 

The sap was collected then in troughs, each 
about three feet long, hollowed out of sections 
of poplars, and was conveyed to the kettles in 
barrels, from which it was transferred by scoops. 
There were five or more kettles, from ten to 
thirty gallons in capacity, and each was filled 
with sap and kept at the boiling point, the larger 
kettles being filled from the smaller as evapora- 
tion reduced the contents. When the sap was 
sufficiently reduced, the hot syrup was dipped 
out and passed through a flannel strainer into 
uncovered tubs, from which it was again poured into a large, thick-bottomed kettle for 
the process of "sugaring off," some milk and the whites of several eggs being added 
to it. Thus prepared, it was placed over a slow fire, and kept below the boiling point 
until the sediment and all foreign matter had floated to the top and been removed, 
becoming temptingly translucent. It was then exposed to a greater heat and gently 
boiled, the evaporation gradually bringing it to the poiut of granulation. Then the 
sugar-maker became all watchfulness, and it fared ill with those who distracted him, 
for if the golden liquid seething in the kettle boiled the least bit too much, it would 
become too dry, and if it boiled too little, it would be "soggy." He tested it constantly, 
plucking threads of it from his stirring-stick, and trailing them around in cups of cold 
water. While the threads yielded waxily to the touch, the sugar was not yet ripe ; but 
as soon as one broke crisp between his fingers, the moment had come to take the kettle 
off the fire. As the sugar cooled, it crystallized round the sides, and gradually 
the whole mass, under a vigorous stirring, became granular. 

In that way was Maple Sugar made years ago and when the sap fiowed profusely 
the operations were continued through the night and the fires cast strange shadows 
in the woods. But to-day everything is "improved." In place of the hut of logs is 
a permanent sugar-house, furnished with many elaborate devices to prevent waste and 
deterioration. The sap collections are made with letter-collection regularity and if the 
grove is on a hill and the sugar-house is in a hollow, the sap, as it is gathered, is 
emptied into a "flume," down which it flows into a large reservoir within the build- 
ing. A scoop or ladle is as anachronistic as a javelin ! See Color Page opposite 368. 

MARASCHINO: a famous liqueur which takes its name from the small wild black 
Marasca cherry, native to the Dalmatian Mountains, Austria, but found also in Italy, 
Greece and parts of Provence. The fruit is very sweet and aromatic and the kernel 
resembles the filbert in flavor. There are numerous commercial types of Maraschino 
which have departed from the original formula, but the true liqueur, the kind that 
made the name famous, knows no constituents except the Marasca cherry, white honey 
and clear syrup. The pulp and kernels of the thoroughly ripe fruit are crushed 
together and the mixture is emptied into vats, where it is diluted with a certain 



366 THE grocer's ek cyclopedia 



quantity of white honey. Fermentation quickly sets in and is followed by distillation — 
which produces the crude Maraschino. This is allowed to rest for about a year and is 
then rectified several times until absolutely clear, mixed with clear white-sugar syrup 
and again sent to the cellars to mature, a fall three years being required to produce the 
natural mellow strength so highly prized. The liqueur thus matured is the best quality 
ordinarily retailed. It continues, however, to improve in quality, and ascend in price, 
with still greater age, genuine old Maraschino being worth, even at the distillery, from 
two to three dollars a bottle — and at retail is of course very much more expensive. 

The bulk of the output of the best grades is produced in the city of Zara, the capi- 
tal of the province of Dalmatia, by distillers who receive the fermented mixture from 
various points in the cherry growing districts. It is generally marketed in wicker- 
covered bottles. 

A great quantity of imitation Maraschino is made from other varieties of cherries, 
miscellaneous fruits, peach leaves, etc., but it does not possess the delicate flavor, or 
aroma, of the true product. 

In this country. Maraschino is a popular liqueur for the preserving of whole 
fruits, as cherries, figs, etc. 

See also general article on, and Color Page of, Liqueurs. 

MARGARINE: the English name for Oleomargarine (which see). 

r 

MARIENBAD. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

MARINADE: pickle liquid, generally flavored, as with aromatic herbs, spices, etc. 
The term is best applied to vinegar and lemon pickle, but is also extended to brine. 

MARJORAM: a garden herb of the Aster family. There are numerous varieties, 
the most desirable being the Sweet or "Knotted," Winter Sweet and Pot. Both the 
tops and leaves, green and dried, are used to flavor soups, dressings, etc. For dry- 
ing, the branches are cut before the flowers open. 

Common, or Wild, Marjoram grows wild in many parts of the country in the open 
flelds. It resembles the cultivated types but is coarser in flavor. 

MARKETS. The public market or fair is one of the links which connect 20th 
century civilization with the early history of the human race. Its origin is found in the 
first concerted attempt at commerce, and its initial history antedates the oldest records, 
yet the essential principles of the primitive market were the same which underlie the 
modern Exchange, and even the details of its operation were in all probability 
not unlike those of the fine modern markets of Continental Europe. 

The employment of the terms "market" and "fair" overlap at many points and in 
general usage, but they are perhaps best differentiated by applying the word "market" 
to a public selling-place continuously open during all, or a considerable portion of, 
the year and devoted chiefly to the sale of provisions. The term "Pair" may then be 
specialized to signify a public selling-place for all classes of commodities — clothing, 
jewelry, etc., in addition to provisions — open only for a limited time — as the 
periodic Fairs which constituted so important a feature of life during the Middle 
Ages, ard the famous modern fairs at Leipsie, Nijni-Novgorod, etc., referred to in the 
closing paragraphs of this article. 



THE G R (1 C E R S E N C Y C L P K D I A 



367 




Halles Centrales, Pans— the maiket buildings on each side 



The recognition of the desirability of a common interchange of goods seems to be 
instinctive among all races. When the Aztec country was disclosed to European eyes 
by the Spanish invasion of 1521, it was found that the greater part of the trade between 
city and country and the bulk of all classes of the retail business of large cities was 
transacted in markets and fairs. In his African explorations, Stanley found fairs in 
periodic or continuous operation in parts to which no white man had ever before pene- 
trated, the natives journeying to them from considerable distances to exchange goods. 

The public market was in former generations a noteworthy feature of American 
life, but it has in recent years lost its first significance. There are few communities in 
which the free open market-places are patronized by the general public, and no covered 
markets to which the general producer has access, the stalls of those still in opera- 
tion being occupied by tenants much in the same way as are ordinary retail stores. 
The wholesale or commission merchant, together with the retailer, have absorbed the 
place the market formerly held in public service. 

New York retains several of its old markets — Fulton, West Washington, etc. — 
and meat, fish and general produce merchants do a big business in them, but the char- 
acter of the custom has changed from exclusively retail to largely wholesale. The same 
remarks apply to Philadelphia and Boston. A considerable percentage of the sales in 
the Baltimore and New Orleans markets are at retail, but their accommodations are 
not accessible to the general producer. 

American conditions are paralleled in England, but a strong contrast is found in 
Continental Europe, where markets of general use are found in all important cities. 

The finest markets in the world are those grouped in the Halles Centrales 
of Paris — ten large halls, covering a total of 365,000 square feet and divided 



368 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



according to the character of the supplies — butcher's meat in one, fish in another, etc. 
About one-third of the space is devoted to wholesale and the balance to retail purposes. 
Lining the thoroughfares between the halls — some of the spaces open and some covered 
— are stands for fruits, vegetables, flowers, etc., and underneath are cold storage cel- 
lars for the use of producers on payment of a small fee. The annual sales reach 
large figures — an average of 100 million pounds of meat, 50 million pounds of poulti-y, 
70 million pounds of fish, 50 million pounds of butter and cheese — and other items in 
proportion. 

The Halles Centrales retain the first feature of the market or fair in that the pro- 
ducer and consumer are brought in direct contact. There are a great many permanent 
tenants, Utulaires de places fixes, as in English and American markets, but in Paris 
they have no exclusive possession — ample space is reserved for all occasional or 
periodic vendors — any producer who desires may, by conforming with the regulations 
and paying the very moderate fees, occupy space and sell his goods. If he cannot spare 
the time to come into the city, he can ship his goods to any of the official salesmen, to be 
disposed of at auction, the only charge being a small commission on the sales. These 
salesmen are appointed by a municipal official and their methods are rigorously 
inspected and controlled. 

Numerous smaller markets in other parts of the city supplement the service of the 
Halles Centrales. 

The famous old Butter Market at Cork, Ireland, is another institution worthy of 
mention as one of the best regulated of its kind. All the butter exposed for sale 









Iff '^iPf IS*^':' 1?^^. 1.:: ^t ;, 

y~ . 'Pi'ii.^ "ill ii'i jJtuUr 



The Fish Market, Halles Centrales, Paris 




Collecting the Sap of lb.- M i. \k' MAPI 1. 



THE GROCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 371 



is tested, in bulk and without any name attached, and branded First Quality, Second 
Quality, etc., by a market committee, whose members also belong to the Common Coun- 
cil. No favoritism can be shown, as the committee are ignorant of the ownership of 
the butter they inspect. Merchants residing in any part of Great Britain can forward 
their orders for so many packages of certain qualities to local brokers, who buy on the 
market, charging the purchasers a commission of about fifty cents for each one hun- 
dred and twelve pounds — the fee being regulated by the same committee. On the fol- 
lowing day, the prices of all qualities are published in all the morning papers of Great 
Britain, the grocer being thus informed of the correct price of the quality he buys. 

The greatest Fairs in the world are the Easter and Michaelmas Fairs at Leipsic, 
and the Russian Fairs at Irkutsk, in Siberia, in June, and at Nijni-Novgorod, in Euro- 
pean Russia, in July. At Irkutsk, Russian and Tartar merchants gather to exchange 
and sell skins, iron, clothing, coffee, spices and a great variety of other articles. At 
Nijni-Novgorod, merchants from all parts of the world assemble to traffic in 
every imaginable commodity, the spiling accommodations there including more than 
2,500 booths. 

MARMALADE: is a semi-liquid preserve, made by boiling the pulp or juice of 
thick-rind fruits, such as oranges, pineapples, lemons, etc., with portions of their rinds. 
The most popular is that of oranges, the Seville or Bitter orange being employed 
for a majority of the best types. 

In the manufacture of orange marmalade, the fruit are first prepared by picking 
off the eyes, washing in large tubs and halving and pulping by machinery. 

After the separation of the rind and pulp, the latter is placed in machines which 
express the juice, and the rind goes to the cutting machines, where revolving knives 
slice it into thin rings and drop it into vats of cold water, which, as filled, are boiled 
by means of the steam coils in the bottom of each vat. 

Peel and juice next go together into huge copper pans, half full of thick syrup 
of white sugar, and are boiled until the desired consistence has been reached. This 
process requires both care and experience, for if the fruit is over-boiled, the syrup 
will harden into candy, and if under-cooked, the product will mold. 

Cans, glasses and stone jars are all employed as containers, but the last named is 
the most characteristic form. 

The first record of the use of marmalade is found during the reign of Henry VII, 
the original "marmalade" having been made from the quince, the Portuguese name 
for which is Marmelo. It was in those days a choice rarity, served as one of the 
sweets which concluded the enormous ceremonial banquets of the age. 

MARMITE: a brown extract of which yeast juice is the principle. It resembles beef 
extract in flavor, color and stimulating properties. Petite Mannite (which see) is a 
popular French soup. 

MARRONS : a variety of chestnut extensively cultivated in France and Italy. They 
are best known here in preserved form, either bottled in brandy or syrup or "iced" 
dry ( in the latter case being known as Marrons Glaces ) and are used in the making 
of various frozen and other fancy desserts, in fruit salads, etc. 

Syrup Marrons are readily transformed into Marrons Glacis by exposing to the 
atmosphere for a few hours to allow the syrup to crystallize on them. 

19 



372 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MARSALA: a famous Sicilian product. See Italian Wines. 

MARSHMALLOW: a plant native to both Europe and Asia 
which grows most freely in marshes near the sea. A decoction 
of the roots and other parts of the plant gives a tasteless, color- 
less gum, used medicinally as a demulcent for children, etc. The 
candy known as "Marshmallows," originally made from the plant 
gum, is now manufactured of sugar, corn syrup and gelatine. 




Marshmallow 




MARSH MARIGOLD, called Cowslip in the Eastern States : a common swamp or 
water plant which grows from eight to ten inches high. The floAvers may be used for 
flavoring soups, stews, etc. The leaves, when young, make acceptable "greens," and 
the flower buds, pickled in salt and vinegar, are an acceptable substitute for capers. 

MARTYNIA, or Unicom Plant : a vege- 
table whose pods, distinguished by their 
long curved hooks, are pickled in the 
same way as cucumbers. 

MARZIPAN PASTE: a kind of al 
mond paste used in the manufacture of 
fancy cakes and pastry novelties, for sale 
separate or mixed with high-grade 
candies, etc. 

Martynia pods 

MASTIC: a very fiery brandy, distilled in various parts of Greece and several 
Oriental countries from the fermented residue of grapes or currants after the juice has 
been expressed for wine, the astringent flavor due to the crushing of the seeds, skins, 
etc., being enhanced by the addition of gum mastic, a product of the Mastic tree, a 
member of the pistachio family. 

The Peruvian Mastic is the "Pepper Tree" of California, so named for the peppery 
flavor of its berries. 

MAT: properly speaking, a texture formed of barks, rushes or reeds. Coffee and 
various other commodities are shipped in bags of such material — hence the term 
"mats" of coffee, etc. Part of the date supply is similarly packed, but the coverings 
are then known as "frails." 

MATCHES. Prior to the beginning of the nineteenth century, matches were 
unknown. We read in Virgil, who lived in the Augustan period, that two centuries 
before the dawn of the Christian era, fire w^as obtained by rubbing decayed wood 
together with a roll of sulphur between two stones. Several centuries later, we have 
record of the use of a primitive tinder-box with flint and steel, and this method of 
producing a spark of light, elaborated and perfected, remained in vogue until com- 
paratively recent years. 

Phosphorus, the dominating ingredient of the composition employed for the heads 
of matches, was first discovered in the eighth century by an Arab named Bechel, but, 
owing to the lack of mechanical and chemical appliances, it could not then be made of 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 373 



commercial or industrial value, and the utilization of its wonderful light-giving power 
was lost to the world until in 1669 a German named Brandt again brought it to the 
attention of mankind. Chlorate of potash, a great oxidizing agent, which, when 
utilized in conjunction with phosphorus, makes possible the production of the modern 
match, was discovered by a Frenchman in 1786. Burning glasses, dipping and match 
sticks, were all used in the onward march of progress, and in 1830 John Walker, a 
chemist of Stockton-on-Tees, England, produced the first successful friction match of 
which we have authentic record. These matches, named "Congreves," were sold in 
boxes of fifty for sixty cents, and their success soon led others to experiment in match 
manufacture, with the result that improvements were rapidly invented — the efiflciency 
and reliability of the match increased and the cost of manufacture and the selling 
price decreased. 

The match-making industry affords a striking example of the great economy in 
cost and excellence of product which has been accomplished, particularly of late years, 
by the development of labor-saving machinery. Of the many articles that are neces- 
sary to the comfort of modern existence, none is more nearly indispensable and there 
are few that are sold so cheaply. The rapidity and magnitude of manufacture may be 
judged from the fact that the largest factory in the United States, located at Barber- 
ton, Ohio, can produce two hundred million a day. 

The process of match making, as conducted in a typical American factory, con- 
sists of the feeding of clear-grain white pine blocks to automatic machines, which cut 
the wood into smooth match sticks or "splints," and transport them for tipping 
through paraffin and composition chests, drying the chemicals by contact with the 
speedily tempered air, ultimately packing the matches into boxes, and, in some cases, 
even wrapping the boxes into packages ready for the trade. 

Matches of present manufacture can be divided into three general classes: 

(1) Ordinary Strike- An yiohere Wood Splint Matches, known to the trade as 
''Lucifer" Matches. 

(2) Safety Matches. 

(3) Miscellaneous and Fancy Matches. 

CLASS NO. 1 may be subdivided into the following styles: 

Double-Dip Parlor Matches, Safety-Head — capped with a sensitive, "strike-any- 
where" tip, but with the head of "safety" type. Although new, they represent about 
one-half of the total domestic output. 

Double-Dip Parlor Matches—with botli the head and the tip made of the "strike- 
anywhere" phosphorous composition. These can usually be detected by the very high 
gloss of the composition. They are considered a dangerous product, owing to the per- 
centage of combustible material incorporated in the head and they also have a pene- 
trating odor, which affects many goods with which they are necessarily brought into 
contact. 

Parlor Matches — with single, untipped head. This is the "old reliable" variety 
that has stood the test of time and still holds undisputed sway in certain sections of 
the country. 

Sulphur Matches — with heads dipped first in sulphur instead of paraffin. They are 
still in demand in some places, but they are rapidly decreasing in popularity, because 
of the disagreeable odor engendered in burning. They are made in blocks, cards or 
combs and loose in ordinary boxes. They are sure lighters and while the sulphur is 
burning on the splint it is difficult to extinguish them. 



374 THE GBOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

SAFETY MATCHES are not supposed to ignite except by friction on a specially 
prepared amorphous phosphorous surface, obtained by painting one side of the match- 
box. They are sold principally in small boxes and are used in large quantities by hotels, 
railroads, etc., and the smoking public. 

MISCELLANEOUS & FANCY MATCHES include Wax Matches, "Book" 
Matches and such varieties as "Flamers," "Blazers" and "Vesuvians," matches 
which cannot be extinguished by wind or water, etc. 

Wax Matches are splints made of stearin and copal gum, capped with Parlor or 
Double Dip composition. They are not manufactured in the United States, but large 
quantities are produced in Great Britain, Belgium, France and other countries. They 
are more expensive than wood-splint matches and are sold here only to a comparatively 
small extent. 

Book Matches are usually of the safety type, made of cardboard, or thin wood 
splints, enclosed in a cardboard cover. They are frequently distributed free for adver- 
tising purposes. 

Under proper conditions, matches are not a dangerous article to handle or store, 
with the exception of Double-Dip Parlor Matches. If packed in well-constructed cases, 
they will stand a vast amount of abuse without ignition, and if ignition should occur, 
the gases generated smother and effectively extinguish the fire. Danger arises only 
when an accident results in a case being broken and the contents scattered. They are 
accepted by all railroad companies as an average risk. 

With the same exception (that of the Double-Dip Parlor), modern, well-made 
matches of the best type and manufacture, do not materially affect by odor other 
materials stored in their vicinity, or even in direct contact with them. 

The daily consumption in the United. States is about 750 millions. 

The largest single match factory in the world is the Vulcan, at Tidaholm, Sweden. 
It employs more than sixteen hundred men, and manufactures daily two and a half 
million hoxes of matches. 

MATE, or Paraguay Tea: the leaves and young shoots of a species of holly, TTiea 
Paraguayensis, used universally in Brazil and also extensively in other parts of South 
America, in the brewing of a beverage which corresponds to the "tea" of other coun- 
tries. The leaves are ground to a coarse powder and the shoots or twigs are broken 
into small pieces. Their collection and preparation is an important industrial occu- 
pation in both Brazil and Paraguay. 

The title "mat6," now generally employed, was applied originally to the vessels 
in which the tea is infused. These vessels, or bowls, are generally dried gourds, 
which in many cases have been carefully developed into a variety of curious forms. A 
small quantity of the leaves, properly called Yerba Mate, is put into the gourd, and 
it is then filled with boiling water. Each person holds a small tube called a "Bom- 
billa," and with this he sucks up the infusion and passes the bowl back to be filled 
again for the next guest. One end of the Bombilla is finished with a small bulb of deli- 
cate basket work or perforated metal, which acts as a strainer to prevent the powder 
or other particles from being sucked up into the mouth. The beverage is very hot — 
much too hot indeed to be generally pleasant for novices! 

The effect of the mate beverage is stimulating, restorative and diuretic, and 
because of these properties it is frequently prescribed for hospital use in countries 
in which it is otherwise practically unknown. An average analysis shows components 



THE GKOOEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 375 

very similar to that of tea and coffee, including an important percentage of their 
stimulating principle (Theine and Caffeine). 

More than 120,000,000 pounds of Mat^ are exported annually from Brazil, and 
5,000,000 pounds from Paraguay, to other sections of South America, but it has never 
found favor as an article of general consumption in other parts of the world. 

MATZOON: a fermented milk product. See Zoolak. 

MATZOTH. See Unleavened Bread in article on Bread. 

MAW-SEED: a title frequently applied to Poppy-seed (which see). 

MAY APPLE: the fruit of the Podophyllum peltatum, a woodland plant of the bar- 
berry genus, commonly known as the American Mandrake. The latter title is unfor- 
tunate, as the Mandrake proper, a plant growing in Mediterranean regions, is poison- 
ous and the connection of names has resulted in the May Apple also being popularly 
so considered — quite incorrectly, for it may be eaten freely with impunity. It deserves 
to be more generally known and used, its characteristic flavor being especially suitable 
for marmalades. 

MAYONNAISE: a sauce or salad dressing composed of raw egg yolks beaten up 
with olive oil to the consistence of thick cream and flavored with vinegar, mustard 
or lemon juice, etc. 

MAY-POP: the fruit of a small variety of the passion vine, growing wild in the 
South. It is excellent preserved, especially in jelly form. It is also known as the 
"May Apple," but that title is better reserved for the fruit of the "American Mandrake" 
(see May Apple). 

MAY-WINE, or "Maitranh" : a German drink of white wine, sugar and sliced 
oranges or pineapple, flavored with woodruff. In May and June it is a feature of 
country entertainments, prepared in a punch bowl with fresh woodruff or "Wald- 
meister." 

MEAD, or Honey Mead: a fermented liquor or "wine," formerly held in very high 
esteem but now seldom seen, made from a mixture of honey or syrup and spices, 
herbs, etc. 

MEAL: is any kind of grain coarsely ground, such as oatmeal, cornmeal, etc., 
described elsewhere under their respective headings. 

MEAL-WORM: the larva of a winged insect which frequently does much damage 
in granaries, mills and stores where meal and flour are stored. It is generally shiny 
in appearance and of pale brown color. Cleanliness and care are the only preven- 
tives against its depredations. 

Meal-worms are a favorite food for caged singing birds. 

MEASURES. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 



376 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

MEAT. In no one thing has the general consumer gained over his predecessors more 
than in the matter of fresh meats. It is not so many years ago that residents in small 
towns and country districts were dependent for fresh meat on an uncertain and fluc- 
tuating supply from the occasional or periodic slaughtering of one or two animals by 
local butchers — the result being that dried or salted meats were the mainstay of a 
large percentage of the population. To-day, owing to the many improvements in 
transportation, the invention of refrigerator-cars and other commercial developments, 
fresh meat can be obtained all the year round even in the most remote sections. 

Groceries and meats are a good combination for a retailer, provided that the store 
is so arranged and equipped that the two lines do not conflict. People must buy gen- 
eral groceries frequently, and if they can secure their meats at the same place, there 
will be a saving of time and convenience, which must, if well managed, result profitably 
to the merchant. 

It is, however, very unwise for a grocer to attempt to sell meats unless he has his 
store well fitted with proper refrigerators or cooling rooms, so that he can carry 
them without risk of deterioration. 

The arranging and handling of the stock in order to make the most favorable 
impression on the buyer, is also of the greatest importance. Nothing is more detri- 
mental to an establishment doing a critical business than dirty hands, bloody or soiled 
apron, greasy cloths and general untidiness on the part of the meat salesman. It is 
essential to hold in persistent remembrance the fact that the goods he is selling are 
those which customers expect to eat and that they should therefore be handled with 
scrupulous care and cleanliness. 

The dealer who slights or overlooks these leading principles, will find his better 
class of trade going to other stores where employees endeavor to please a customer's 
eyes as well as his palate. 

As a rule, it pays the grocer best to handle only the finer grades of meat. In sell- 
ing, it is advisable to get the poor cuts disposed of as speedily as possible — the prime 
parts usually sell without special effort. Prom the standpoint of profit, the customers 
who buy the cheaper parts are just as important as those who pay high prices for 
the best cuts. 

The correct temperature for the meat refrigerator or cooling room is a trifle above 
the freezing point — the result being "chilled" meat, which will remain in prime con- 
dition for a long time. Freezing or placing the meat in direct contact with the ice, 
results in loss of flavor. When meat has been frozen, it is best not to thaw it until 
near the time of actual use, as it spoils more easily than chilled meat. 

In hot weather, the great enemy of the butcher is the fly, which leaves its eggs 
in moist crevices of unprotected meat. The eggs hatch and become maggots with sur- 
prising rapidity, hence a keen watch is necessary in order to arrest their development. 
Their presence does not necessarily signify that the whole piece is bad, but it is 
imperative to cut off the part into which they have obtained access and to rub all the 
exposed surface with brine or vinegar. The best preventive is to keep all, or nearly 
all, the stock in the refrigerator, only taking it out as required to show or cut. 

The housewife who in warm weather finds that her meat has become tainted, can 
restore its freshness by cutting off and throwing the fat away and washing the lean 
in a solution of borax or bicarbonate of soda and cold water — a teaspoonful to a quart 
— and then sponging off with fresh water. 



THE grocer's ENOYOLOPEDIA 377 

A summer household preventive of taint is to wash all meat as received in vine- 
gar or to rub it over with salad oil. 

Following are the U. S. Department of Agriculture definitions of the various 
classifications of meat : 

Fresh meat is meat from animals recently slaughtered or preserved only by refrig- 
eration. 

Salted, pickled and smoked meats are unmixed meats preserved by salt, sugar, vine- 
gar, spices or smoke, singly or in combination, whether in bulk or in packages. 

Manufactured meats are meats not included in the preceding definition, whether 
simple or mixed, whole or comminuted, in bulk or packages, with or without 
the addition of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, smoke, oils or rendered fats. 

See also articles on Food Values, Beef, Lamb, Mutton, Veal, etc. 

MEAT EXTRACT: a term which in popular usage embraces several products differ- 
ing considerably in character. That best known and most widely used in the prepara- 
tion of "beef tea" is the commercial meat or beef extract obtained by simple boiling, 
straining and evaporation without the addition of other ingredients. It consists prin- 
cipally of "extractives," or meat flavor, together with a certain proportion of mineral 
salts. The fat is removed, as it would in time render the extract rancid, and nearly 
all the valuable albuminoids are also lost — they coagulate during the stewing of the 
meat and are strained off together with the flbrine, etc. Dry albumin is added to some 
preparations in the final processes, but no attempt is made to carry through the natural 
beef albumen as, under the conditions in which meat extract is ordinarily made, 
marketed and used, it would readily decompose and spoil the product. 

The extract should furthermore contain as little gelatine as possible — gelatine is 
so much lower in value that it is not profitable to buy it at the extract price! This 
loss is, though, not of much moment, as gelatine has comparatively little nutritive 
value. 

Meat extract of the type described, was formerly rated as a condensed food 
product of high nutritive value. That position has been entirely abandoned and it is 
now acknowledged that it is entirely inadequate to support life, but it has retained 
great importance in both the medical and commercial worlds on the more solid foun- 
dation of its indisputable merit as the basis of an agreeable and thoroughly whole- 
some beverage of mildly stimulating properties. Physicians find it a valuable adjunct 
in the care of invalids and convalescents, and its meaty taste often lends zest to the 
necessarily restricted diet of the sick room, exercising a highly beneficial effect by 
enabling the digestive organs to extract more nutriment from other foods. It is 
especially useful for mixing with milk — persons who cannot assimilate plain milk can 
nearly always digest it when flavored with a little beef extract. Its other uses 
include its employment in large quantities to give a relish to the condensed foods, such 
as those made from pease-meal, carried by army commissaries, and its similar famil- 
iar employment in the kitchen to enhance the flavor of soups, sauces, etc. It is worth 
remembering that extract of meat contains those flavoring properties to which is prin- 
cipally due the higher market value of the choice cuts. 

Many almost worthless preparations are, however, sold as "meat extracts" and it 
is advisable to confine purchases to houses of known reliability. 

For a number of years after its first introduction, the greater part of both the 
European and American supply came from the Argentine Republic, in which country 



378 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

the Liebig Company, the original manufacturer, established its first factory. The 
United States is now one of the principal producers. 

Home-Made Beef Tea, Meat Juices, etc. In contrast to that from commercial Meat 
Extract, home-made "beef tea," as generally prepared, is entitled to rank as both food 
and stimulant, as it contains a fair percentage of protein and fat, in addition to the 
gelatine and "extractives." 

Somewhat similar value attaches to properly made commercial preparations of 
meat juices or "meat extracts," obtained by pressure of the raw meat and then pre- 
served without cooking. 

A third class contains the soluble albumoses (peptoses) of the meat predigested — 
■i e., digested by artificial means. The best of these offer food values in important per- 
centages, but their use should be regulated by medical advice. 

In spite of the fact that most people enjoy — or at all events do not object to — the 
strong flavor of the best extracts, their taste and odor are sometimes found quite offen- 
sive by those possessing especially delicate palates. When this objection is found by 
a patient, it can be obviated to a considerable extent by putting a little butter, a 
piece of toast and plenty of salt in the hot beef tea. 

Beef tea should always be served hot — if drunk cold, or nearly so, its stimulating 
property is much reduced. 

Following are the standards for meat extracts and similar products adopted by the 
Association of State and National Dairy and Food Departments and the Association 
of Official Agricultural Chemists. 

(1) Meat Extract is the product obtained by extracting fresh meat with boiling 
water, and concentrating the liquid portion by evaporation after the removal of fat, 
and contains not less than 75% of total solids, of which not over 27% is ash and not 
over 12% is sodium chloride (calculated from the total chlorine present), not over 
0.6% is fat and not less than 8% is nitrogen. The nitrogenous compounds contain not 
Jess than 40% of meat bases, and not less than 10% of creatin (a compound found in 
muscular flesh) and creatinin. 

(2) Fluid Meat Extract is identical with meat extract, except that it is concen- 
trated to a lower degree, and contains not more than 75% and not less than 50% of 
total solids. 

(3) Bone Extract is the product obtained by extracting fresh trimmed bones 
with boiling water and concentrating the liquid portion by evaporation after removal 
of fat, and contains not less than 75% of total solids. 

(4) Fluid Bone Extract is identical with bone extract, except that it is concen- 
trated to a lower degree and contains not more than 75% and not less than 50% of total 
solids. 

( 5 ) Meat Juice is the fluid portion of muscle fibre, obtained by pressure or other- 
wise, and may be concentrated by evaporation at a temperature below the coagulating 
point of the soluble proteins. The solids contain not more than 15% of ash, not more 
than 2.5% of sodium chloride (calculated from the total chlorine present), not more 
than 4% nor less than 2% of phosphoric acid and not less than 12% of nitrogen. The 
nitrogenous bodies contain not less than 35% of coagulable proteins and not more than 
40% of meat bases. 

MEAT PASTES : are used for sandwiches and similar purposes. See Potted Meats. 




MU5KMELON 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



381 



MEDLAR: 







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a fruit which belongs to the apple and quince family, but looks more 

like a plum. It has the unusual charac- 
teristic that it is not edible until well 
past the ripe stage — the pulp is tender 
and of an agreeable sub-acid flavor when 
it commences to decay, whereas it is hard 
and bitter when ripe. It is eaten both 
raw and cooked. 

The juice of the raw fruit makes an 
excellent cold drink, and the flesh, cut up, 
is a pleasing addition to many mixed 
^,g^i,^^g fruit and other beverages. 

MELON. The principal divisions of the melon family are Watermelons, Citron melons 
(for preserving) and Muskmelons or "Cantaloupes." 

The Watermelon, which is supposed to be na- 
tive to Africa, is very extensively cultivated in all 
warm climates, in this country flourishing best on 
the warm soils of New Jersey and the Southern 
States. The numerous varieties differ consider- 
ably in coloring, shape and quality, but less atten- 
tion is paid to such matters than in almost any 
other fruit. All that the average consumer desires 
is fair size and red, ripe flesh. 

For consumption in the neighborhood of their 
growth, the thin-rind varieties are especially de- 
sirable, but for general market purposes the thick- 
rind types are preferable, as they stand transporta- 
tion better. See Color Page facing 388. Gathering cantaloupes, near Buffalo, N. Y. 

The watermelon is popularly known by its green exterior and red flesh. There 
are, however, several kinds distinguished by their bright yellow flesh, the flavor and 
other characteristics being practically the same. 

The white inside rinds are in the West largely prepared as a sweet pickle. 

The Citron Melon is small, nearly round, with variegated shell and seedy flesh. 
It resembles the watermelon in the general appearance of the outside rind. It is not 
edible raw, but it forms a good base for preserves when boiled in syrup strongly 
flavored with lemon or ginger or both, etc. 

Muskmelons were formerly divided into Cantaloupes, which term included only 
the furroiwed, hard rind varieties, and Nutmegs or Netted melons — the netted soft rind 
types. General usage now tends to use the word "cantaloupe" as a class title for all 
kinds, distinguishing different types by style or locality prefixes. 

The best varieties are the result of much experimentation in crossing. The "Kocky 
Ford" is, perhaps, the most noted of the present types. It originated in the vicinity of 
Rocky Ford, Otero County, Colorado, but it is now extensively grown elsewhere, 
especially in the Carolinas and Georgia. 

A perfect Rocky Ford Cantaloupe should be about four and a half inches long and 
a little less in diameter. The Color Page opposite page 378 gives a good idea of its 




COPyRIGIlT, KETBTONE VIEW CO. 



382 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

general appearance. The silver-gray netting should stand out like thick, heavy lace, 
almost entirely covering the melon, excepting only the strongly marked slate-colored 
stripes running the entire length and terminating in a small "button." The ground- 
work of the skin should be light olive-green, turning slightly yellow as it ripens. The 
flesh should be thick, firm and smooth — never watery in appearance — and rich and 
melting in flavor. Near the rind the flesh should be dark green, shading lighter 
towards the seed part, which should be orange or salmon in color. The flesh is often 
mottled with the salmon hue and sometimes assumes it altogether. The seed cavity 
should be small and well filled with seeds or it will not ship or keep well. 

Among other well known varieties are the Nutmeg, Osage and Baltimore. The last 
named is one of the most popular of the especially long varieties found in season in 
a majority of the best hotels, restaurants and homes of the larger cities. It is a thick, 
green, fleshy type of oval form and excellent flavor. 

The first outdoor cantaloupes begin to reach the northern markets from Florida 
during the latter part of May. The crops from other Southern States follow in succes- 
sion northward, immense quantities coming from Georgia, Texas, Arkansas, Carolina, 
Virginia, etc. The first Rocky Fords from Colorado are generally shipped about the 
first week in August, the season from that place lasting about two months. 

As the cantaloupe is very perishable, it should be carefully handled. In purchas- 
ing, the housewife should avoid overripe, soft and bruised specimens. 

Imported and Winter Melons. Among the "fancy" varieties of melons sold in the 
East are the: 

"Golden" or "Egyptian" melon — imported from Egypt and received usually during 
the months of November, December and January. It weighs from ten to twenty 
pounds and is shaped like a long, narrow watermelon but has a yellow skin and flesh 
somewhat like that of a Rocky Ford cantaloupe. 

Spanish Melon — imported generally from November to February, principally from 
the West Indies. It weighs from five to ten pounds and is rather more oval than round, 
the skin dark-green with bronze marks and the flesh yellow and very sweet. 

French Melon — imported from June to September. It is shorter and broader than 
the Egyptian melon, weighing up to seven pounds, the skin rather heavily ribbed 
and netted like a nutmeg melon, with yellowish flesh. 

Canadian Melon — received from August to the end of October. It is similar to the 
French melon, but weighing up to ten pounds, and the flesh varying from green to 
yellow. The choicest are grown in the vicinity of Montreal, their delicacy being 
attributed to special soil characteristics. 

California Melon — in season from December 1 to the middle of January. It is simi- 
lar to the Canadian melon and of about the same size. The inside flesh is generally a 
light green. 

English Queen — a hot-house variety from England, weighing up to seven pounds, 
the skin netted and both skin and flesh yellowish. 

Pomegranate Melon: a small, green -rind mottled melon about the size of an 
orange. The inside is pink and contains a plentiful supply of small seeds. 

MELON D'ORPAGON, or Petit Melon dVrpagon : a tiny seedless green melon about 
the size of a walnut, grown in Orpagon, France. They are put up in vinegar and have 
an agreeable sweetish-sour flavor. 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 383 



MELON FRUIT: a local title for the North American Papaw (which see). 

MELON PEAR: another name for the Pepino (which see). 

MELON THISTLE, Melocactus : a cactus which takes its name from the resemblance 
of many varieties to huge muskmelons — the plants consisting of deeply ridged, round 
bodies, one to two feet in height. It is also called the Turk's Cap, as in the center 
of the top is a crown of spines filled with woolly fibrous matter, the flowers appearing 
half-way through the upper surface. The small pear-like fruit is in many cases edible 
and of agreeable flavor. The body of the "melon" is full of succulent matter, which is 
eagerly sought by cattle in times of drought. 

MENHADEN: a fish somewhat resembling the shad, very plentiful along the North 
Atlantic coast. It is seldom eaten but is valuable commer- 
cially for the oil extracted, marketed as Menhaden Oil, and the 
residue is in demand as fertilizer. 




METRIC SYSTEM. See tables of Weights and Measures 

in Appendix. Menhaden 

MEXICAN STRAWBERRY: the fruit of a member of the Echinocactus or Hedge- 
hog Cactus family, of salmon color, about two inches long and one inch in diameter. 
It is much sweeter than the ordinary cactus fruit and the entire pulp is readily 
eaten, as the seeds, unlike those of the Prickly Pear, are as small as strawberry seeds. 
The Hedgehog Cactus takes its name from the long spines which cover its gen- 
erally globose or oval body. The plants often reach enormous size and many of them 
bear large showy flowers of great beauty. The spines are used in Mexico as toothpicks 
and for various other purposes. 

MICRO-ORGANISMS or Microbes. Within the scope of this subject come a large 
number of minute forms of vegetable life of the fungi order. Those which affect human 
foods and digestion may be divided into three classes under the titles of Molds, Yeast 
and Bacteria. The appearance of Molds, or moldiness, is familiar to everyone. Teasts 
are too small for single specimens to be seen without the aid of a microscope, but in 
a mass, of hundreds of thousands or millions, they are handled by the general public 
in the form of yeast cakes. Bacteria are still more minute and the average consumer 
never attains a personal acquaintance with them, but the effects of their existence are 
observable all around him. Molds propagate by means of spores or seed dust; Yeasts 
produce new cells by "budding," and Bacteria principally by the division of mature 
cells. With a few exceptions. Molds seem to serve no good purpose in the human food 
supply. Yeasts are responsible for all kinds of fermentation (as popularly under- 
stood), both desirable and otherwise. To Bacteria is due much of the enjoyable flavor 
of many of our foods, but their uncontrolled presence is the cause of all real putrefac- 
tion and decay. 

Mold spores and Yeast and Bacteria cells are present everywhere — the middle of 
the ocean, the center of a desert and regions of extreme cold alone excepted — and are 
especially numerous in the vicinity of human habitations. Any food into which they fall, 
if it affords suitable soil and temperature, is speedily rendered unfit for human use — in 



384 



THE GROCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



spite of their value under certain conditions — hence the danger of exposing foods to 
the atmosphere, the advisability of the speedy consumption of fresh foods and the 
importance of the cold-storage and canning industries. It is not any poisonous qual- 
ity in the microbes themselves that accomplishes the damage — for with a few excep- 
tions they are entirely harmless to the human system — but their growth, multiplica- 
tion and life in food, change and break down its chemical structure and render it 
unsuitable and finally unfit for use. Cold storage retards the growth of all micro- 
organisms, and canning may be briefly described as the science of destroying by 
sterilization all those contained in the food used, and preventing by hermetical seal- 
ing the entrance of any others. 

Special articles on each of these three classes of microbes will be found under their 
respective titles — Bacteria, Molds, Yeasts. 

The word "mold" is not an accepted botanical expression, but it is employed as 
a useful term, widely used and understood, for describing the thread-like, branching 
fungi, the largest of the micro-organisms referred to in this article, which produce 
"moldiness." "Yeast" and "Bacteria," as here employed, are true botanical terms. 

MIDDLINGS : coarse particles of the wheat grain, the residual product in the "bolt- 
ing" of flour. It was formerly used only as stock feed, but is now recognized as the 
most valuable part of the grain because of its high percentage of gluten. See Farina. 

MIGNONETTE PEPPER: a term applied to peppercorns coarsely ground. 



MILK. The value of milk as an article ol food is clearly shown by the fact that it 
is sufficient to support, and to increase the growth of, the young of every species of 
mammalia. Examined by a microscope, it is seen as a transparent fluid in which float 
numbers of extremely minute transparent globules, consisting of fat surrounded by 
an albuminous envelope — its whitish, almost opaque appearance is an optical illusion. 

Cow's milk — which is in this country exclusively understood by the general 
title of "milk," though in some parts of the world the milk of goats, ewes, mares and 
various other animals forms an important part of the human diet — varies in compo- 
sition from 84% to 90% water and 10% to 16% "solids." The solids include from 2% 
to 7% fat, 21/2% to 41/2% casein, 2% to 6% 
sugar, a small amount of albumin, and small 
quantities of "ash" or salts of various kinds. 

The Fat when extracted is what we know 
as Butter. The Casein is the main principle of 
Cheese. The Sugar, or "lactose," has the same 
chemical composition as the ordinary sugar of 
commerce, but is not so sweet. 

The law generally requires from 3% to 
31/2% fat, and 8% to 9% of other solids. U. 8. 
Standard Milk contains not less than 8i/4% of 
solids not fat, nor less than 3i/4% of milk fat. 
Some milks will reach a fat percentage of 10%, 
but this is very unusual, the amount rarely ex- 
ceeding 7%. The mixed milk of a large cream- 
ery seldom goes above 5% or below 3%. 

A Milk Pasteurizer 



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THE grocery's encyclopedia 385 

Pasteurized MilJc is milk that has been heated — below boiling but to a degree suf- 
ficiently high to kill all pathogenic bacteria — and immediately cooled to 50° Fahr. or 
lower, to retard the development of any remaining organisms. 

Sterilized Milk is milk that hag been heated to the temperature of boiling water, 
or higher, and held at that point long enough to kill all organisms present, or that has 
been repeatedly pasteurized. 

Modified or Blended Milk is milk modified in its composition so as to have a defi- 
nite and stated percentage of one or more of its constituents. 

Cream is milk containing a large percentage of the fat globules, generally from 
15% to 25%. It is obtained by centrifugal separation or by permitting the globules 
to rise by leaving the milk undisturbed for a number of hours. 

Skim Milk is that from which a part or all of the cream (fat) has been removed. 
v. S. Standard Skim Milk contains not less than 9i/4% of milk solids. 

"Sour Milk" is the result of the formation of lactic acid by the development of 
lactic bacteria (see article on Bacteria). In spite of the general prejudice against it, 
it is a thoroughly wholesome drink, for the lactic acid prevents for a time the action 
of other bacteria which would speedily bring about putrefaction. In Europe, milk 
is commonly soured in cellars for use, especially in summer, as a popular and refresh- 
ing beverage. 

Buttermilk (which see) is the product that remains when butter is removed from 
milk or cream in the process of churning. 

Milk Tests. Generally speaking, pure milk is of a slightly yellowish-white color, 
with little or no odor, and of a distinctly sweet and fresh taste. If allowed to stand 
for several hours, cream should rise naturally and should form from one-eighth to 
one-fifth of the total volume, and no sediment should be left in the vessel. In "rich" 
milk the proportion of cream may be as high as one-quarter. When poured from a 
tumbler, the milk should cling to the glass a little instead of running off clean like 
water. 

Artificial coloring generally consists of annatto or coal-tar dyes. If any consid- 
erable quantity is used, its presence can generally be detected by noting the appear- 
ance of the milk when the cream has risen in the bottle. The natural color of milk 
is confined largely to the cream and there is consequently a noticeable difference 
between the color of the pure cream and that of the milk below it — the latter pre- 
sents a bluish tinge. Artificial colors will generally tint also the milk below the cream. 

There are several instruments in use to detect adulteration and ascertain the 
comparative richness of milk, prominent among them being the Lactometer and the 
Babcock Test (which see), but trained judgment is necessary to obtain conclusive 
results because of the variation in milk from different sources and at different seasons. 

Care of Milk. Milk should be kept at a low temperature, below 50° Fahr., and apart 

from all articles of strong smell. Every receptacle employed in handling it should 
be scrupulously clean. The necessity for absolute cleanliness in its care should 
be impressed particularly upon those who have the care of children. 

Many glass jars are sent to the grocer's for milk with a dingy coating on the 
inside — this is inviting sickness. Glass receptacles of any kind which have held milk, 
should be first thoroughly rinsed in cold water and then washed in hot water to which 
a little ammonia has been added. 

See also article on Condensed Milk. 



386 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MILK CHOCOLATE. See article on Cocoa and Chocolate. 

MILK POWDER: is desiccated milk, either "whole" or "skim," sold in bulk and 
canned. It is used principally by bakers and manufacturers of milk chocolate. 
"Whole milk" powder contains from 25% to 27% fat, 30% to 32% protein and 30% to 
32% milk sugar. 

MILK SUGAR: is made from the whey obtained from cheese factories, or by 
coagulating skim milk. The whey is digested with aluminum hydroxide and chalk 
and then filtered, the liquid obtained being concentrated to a syrup and stood in 
copper-lined tubs to crystallize, chips of wood being added to and immersed in it. The 
crystals which are deposited on the chips are considered the finest quality ; those form- 
ing on the sides of the vessel are secondary in commercial importance. Milk sugar is 
produced principally in Switzerland and is largely used in the preparation of homeo- 
pathic remedies and in infants' foods. 

MILK WEED or Milk Vetch: the general title of a widely distributed family of 
plants, growing wdld in many sections, whose young shoots and leaves are excellent 
cooked as "greens." The shoots are generally marketed in bundles like asparagus. 
They are best in the early spring and are especially tender if blanched or grown in 
shady locations. 

MILLET: is the smallest of the grains but is very abundant in product, each plant hav- 
ing a number of stalks and a single head sometimes giving two 
ounces of seed. Common Millet, the variety chiefly cultivated 
in this country, is broadly divided into Brown and Yellow grain. 
The former, used in the same manner as rice, makes good pud- 
dings, but the greater part of the domestic crop of all types is 
used as green fodder. The ripe seeds are also valuable as poul- 
try food. 

Imported millet — in Germany and Italy consumed in large 
quantities in soups and other forms — is of smaller grain types 
than Common Millet. The Yellow Italian is used here to some 
extent for puddings, but the bulk of the supply is retailed as food 
for cage birds. 

Another variety, known as Guinea Maize, is common in Peru, furnishing there 
white flour of very pleasing flavor. 

MILT: the soft (male) roe of fish. 




Millet 



MINCE-MEAT. The season for mince-meat opens about October 1, and continues as 
long as the cold weather. It is important to have a supply on hand before the actual 
demand sets in, rather than after it. In common with all mixed articles, it may be 
variously prepared, and much that is offered is so poor that most families prefer to 
prepare their own supplies. Several leading manufacturers, however, put up goods 
which cannot be excelled — their fruit is cleaned and handled by machinery and the 
other components also are selected and prepared with scrupulous exactness. Such 
products may be recommended as a great convenience under many circumstances. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 387 



MINERAL WATERS: are waters whicb contain unusually large quantities of the 
ordinary mineral ingredients, or contain minerals not generally found in ordinary 
water. They are roughly divided into "table" and "medicinal," but the division is not 
exact, as many of the milder and more delicate types are used for both purposes. 

Table Mineral Waters are those which have little or no pronounced flavor and 
are only sufficiently alkaline to counteract to a certain extent the acids of wines, etc. 
Among the best known are Apollinaris, Olysmic, Poland Spring, Perrier, White Rock, 
etc. A greater proportion of mineral ingredients detracts from the palatable flavor 
of the water and also renders it unsuitable for mixing with wines, as it gives the 
beverage a "flat" taste. 

Table mineral waters generally constitute an especially satisfactory line for retail 
grocers, both in margin of profit and because they draw a good class of trade. They 
are easy to handle if kept in a cool place and laid on their sides. 

Medicinal Mineral Waters are those employed in the treatment of various dis- 
orders and diseases. They have been used as remedial agents from a very early period — 
the old Greek physicians had great faith in their curative powers, and the temples 
erected to Aesculapius were usually in close proximity to mineral springs. They may 
be generally classed as A ;fca?ine-SfaMne^ Carlsbad, Marienbad, etc.; Alkaline, Vichy, 
etc. ; Muriated, Saratoga, Kissingen, etc. ; Muriated Alkaline, Selters, etc. ; Llthia; 
"Bitter," Pullna, etc. (named from the flavors of their chief ingredients, sulphates of 
soda and magnesia), Chaly'beate (containing iron) and Earthy (bicarbonates of lime 
and magnesia predominating). 

The medical qualities of various mineral waters are undeniable — plainly so in the 
case of purgative waters and those containing lithia and iron — but the apparent effi- 
cacy of many kinds is attributable chiefly to the fact that in "taking the waters," 
visitors to the "springs" are drinking large quantities of innocuous liquid — stimulated 
to its free use by the example of others, local medical advice, etc. The result is fre- 
quently a very desirable improvement in physical condition, but the same pur- 
pose might have been achieved at home by the consumption of an equal quantity of 
ordinary pure water! 

Artificial Mineral Waters are, if properly made, chemically correct reproductions 
of the waters whose names they bear. If from a first-class house they can be fully 
recommended, but it is wise to avoid dealing with irresponsible "mineral water" con- 
cerns, for their product is too often a fraud on both dealer and consumer. 

The following list names the sources and principal ingredients of a majority of 
the best known waters, both table and medicinal : 

Aix-la-Chapelle^ from warm springs at Aix-la-Chapelle, Prussia. Contains a 
considerable percentage of common salt and other sodium salts and sulphur. 

Aix-les-Bains, from warm springs at Aix-les-Bains, Savoy, France. Contains mag- 
nesium, calcium and sodium (sulphates and carbonates). Employed externally for 
skin diseases, gout, rheumatism, etc. 

Apenta, an aperient water from the Apenta Springs, near Budapest, Hungary. 
Its principal constituents are sulphates of magnesia and soda. Sold both sparkling 
and still. 

Apollinaris, an effervescent table water from the Apollinaris Spring, Ahr Valley, 
Rhenish Prussia. Drawn from a rocky source at a depth of 50 feet. 

Ballston Spa, from Ballston, N. Y. An effervescent water, tonic and cathar- 
tic, containing common salt and carbonates of magnesium and calcium. 



388 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Bear-Lithia^ from Bear-Lithia Springs, Va. Contains carbonates of calcium and 
magnesium, etc. Used both as a table water and in the treatment of kidney trouble. 

Bethesda, from Waukesha, Wis. Effervescent and mildly impregnated. Used as 
a table water and as a diuretic. 

Blue Lick^ from Blue Lick Springs, Ky. Contains sulphur and salt and possesses 
cathartic properties. 

BoKERT, from Bokert Springs, De Soto County, Missouri. Used in the treatment 
of kidney trouble. 

Buffalo Lithia^ from Buffalo Lithia Springs, Va. Contains sulphuric anhy- 
dride, lithia, etc. Used in the treatment of digestive and kidney disorders, etc. 

Carlsbad, from warm springs in Carlsbad, Bohemia. Sulphated and strongly 
charged with carbon-dioxide. Employed for rheumatism, gout, etc. 

Clysmic, from Waukesha, Wis. A sparkling table water of which calcium car- 
bonate is the chief ingredient. Also used as a diuretic. 

CONTREXfiviLLE, from Contreseville, Prance. A light mineralized water, contain- 
ing sodium, magnesium and calcium. Used as a laxative and diuretic. 

Friedrichshall, from Saxony, Germany. Contains sodium, magnesium and cal- 
cium. Used as a tonic and mild purgative. 

Hathorn. See Saratoga. 

HuNYADi Janos, from Budapest, Hungary. Contains sodium and magnesium sul- 
phates and possesses cathartic properties. 

JoHANNis-LiTHiA, from Zollhaus, Rhenish Prussia. Contains an average of two 
grains of lithia to a quart. Used in the treatment of kidney disorders, etc. 

KissiNGEN, from Kissengen, Bavaria. A slightly laxative water used for disorders 
of the liver and the alimentary canal. 

LoNDONDERRY-LiTHiA, from Londonderry Lithia Springs, N. H. Used as a table 
water and in the treatment of kidney troubles. Sold both sparkling and still. 

Manitou, from Manitou Springs, Colo. Impregnated with alkalies and iron. 
Used as a tonic and cathartic. 

Marienbad, from Marienbad, Bohemia. Used in the same way as Carlsbad. 

Perrier, an effervescent table water from springs near Vergaze, in the south of 
France. 

Poland Spring, from South Poland, Me Only slightly mineral. Used as a table 
water and as a diuretic. 

PULLNA, a strongly purgative Bohemian water. 

Rhens, an effervescent, mildly alkaline table water from Rhens-on-the-Rhine. 

Richfield Springs, from Richfield Springs, N. Y. Contains sulphur and is used 
in the treatment of skin diseases, rheumatism, etc. 

RuBiNAT-CoNDAL, from the Spanish Pyrenees. The principal ingredient is sodium, 
with minor quantities of magnesium and calcium. Used as an aperient. 

Saratoga, a general name for a number of waters from Saratoga Springs, N. Y., 
including Hathorn, etc., some used for tonic and others for laxative purposes. 

Selters or Seltzer, from Nieder-Selters, Prussia. Contains chiefly common salt 
and smaller quantities of carbonates of magnesium, calcium and sodium. 

Sharon Springs, from Sharon Springs, N. Y. A sulphur water used for the treat- 
ment of skin diseases, rheumatism, etc. 

St. Galmier, an effervescent table water from St. Galmier, Canton of Loire, 
Prance. The principal mineral ingredients are sodium and calcium. 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



391 



Taunus Spring. Sometimes used as a class name for a number of mineral waters 
from the Taunus Mountains, Germany, including Ems, Wiesbaden, Selters, etc. 

Teplitz, from warm springs at Teplitz, Austria. The most noteworthy prin- 
ciple is carbonate of sodium, with ti'aces of magnesium and iron. 

Vals^ from Vals, France. Contains sodium, calcium and magnesium. Used in the 
treatment of dyspepsia and skin diseases and as a diuretic. 

Vichy, from warm springs in Vichy, France. Contains sodium, potassium and cal- 
cium, etc., and minute quantities of arsenic and iron. Used in the treatment of rheu- 
matism, kidney and intestinal disorders, etc. 

ViTTEL^ from Vittel, France. Used both as a medicinal water and for special 
baths. Thei'e are three main springs — the water of La Grande Source is used as a 
diuretic; that of Marie, as a purgative, and of Des Demoiselles, as a tonic. 

White Sulphur Springs, from White Sulphur Springs, W. Va. A sulphur water 
employed in the treatment of skin diseases, catarrhal disorders of the digestion, etc. 

Wiesbaden^ from warm springs in Wiesbaden, Prussia. Contains a considerable 
percentage of saline matter and is employed for skin diseases, gout, etc. 

Yellow Sulphur Springs, from Yellow Sulphur Springs, Va. A cathartic water 
containing lime salts and sulphates. 

■ White Eock^ an effervescent table water from Waukesha, Wis. 



MINT: a general name for a large number of perennial plants, the best known of 
which are Peppermint, Spearmint and Pennyroyal, cultivated chiefly for the essential 
oil which contains their aromatic and medicinal principles. 

About 90% of the supply of P eppermint and Spearmint oils is 
produced and distilled in an area which has the city of Kalama- 
zoo, Mich., for its center and within a seventy-five miles radius from 
that city. Their chief uses are in medicine, confectionery, chew- 
ing-gum, liqueurs (as Creme de Menthe), etc. The annual consump- 
tion of Peppermint is about 300,000 pounds; that of Spearmint 
about 25,000 pounds. Spearmint leaves are also used for mint- 
sauce and other culinary purposes and for the flavoring of bever- 
ages such as Mint Julep. 

Penvi/royal was at one time extensively employed medicinally, 
but it is now grown only in comparatively small quantities and is 
iised almost exclusively for seasoning. 

For oil extraction, the plants are cut down when mature and 
in full bloom, and allowed to cure like hay. They go next into 
large wooden vats through which steam is forced, the heat ruptur- 
ing the oil cells and permitting the oil to escape with the steam. 
The oil is separated after the condensation of the steam. 

Dried iMiut is retailed in packages, bottles and cans. It should always be kept 
in a dry place. 

Mint is easily groAvn under almost any conditions and is a heavy producer — a bed 
three feet square will give a surprisingly large quantity. If to be used as a dried herb, 
it is best to cut the stalks just prior to full bloom and to spread them out in a shady 
location where they can dry slowly. 




Spearmint 



Mint Extract. U. S. Standard mint extract contains not less than 3% of mint oil. 



392 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MIXED-PICKLES : a vinegar pickle which includes a yariety of vegetables, as cauli- 
flower, onions, etc. 

MOCK-TURTLE (thick) : a strong flavored soup now sold in cans, containing diced 
calf's head meat, etc., in a thickened brown soup stock, flavored with various vege- 
tables, herbs and spices, lemon juice, Madeira or sherry, etc. Clear Mock-Turtle is 
similar in flavor and character ingredients, but the liquid is of consomme type. 

MOLASSES: is the syrup, or, as it is termed in the districts where it is manufac- 
tured, the "mother-water," that is separated from the crystals or grains of "raw 
sugar" in the process of manufacture (see article on Sugar). It is also widely, but 
incorrectly, applied to burnt Sugar-house Syrup or "black-strap," the uncrystallizable 
residue left after boiling molasses to extract additional sugar from it. TJ. 8. 
Standard Molasses contains not more than 257° water nor more than 5% ash. 

The quality of molasses depends on the color, strength and treatment of the raw 
sugar from which it is obtained. The best is that from sugar made from the first 
crops collected previous to the copious periodical rains which occur where the cane 
is cultivated. It is generally of dark-brown color, but the best grades, those pro- 
duced in St. Croix, Barbados, Antigua, Porto Eico and Louisiana, are of bright amber 
tint. The choicest qualities are listed commercially by the name of the place of 
production ; ordinary types are graded as "open-kettle," prime, good, fair, common, etc. 

In addition to its consumption in its natural condition and in various degrees of 
refining, large quantities of molasses are used in the manufacture of rum. 

MOLASSES SUGAR: a trade term for the sugar obtained by boiling the molasses 
separated in the first manufacture of "raw sugar" (see article on Sugar). 

MOLD, or Mould : the common name for several varieties of minute, thread-like fungi 
which reproduce themselves by spores or seed dust. They grow on almost anything 
that is moist or damp and secluded from direct light-rays, but they flourish best on 
soft articles, such as bread, cheese, fruits, etc., which permit the threads to strike 
down into them. On harder substances, such as leather, they achieve only a stunted 
growth and are then popularly known as "mildew." Dampness, warmth and seclu- 
sion are the principal incentives for their growth — so dryness, low temperature and 
good air circulation form the best preventives. 

Molds especially favor acid foods, hence their predilection for many fruits and 
the fact that even pickles put up in strong vinegar will mold if exposed to the air, 
though they are, until "moldy," entirely exempt from the growth of yeasts or bacteria. 

Absolutely dry foods, as flour, crackers, etc., kept in a dry temperature, afford 
no soil for Molds — but any moisture in the air will speedily render them liable to 
invasion. 

Special varieties of Mold are used in the ripening of Brie, Camembert, Gorgon- 
zola, Roquefort, Stilton and similar cheese, but with this exception, they are not gen- 
erally employed in the manufacture or preparation of food. Their propagation and 
growth — as of all micro-organisms — should always in any event be prevented by 
retailers and in the household. 

During their first growth, Molds are generally soft and fiuffy in appearance and 
white in color. As they develop and the threads stretch down into the article in 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 393 



which they have taken root and branch out in all directions, the surface and other 
parts most affected soon present a dense mass. When they commence to "fruit" and 
form seeds, the general surface is changed to various colors— blue, brown, white, etc. 
— the most common being the bluish-green of the Blue Mold which particularly 
affects bread, cheese and other foods, as well as many other articles. 

If allowed to continue its growth, Mold destroys the food by its own consumption 
and with the aid of bacteria, but in its early stages it does not render it unwholesome. 
The appearance of decay and the musty smell are unpleasant to the eye and nose, but 
Mold has not the putrefactive qualities of bacterial life and if the affected part 
is removed before the growth has continued too long and the remainder is subjected 
to baking or boiling, according to individual circumstances, the food can often be 
saved for use. 

Mold spore is present everywhere. Moderately dry food can be saved from its 
growth by the exercise of proper care, unless the climate or surroundings are 
especially damp, but articles such as fruits, which are inherently moist and which 
cannot be frozen without injury, are very difficult to hold in a raw condition for 
any considerable length of time. Cold storage is the only sure protection, and then 
in many cases for only a limited term. 

Thick-skinned fruits, such as apples, oranges, etc., may be kept for a compara- 
tively long time without cold storage facilities if the conditions are favorable — if they 
have not been bruised, so as to let the mold get through the skin, if the cellar or other 
storage place is dry, cool and well ventilated, and if imperfect fruits are promptly 
removed and others are occasionally wiped off to remove mold spores and sweat. All 
these precautions are, though, insufficient for thin-skinned fruits, and the last is, of 
course, impracticable in the case of berries and other small fruits, the only recourse 
being to consume them as fresh as possible or to make them into sauces, jams or some 
other form of preserves. 

MOLLUSCA: a division of the animal kingdom, which includes all invertebrate 
shellfish (see Shellfish). 

MOOR-FOWL: a bird of the grouse family, also known as the Red Grouse. It 
is about the size of a small bantam hen, with upper plumage a deep varying olive- 
brown, front of scarlet and under-parts of grey and white, shading to pure white 
under the tail. 

MOREL: an edible fungus, botanically of the truffle family, but from its habit of 
growth generally classed as a mushroom (see Mushrooms). 

MORTADELLI: a large, smoked Italian sausage. See Sausages. 

MOSELLE WINES, See article on Rhine and Moselle Wines. 

MOSS: a class of small herbaceous plants, the term being generally applied to a 
number growing together in a mass. The title is also popularly extended to similar 
growths of other types, particularly to some Lichens and Seaweeds. 

Among the "mosses" valuable as food, the best known are Iceland Moss (which 
see), a lichen; Ceylon Moss (see Kanten) and Irish Moss (see Carragheen), 



394 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the last two being seaweeds. "Moss" or "Sea Moss" Farina is a prepared granulated 
food in which lichen or seaweed is the principal ingredient. 

Moss is also employed by cooks and confectioners instead of isinglass, and by 
painters to make their size. 

MOULD: a popular spelling of Mold (which see). 

MUCILAGE: an adhesive substance prepared from the exudations of various trees 
and plants (see Gum), from linseed, marshmallow roots, onions, etc., by the addition 
generally of an alkali solution. The same result can be obtained by long boiling in 
water. 

A very serviceable mucilage can easily be made from onion juice — after a short 
boiling, a good-sized Spanish onion will readily yield on pressure a large quantity 
of very adhesive fluid. This product is used extensively in various trades for pasting 
paper on tin or zinc or even glass, its tenacity being surprisingly great and equalling 
the result of many of the more costly patent cements. Some of the cements sold by 
street fakirs at ten cents a bottle consist of nothing but onion juice and water — 
the bottle and cork cost a great deal more than the contents! 

MUGWORT: a tall perennial herb 
with woolly leaves, formerly popular, 
both fresh and dried, as seasoning and for 
flavoring beverages. 

MULBERRY: a berry very popular in 
Europe and very plentiful, but not quite 
so highly considered in this country. It 
is both wholesome and agreeable eaten 
raw, and is excellent for cooking, especi- 
ally when mixed with some more acid 
fruit as apples, rhubarb, etc., in pies and 
puddings. 

The Common or Black Mulberry, of 
which the big French Black Mulberry is 
the highest type, is a low tree of bushy 
growth, the fruit purplish-black, with 
dark red juice, decidedly aromatic and of 
sub-acid SAveet flavor. 

Another desirable variety is the cul- 
tivated Bed Mulberry. 

The White Mulberry has not the fine 
flavor of the other two varieties, but it is 
widely grown for silk worm food, its 
leaves being generally preferred to those 
of the Black and Bed trees. 

French Black Mulberry 

MULLET. There are two principal varieties of the fish known as Mullet — the Red 
and the Grejj or "fiiriped." The former, so named for the coppery color of the upper 



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THE grocer's encyclopedia 395 

pai't of its body, is found most plentifully iu the Indo-Pacific, but also to some 
extent in Europe, where it is so highly considered for its firm, lean and delicious 
tlesh that it brings high prices. It has indeed ahvays been esteemed one of the 
epicure's greatest luxuries — in ancient Rome it was held in the most extravagant 
regard among wealthy patricians, good-sized specimens frequently fetching the value 
of their weight in gold. 

The Grey Mullet, with upper body of grey or greenish hue, is less delicate in 
flavor and larger in size, averaging from five to six pounds market weight and reach- 
ing ten to twelve on maturity. In this country it is found on the Atlantic Coast and 
is in season from June to October. 

MULLIGATAWNY: a highly seasoned, thick, East-Indian- type soup, of which 
curry-poAvder is the essential "character" ingredient. Meats, vegetables, mango chut- 
ney, cocoanut flesh, rice, cayenne pepper, etc., are variously employed and blended to 
suit the ideas of the cook or canner. The title is derived from two native words 
signifying "pepper water." 

MUM: a strong sweetish beer, named after one Mumme, a brewer of Brunswick, 
Germany, who introduced it in the year 1402. It was a beverage of general European 
popularity until toward the close of the seventeenth century and is still largely con- 
sumed in Germany, especially in Brunswick. 

MUSCADIN, or BullacG Grape: the cultivated Fox Grape, tlie largest variety of 
American grape, growing freely in the Southern States and Mexico. The highest type 
is the SCUPPERNONG (which see). 

MUSCALLONGE, Maskalonge, Mashinonge : a large fresh-water fish resembling the 

pike, frequently weighing forty pounds and upward, in season 
from June to December. The White Muscallonge is generally 
considered the choicer, but some people prefer the somewhat 
coarser flesh of the Yellow variety. 

MUSCAT, Muscatel: a rich grape, variously employed — for table purposes, both 
fresh and as raisins, and in wine and brandy manufacture. There are many varieties 
under cultivation, both "white" and red, the former being the more common. 

The title is also applied to numerous sweet, strong, generally aromatic wines, 
varying in color from pale to tawny, prepared eitlier wholly or in part from jMuscat 
grapes — in France (see Rivesaltes), Italy. Austria-Hungary, Greece, Spain, United 
States and many other countries. 

There is also a fine variety of pear known by tlie same title. 

MUSCOVADO SUGAR: a trade designation for the "raw sugar" separated from 
cane juice other than by centrifugal machines (see article on Sugar). 

MUSH: the name generally given to cornmeal poi'ridge, either eaten hot or left to 
cool and afterwards fried in slices. It is now prepared and supplied to the trade in 
tin pans holding about five pounds each. As the store article insures against lumpi- 
ness, burning, etc., the product enjoys a good sale in some sections. 




396 THE GROCER^S E-N CYCLOPEDIA 

MUSHROOMS : both in their own varieties and by general custom, in this country 
especially, present a curiously interesting study in contradictions. By the quantities 
which grow wild, and by the ease with which they may be raised, they would seem 
to be a food especially useful to the poor — instead, it is chiefly the well-to-do who eat 
them. They are overlooked or distrusted by country residents who can have them for 
the picking — yet epicures and the wealthier classes in the cities pay high prices for 
them and consider them delicious luxuries ! 

The general explanation is, that the majority are afraid of mushrooms because of 
the poisonous fungi which resemble them — yet many tribes of savages who are certainly 
not more intelligent in other respects, appreciate them and devour them in great quan- 
tities — the natives of Terra del Fuego, for example, live almost exclusively on mush- 
rooms and fish. 

Again, though mushrooms have been cultivated for at least two thousand years, 
and have been for generations raised in enormous and ever-increasing quantities in 
France, . Italy, Eussia, Australia, New Zealand and other countries, for home 
consumption and export, it is only ^within recent years that intelligible information 
concerning their growth has been generally obtainable here — there existed formerly 
an air of mystery on the subject, as though mushroom cultivation were a cross 
between accident and magic! England has been under a similar blight of misinfor- 
mation and prejudice, though not to quite the same extent as this country. 

Eastern countries are the greatest per capita consumers, with Japan and China 
well in the lead. Japan made an attractive exhibit of many varieties at the Chicago 
World's Fair, and both Japan and China export dried mushrooms to the United States 
and Europe. 

The general title of "mushrooms" is here used, as popularly employed, to cover 
all kinds of edible fungi except truffles, though they vary considerably in shape, size 
and color. They are found in nearly all temperate regions and in every part of the 
world, growing wild most freely in the spring and autumn — in forests, orchards, 
vineyards and pastures. Many varieties are agreeable in flavor and rich in food value. 

The mushroom is not, as generally understood, the plant or fungus itself — it is 
the fruit of the growth which produces it and which remains underground — a white 
or bluish mold called mycelium or "spawn," a network mass of thin thread-like roots 
or underground stems. The mushroom or "fruit," when mature, diffuses a quantity 
of the poAvder or "spores," generally dark in color, by which the fungus extends its 
propagation. Artificial cultivation of the mushroom by "spores" is slow and uncer- 
tain, so the "spawn," which is sold in both "cake" and "flake" form, is used instead. 

Any place is suitable for cultivation which is moderately cool and moist, even in 
temperature and away from direct sunlight. A cellar is the best ordinary example, 
but growing on a large scale is generally done in caves, closed tunnels, abandoned 
quarries or specially constructed "mushroom houses" — usually wooden buildings 
partly below and partly above ground. The spawn is planted in beds of mixed 
manure and earth, with a final covering of the latter. When the crop is well under 
way, the beds are picked once or twice a day for every mushroom large enouah for 
market, as they are choicer for eating before fully matured and while the "veil" over 
them is still unbroken — after that time thev are Generally used for catsun, etc. 

The following list briefly desci'ibes the principal edible varieties. The Orange. 
Bride Top, Rodman. Peppery Lactarius. Parasol. Ivl- Cap. Fairy Cluh and Oyster 
Mushroom are shown on the half-tone page illustration opposite — as also the Piif 







BRICK TOP 



ORAiMGE AMANITA 




PARASOL MUSHROOM 



-AV* * AlXi \Jv, 



GIANT PUFF BALL 



Edible Fungi — see also Color Page opposite 398 



398 THE grocer's encyclopedia 



& 



Ball described under its own heading. The Common Mushroom, Boletus, Cantharellus 
or Chanterelle, Fairy Ring, Morel and Vegetable Beefsteak are depicted on the accom- 
panying Color Page. 

Common or Cultivated Mushroom {Agaricus Campestris) : the most generally 
acceptable type in this country and England, and the common Champignon Comestible 
of the French canned product. It is found wild during the late summer and fall in 
grassy places, manured ground, etc. — never in thick woods. The wild types grow either 
singly or in groups, but the cultivated often form large tufts. The fruit consists of 
a central stalk, generally cream or white in color and from two to three inches in 
height, supporting a rounded, table-like cap, varying in the color of its upper surface 
from white to a deep brown. The under surface of the cap is marked with gill-like pro- 
jections, generally pink in the white or cream cap varieties, and grey-brown in the 
brown kinds, changing in the former to brown and in the latter to brownish-black 
—in dried specimens to almost or quite black. The flesh is white. It is served in 
many ways, both raw and cooked — being considered especially delicious broiled. 

Button Mushroom. The most highly valued of this class is the French Mous- 
seron, the true type of which is the Cltaiiipiguon Muscat, of the Agaric family. 
It is of medium size, the stem short, thick, full and swelling at the base ; the cap thick, 
whitish-yellow on top and covered with a very dry skin. It grows most freely in green- 
sward and on the outskirts of woods, and is one of the first to appear in the early 
spring. It is gathered when in the "button" or round stage and generally when the 
cap is quite small. On maturity it becomes bell-shaped. It is very pleasing in flavor 
and is marked by a distinct musk aroma which it retains even after drying. 

Large quantities are imported, both dried and canned, in oil, etc., and there is an 
increasing output of the home-grown product. Care should be taken to avoid over- 
cooking, as that destroys the musk odor. 

For lesser grades of "button" mushrooms, many other varieties of both Agarics 
and Gymnopes are gathered in the button stage. 

Orange (the French Orange) or Orange Amanita (Amanita Caesarea) : a large 
variety with cap usually nearly flat on maturity and of orange color. It is found gen- 
erally in the sandy soil of thinly wooded districts during the summer and early fall and 
is distinguished from nearly all other edible varieties by the yellow color of its gills. 
The flesh is white with occasional yellow stains and of delicate and pleasing flavor. It 
grows abundantly in Southern Europe and is imported here canned in oil. 

The Orange Amanita has been accounted a delicacy for centuries — as far back as 
the days of the Roman Empire. 

Boletus (the French Cepes). The several varieties of the Boletus family of 
fungi are distinguished from the ordinary mushroom principally by small tubes or 
holes taking the place of the gills under the cap. They find much favor in France 
and Germany, and grow freely in this country also. Among the best of the types 
commonly found are the Granulated Boletus, named for the small brown granules 
dotting the stem — the cap, which is from one and a half to four inches broad, varying 
widely in color; the Rough Stemmed Bolettis, the stem roughened with small promi- 
nent reddish or blackish dots or scales, the cap varying from white to nearly black, 
and the Edible Boletus, one of the largest kinds, the cap, of varying color, 
ranging up to six inches broad. All three types find much favor in France and Ger- 
many, and the last-named is imported in considerable quantities, chiefly from France, 




(I) Common Mushroom (4) Cantharellus (2) Morel 

(3) "Vegetable Beefsteak" (5) Boletus (6) "Fairy Ring" Mushrooms 

WELL KNOWN EXAMPLES OF EDIBLE FUNGI 



THE GROCER''S ENCYCLOPEDIA 401 



preserved in olive oil, sauces, etc., being generally known by the French title of Odpes. 
It is noted for its strong flavor. 

Chantarelle : a variety of the Cantharellus family, which grows in nearly every 
part of the world and has always been highly esteemed in Europe. Its cap, generally 
convex but sometimes flat and even centrally depressed, is of varying and irregular 
shape, but it is distinguished by its beautiful, rich reddish-yellow or egg-yellow color, 
which extends to all parts of the plant except tlie white inner flesh. The gills are in 
the form of shallow folds growing down the stem. It is most commonly found in the 
woods in gi'oups, but also often in open grounds. 

MOREL^ Morchella (the French Morille) : most frequently found in forests and 
woodland swamps. It is known by its rather conical, deeplj^ honey-combed, light yel- 
lowish-brown head, growing darker with age. It is excellent — tender and sweet — 
either stewed as a vegetable or in sauces, etc. Its principal types are the Common, 
Delicious, TiDO-Spored, Conical and Narroto Cap. Though here described among mush- 
room types, the "morel" botanically is more nearly allied to the truffle type of fungus. 

Brick Top or Reddish Mushroom {Eypholoma SuMaterHtiiim) : resembling the 
Common Mushroom somewhat in general contour, but with stem generally longer and 
top more rounded and of a reddish color with pale yellow border. The gills change 
from creamy to olive. The flesh is creamy and of a pronounced almond flavor. 

Eodman's Mushroom {Agaricus Rodinani) : similar in many respects to the 
Common Mushroom. The cap is creamy, with brownish spots; the gills change from 
white to pink and then to dark brown; the stem is short, fleshy and thick, and the 
flesh is white with pinkish tint and of pleasing flavor. It is most frequently found 
during May, June and July in grassy grounds. 

Lactarius : a genus marked by the milky or colored juice which exudes from the 
gills when broken. The Peppery Lactarius has a creamy-white fleshy cap, from three 
to ten inches in width, depressed toward the center. The gills are creamy white and 
exude a white milk when bruised. The flesh is lighter in color than the surface of the 
cap and is peppery in flavor and somewhat aromatic. Its favorite habitat is wood- 
land during the summer. Another common type is the Orange Milk Mushroom or 
Delicious Lactarius. found in woods and damp mossy places. When young, its cap is 
convex, but as it matures it becomes flat and sometimes funnel shaped. In color, it 
is a mottled orange. The flesh is white tinged with orange, firm, delicate and nutri- 
tious, and the "milk" is orange colored. In size it varies, in the cap, from two to five 
inches in diameter. 

Horse or Field Mushroom {Agaricus Arvensis) : resembles the Common Mush- 
room, but averages larger and may be distinguished by its hollow, somewhat bulbous 
stem. The cap when dried is apt to assume a yellowish hue. 

Parasol Mushroom or Tall Lepiota (Lepiota Procera). The cap, on top of a 
long stem with a bulbous base, is shaped like an open umbrella, the upper surface, 
three to five inches in diameter, covered Vith small scales and of a brownish, spotted 
appearance with a dark center. The flesh is thin, white and soft. 

Ink Caps or Inky Coprinus (Coprinns Atramentarins) . The genus Coprinus 
are readily distinguished by their oblong caps, which do not open until they are about 
to dissolve into the inky fluid which gives them tlieir popular name. They should be 
gathered before they show any sign of expanding and must be cooked without delay. 



402 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

their flesh then being decidedly palatable. They are harmless even in the inky stage, 
but they do not present an attractive appearance by any means! The life of the Ink 
Cap above ground is very brief — it pushes through the soil in great numbers and 
develops and dissolves very rapidly. 

Fairy Ring Mushroom^ Marasmius Oreades {the FTench Mousseron d^automne) : 
a small variety found principally in the autumn, in meadows, on lawns, etc., in wet 
weather or after heavy rains. It is so called because of its habit of growing in rings 
or circles. When young, the cap, from one to two inches in diameter, is reddish, yel- 
lowish-red or yellowish-brown, becoming paler in maturing or as its moisture evapo- 
rates. When dry, it is generally of a buff color. Its flesh is inclined to be tough 
except when fresh or young, but careful cooking makes it very palatable — broiled, 
pickled, in sauces, etc. 

In many parts of France, the Fairy Ring is popularly known as the "False Mous- 
seron" or "Fall Mousseron," because of its similarity in shape of cap to the Mous- 
seron type (see Button Mushrooms^ preceding). 

Fairy Clubs and Corals. The genus Clavariaceae includes a number of fleshy, 
club-shaped and coral-like fungi, many of which are edible. Some of them are very 
beautiful, showing the most delicate shades of pink, yellow, violet, etc. They range 
from very small to several inches in height. 

Tree Mushrooms. The most famous of ti-ee fungi is the Liver Fistulina {Fistulina 
Hepatica), commonly known in Europe as "Oak Tongue," "Beefsteak Fungus," 
"Vegetable Beefsteak," "Beef Tongue," etc. Its cap, varying from two to six inches 
and more in breadth, has, when young, a rough reddish surface which reminds one of 
beef tongue, and the flesh is streaked with red and gives a reddish juice. Its taste 
when cooked bears a distinct resemblance to meat, and it yields a rich, brown gravy. 

Another valuable variety is that known as the Elm Tree Pleurotus, which grows, 
attached by a side stem, most freely on stumps and dead branches, etc., of elm trees, 
though also found on other trees, such as the maple and poplar. Its cap, two to five 
inches broad, is generally whitish, often with a central tinting of reddish or brownish 
yellow. The flesh of young fruits is white, moderately tender and of agreeable flavor. 

Of the same family is the Oyster Mushroom {Pleurotus Ostreatus) , somewhat shell 
shaped, white or ashy or light brown on the upper surface and white or ashy on the 
under-parts, with white, rather tough, flesh. It grows on dead trees and wood, gen- 
erally in the earlj^ fall, attached by a short side stem or directly to the wood without 
any stem at all. The shells vary in size, with a maximum width of about four inches. 

A fourth important fungus of similar character is the Sulphury Polyporus, 
growing on wood and trees and in the open country. It is easily recognized by its 
clustered mode of growth and orange or yellow color. The caps are often five to six 
inches broad, overlapping each other in tufts or clusters. The flesh is about half an 
inch thick and soft and juicy when young. 

Gathering, Preparation, Etc. It is easy for the experienced person to distinguish 
edible from poisonous fungi, but it is well for the novice to confine himself to those 
types with Avhich he is familiar, even at the cost of rejecting some good varieties. It 
is wisest, in spite of the exceptions noted in the foregoing list, for him to discard all 
those which are brightly colored, which change color considerably when cut or broken, 
which have yellow gills or give a milky juice. He should also always avoid any specimen 



THE GROCER-' S ENCYCLOPEDIA 403 



of any kind which is infested by insects or in any degree decomposed, and should not 
collect mushrooms in the "button" stage, as when undeveloped it is more difficult to 
distinguish between those which are edible and those which are not. Morels and puff 
balls are safe to experiment with, as there are no poisonous varieties resembling them. 

Keceipts for preparing the "ordinary" mushroom are given in all cook-books. 

Agarics, which include the Common, Rodman's, Horse, or "Field," and choice 
qualities of Button mushrooms, and Orange Amanitas, require only moderate cook- 
ing. Chantarelles and Morels, on the other hand, require long cooking — Chantarelles 
should also previously be soaked in warm milk for several hours. Lactarius should be 
soaked in a vinegar solution for several hours before cooking. 

MUSKMELONS. See descriptive matter in general article on Melons. 

MUSKRAT: a small aquatic rodent found generally throughout North America, 
resembling the common rat in general appearance and the beaver in many of its habits. 
It averages the size of a small rabbit, its body attaining a length of 10 to 12 inches. 
Among its distinguishing characteristics are its partially webbed hind feet and its long 
scaly tail, laterally flattened. It is commercially valuable for its skin — dark brown 
fur above and greyish on the under-parts — which within recent years has risen greatly 
in market value, the supply seldom equalling the demand for its manufacture into 
overcoats, etc. Its flesh also is worthy of consideration, for, properly prepared, it 
makes an agreeable dish. The most generally acceptable method is to soak it in salt 
water for an hour or so, or overnight, then to cut it up and slowly stew it with a 
small quantity of pork, cut in dice, a little onion, etc. A considerable number of the 
little animals are marketed in the larger cities, especially in Canada, under their OAvn 
name and various other appellations. 

MUSSEL: an almond shaped shellfish, cheap and plentiful, found along the coasts. 
Many connoisseurs consider it as palatable as the oyster, but it has never yet attained 
full popular favor. It can be eaten raw like the oyster, but is generally cooked. 
Bottled pickled mussels have recently found some demand. 

MUST: the expressed juice of ripe grapes, before fermentation. The term is also 
sometimes applied to the newly fermented juice or young wine. 

MUSTARD. The mustard of general use as a condiment consists of the crushed 

seeds of the mustard plant, native to England but capable of almost 

universal cultivation. The mature plant ranges from three to six feet in 

height and has bright yellow flowers. There are two chief varieties — 

the White, producing smooth, pale-yellow seeds, and the Black, with 

seeds smaller, more irregular and dark brown on the outside — though 

also yellow inside. In trade circles, the products are distinguished as 

"Yellow" and "Brown," but there is little difference in composition, and 

the retail product is generally a mixture of the two. 

Mustard was used medicinally by the most celebrated physicians of 
antiquity. As a condiment, it dates from the latter part of the six- 
teenth century, but it was little known until the year 1729 when an old 
woman of the name of Clements, residing in Durham, England, began 
to grind the seed in a mill and to pass the flour through the several 

Black Mustard 




404 THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



processes necessary to free it from the husks. She kept her secret for many years, sell- 
ing large quantities throughout the country, especially in London. The product 
obtained the name of "Durham Mustard" from her residence in that city. 

The manufacture of mustard at first consisted essentially of grinding the seed into 
a very fine fiour, a bushel of seed weighing sixty pounds yielding twenty-eight to 
thirty pounds of Flour Mustard. Manufacturers, however, soon discovered that they 
could please the public palate better by modifying the pungency of the flavor, and the 
result is that to-day it is made in a great variety of styles, each establishment follow- 
ing its own formula for mellowing, blending, mixing, etc. Genuine mustard is easily 
obtainable, but it does not please the general taste as well as the prepared modified 
article. 

In moistening or "mixing" dry mustard, or mustard flour, two main objects 
must be kept in view — flrst, to obtain the desired consistence ; second, to make it per- 
fectly smooth. To produce these effects, add the liquid in small quantities and rub 
and pound the mustard well with a spoon. The simplest form of preparation consists 
of mustard flour, moistened with sufficient water to produce the consistence of thick 
batter, with half a teaspoonful of salt added for each two ounces of mustard flour. Some 
people like fine powdered sugar included in the same proportion as salt. Vinegar and 
olive oil can be used according to taste, but some cold water is necessary for the first 
mixing in order to develop the pungency. If for immediate use, milk or milk and 
cream may be employed in place of either vinegar or oil. 

The greater part of the prepared mustard now enjoying popular use and favor, 
consists of from 50% to 75% vinegar, flour-thickening and various condiments. 

U. S. Standard Ground Mustard is mustard containing not more than 2%% .of 
starch by the diastase method and not more than 8% of total ash. 

V. S. Prepared Mustard, German Mustard, French Mustard, Mustard Paste, is 
a paste composed of a mixture of ground mustard seed or mustard flour with salt, 
spices and vinegai', and, calculated free from water, fat and salt, contains not more 
than 24% of carbohydrates, calculated as starch, determined according to the official 
methods, not more than 12% of crude fibre nor less than 35% of protein, derived 
solely from the materials named. 

Mustard and Cress: a salad, popular in England, made of .young spi'outs of the 
mustard and cress plants (see Cress). The larger leaves of the mustard plant are 



MUTTON: is the dressed flesh of the sheep. It is best from animals three to five 
years old. If too young, it lacks flavor ; if too old, it is tough. It is best liked in the 
spring, as it is generally more juicy then and less liable to be marked by any "woolly" 
or "sheepy" taste. All mutton, in order to avoid this taste, should be hung up for at 
least two' days before use — and should thereafter always receive close attention and be 
kept as much as possible from exposure to the air. 

The quality depends both on the breed and the feeding of the sheep. In England 
and France these two points have received more attention than in the United States, 
but the domestic product is steadily improving and sheep raising is now an impor- 
tant industry in several states. 

Much of the objection which many Americans feel to the use of mutton is due 
to the poor stock formerly sold here — many of the animals slaughtered were ill-fed. 




(2) Hind Quarter 



(1) Shoulder 
MUTTON 



(3) LeS 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



407 



badly cared for and old. The meat of a young, well-fed sheep kept in a good refrig- 
erator will seldom have any disagreeable flavor. 

The most famous English product is the "Southdown mutton," the fine flavor of 
\Vhich is attributed to a little insect which flourishes in the fine pasture of the South 
Downs. In France, the best is the Pre sale ("Salt Field"), so-called because the sheep 
pasture on the salt marshes along the sea coast. 

In purchasing carcasses, the grocer must take into account the loss of weight which 
will ensue from drying out while it hangs in his store. The better his refrigerating 
facilities, the smaller will be the loss. 

In selecting, he should see that the meat is fine grained and firm and of darkish, 
clear red color, and the fat firm and white. If the flesh is flabby, or the kidney fat 
small, the carcass should be avoided. 

Diagrams 1 and 2 show a division of the carcass practised in many parts of the 
country. Diagram 3 is a well recognized Eastern method. 





4lt 111 


^^SS 


iV: 


Diagrams 1 axd 





1 


Neck 




3 


Chuck 




3 


Shoulder 




4 


Flank 




o 


Loin 




6 


Leg 





^l,'.'|';^^"Kwt... 




Diagram 3 

1 Neck 
■2 Shoulder 
3 Rack or Chops 
4. Breast 

5 Loin 

6 Leg 

Forequarter — J, 2, 3, 4 
HindquaHer — S, 6 



The description iu the Department of Agriculture Bulletin accompanying Dia- 
grams 1 and 2 comments on the fact that the cuts in a side of lamb or mutton generally 
number only six, three in each quarter. The Chuck includes the ribs as far as the end 
of the shoulder blades ; the Loin reaches from the chuck back to the leg, and the Flank 
is made to include all the under-side of the animal. Some butchers, however, make a 
lai'ger number of cuts from the forequarter, taking a portion of the Loin and Chuck 
to make a cut known as Eib; and part of tlie Flank and Shoulder for a cut designated 
as Brisket. 

The term "Chops" is ordinarily used to designate portions of either the loin, ribs, 
chuck or shoulder, cut or "chopped" by the butcher into pieces suitable for frying or 
broiling. The so-called "French chops" are cut from the "Back," a term sometimes 
applied to the Chuck and Bibs. See also Color Page opposite page 404. 



408 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



MYRTLE: a small evergreen tree, whose sweet, pulpy and aromatic black berries 
are dried for use as a condiment, in addition to their consumption fresh. Both leaves 
and wood also yield an oil used in perfumery manufacture. The Chilian Myrtle is 
one of the most highly esteemed varieties. 

The tree giving "Myrtle Wax" (see Wax), which is locally known as the "Tal- 
low" or "Candleberry" Tree, is of a different species. 



NAILS. There is no date in history fixing the first use of nails, but it is of curious 
interest that up to only a century ago they were still exclusively hand-made, and even 
as late as 1850 it was the general custom in this country for the nail maker with his 
forge and anvil to come with the carpenter to make the nails needed in the erection 
of a building. Iron has been the material chiefly employed for many hundreds of years, 
but bronze, brass and copper nails have been found in very ancient work. 

The terms "4d," "6d," "lOd," etc.- — a mystery to many people !- — originated when 
nails were sold by the hundred. When 100 nails weighed 2 pennyweights they were 
called 2d; when 100 weighed 20 pennyweights they were called 20d, etc., and the 
names have been retained although the comparative weights of the various sizes have 
changed greatly. 

The first nail-making machinery was originated in Massachusetts in 1810 to make 
"cut nails" from steel or iron plates. Cut-nail machinery is to-day very similar to that 
first used, except that the plate, which must be reversed as each nail is cut, is now 
turned automatically instead of by boys as originally. The use of cut nails has been 
greatly reduced in late years by the introduction of Wire Nails, the first machinery 
for their manufacture reaching the United States from Germany in 1875. Wire Nails 
are in many ways superior to the square Cut Nail — they are easier to drive and 
cheaper to make — but it was discovered shortly after their introduction that they did 
not possess as great holding power. This defect was overcome in 1882 by Ira Cope- 
land, of Whitman, Mass., who conceived the idea of coating them with vegetable gum, 
the result being to give them even greater holding power than the cut nails. Coated 
- nails are to-day much used where exceptional strength is required, as in packing- 
boxes and other styles of shipping packages. 

The word Nail is applied specifically to those of moderate length and weight, 
with flat heads of considerable diameter. Very small nails are known as Tacks. 
Those longer than six inches, or of exceptionally heavy shank, are called Spikes. 
Those with heads so small that they can be sunk beneath the surface of the wood in 
order to conceal the nailing, are classed as Brads — sub-divided 
into Flooring Brads, Finishing Nails and Casing Nails. 

NAPTHA, Naphtha. See Petroleum. 



NASTURTIUM, or Indian Cress : a plant native to South 
America, which is cultivated here principally for its brilliant 
blossoms. It possesses considerable merit as a salad plant, 
especially for blending with other salads, the leaves, young 
shoots and flower buds having an agreeably pungent flavor. 
The pickled seed-pods are freq uently substituted for capers. 

Botanically, the name "Nasturtium" is applied prefer- 
ably to the Watercress. 




Nibtiirtium 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 409 

Tuberous-rooted Nasturtium: a variety which furnishes edible roots about the size 
of a hen's egg, of general cone-shape, marked with numerous warty swellings, and red- 
streaked yellow in color. Plain-boiled, they have an agreeable and refreshing aroma, 
but are rather watery and not particularly pleasing in flavor. In the mountainous dis- 
tricts of parts of northern South America they are considered a delicacy when frozen 
after boiling. In other sections, they are consumed in various forms after semi-drying 
and exposure to the air suspended in nets. In French market gardens they are culti- 
vated to a limited extent in much the same way as the ordinary potato. 

NEATSFOOT OIL: is a high grade industrial oil obtained from the feet of oxen, 
sheep, horses, etc. It is pale yellow, nearly odorless and of bland taste. It 
is commercially valuable because of its property of remaining liquid at a freezing 
temperature and it is therefore employed for lubricating exposed machinery, clocks, etc. 

NECTAR: the fabled drink of the mythological deities. The name was formerly 
used to signify a mixture of wine and honey and it is still occasionally applied to 
similar sweet beverages of stimulating character. See also Greek Wines. 

NECTARINE: a delicate variety of peach, which is distinguished by the smoothness 
of its skin and its pulpy flesh. It is grown in this country chiefly in California and 
Oregon. There are many different varieties, divided, as peaches, into "Freestones" 
and "Clingstones." As a general rule, nectarines cannot be grown in the northern 
United States except under glass. 

NEGUS: a well known beverage, named after its originator. Colonel Negus. It is 
made of either port or sherry, mixed with about twice its bulk of hot water, lump sugar, 
a little lemon juice, grated nutmeg and a small fragment of the yellow peel of the 
lemon. The flavor of the beverage is further improved by the addition of about one 
drop of essence of ambergris, or eight or ten drops of vanilla essence, for each 
dozen glasses. 

NEROLI, or Orange Flower Oil: the essential oil of orange flowers, obtained by 
distillation, used as a flavoring for liqueurs, syrups, etc., in perfumery and soap manu- 
facture and many other purposes. See Serille Orange in article on Oranges. 

NEUFCHATEL: a small cream cheese. See general article on Cheese. 

NIAGARA GRAPES: one of the four principal grapes of Eastern cultivation (see 
Grapes). 

NOODLES: which originated in Germany and have been in popular use there for 
centuries, resemble in general character the flat forms of Italian paste described in 
the article on Macaroni^ their title being indeed an American spelling of Nuclei, the 
German word for "Macaroni." They consist of dough of wheat flour, pressed through 
rollers into large thin sheets, cut into various sizes and forms by special machines 
and then carefully and thoroughly dried. They are retailed both in bulk and packages 
— chiefly in strips of three standard sizes, the smallest 1/16 inch in width and the 
largest i/o inch, but also in fancy shapes, "alphabets," etc. If properly made, they will 



410 THE GROCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

keep for six months or longer, if stored in a dry place and protected from changes of 
atmosphere. In the best qualities, eggs are added to the dough, the product being 
then kno\\-n as Eier Nudeln or "egg noodles." 

' Until a few years ago it was the custom to import noodles from Germany, but 
domestic manufacturers now supply the market. New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland 
and a few other places are centers of the industry, which is of considerable propor- 
tions as housewives find it cheaper and easier tobuy noodles than to make them. 

Egg Noodles of the best grades, made of fresh eggs and selected wheat flour, are 
highly nutritious and are so easily digested even by delicate stomachs that they are 
frequently recommended for invalids and convalescents. The "fine" size is much used 
in soups, tasting j)articularly good in bouillon and consomme. The broader types are 
frequently served as a separate dish, cooked in slightly salted boiling water, or baked 
like macaroni with cheese, or stewed with tomatoes and butter. 

Plain or water noodles are frequently colored to imitate egg noodles, so it is best 
to buy in original packages, giving the preference to those carrying a guarantee of 
their purity. 

NOUGAT: a title given to several varieties of candy, usually a paste filled with 
chopped almonds, pistachios, etc., as almond nougat, etc. 

NOYAU. See general article on Liqueurs. 

NUTS. Among the most popular nuts of general use are almonds, Brazil or Para nuts, 
chestnuts, cocoanuts, filberts, hickory nuts, pecans, pine nuts or pignolias, pistachio 
nuts and walnuts. With the exception of the Brazil nut, filbert and pistachio, all of 
these are now grown in the United States, the domestic product being, however, supple- 
mented by imports to an annual value of nearly flO,000,000. California especially 
raises big crops of walnuts and almonds, and Louisiana and Texas are noted for pecans. 

Of imported nuts, Brazil Nuts come principally from the Brazilian states of Para, 
Amazonas and Maranhao; Chestnuts from Italy, Spain,- Portugal and France; 
Cocoanuts from the West Indies, Philippines and South Sea Islands; Filberts from 
Sicily and, better grades, from Naples; Walnuts from France, and also to a less 
extent frora Spain, Italy, Turkey, Chile, etc., and Almonds and Pistachios from Spain. 

Nuts can be carried safely in winter by storing in a cool, dry place, but cold storage 
at a temperature just above freezing is the only sure method of preserving them during 
the summer and the only practical policy if the quantity is considerable. 

Nuts contain a large amount of nutriment in highly concentrated form. They are 
composed chiefly of oil and proteids, though some varieties substitute carbohydrates 
(starch, sugar, etc.), as the principal component in place of fat (see Food Values). 
Their constantly increasing consumption throughout the United States, augurs well 
for a better appreciation of their food value by all classes — they are no longer regarded 
merely as a luxury, or as something to be eaten out of hand at odd times. Sanatori- 
ums are giving many patients nut products as the chief principle of their diets. 

Nuts should be well chewed, and should be held in the same consideration as the 
meat or other substantial portion of a meal — not eaten as a delicacy after the stomach 
is already loaded with a heavy repast. To this latter practice is due much of their repu- 
tation for indigestibility. The skin of some varieties is leathery and hard to digest, but 
cooking may often be advantageously employed to offset this condition — when almonds, 




( 1 ) Butternut 



(2) Walnut 
C4) Brazil Nuts 



(3) Black Walnut 



T IT !•: (J R C ]•; U ' S E N C Y C I. O P E D I A 41 3 



for iiistauoe, are parboiU'd, the tougli leatlierj skius peel off and the I'eiuaiuing kernel is 
easily assimilated. Drying mnst speedily folloAv the parboiling or loss of flavor will 
result. 

Nut pastes and "bntters" are rapidly growing in favor, both for home consumption 
and in confectionery manufacture. They are an agreeable and very desirable addition 
to the daily diet. They are best bought in small pots or glasses, as they are liable to 
become rancid if kei^t long after opening. 

The composition of nuts and nut products has been studied at a number of U. S. 
Agricultural Experiment Stations, and the follo-\ving table summarizes the results of 
this work, the American data being supplemented in some cases by European analyses. 

Carbohydrates 

r ^ ^ "Ash'^Min- 

Sugar, Crude Starch, eral Salts. 
Water Protein Fat Fiber, etc. etc.J 

% % % '.V 'i ''• 

Acorn (freshj 34.7 4.4 4.7 50.4 4.3 l.fi 

Almond 4.9 21.4 54.4 13.8 3.0 2.5 

Almond Paste 24.2 13.1 23.9 29.4 7.S 1.6 

Beechnut 6.6 21.8 49.9 18.0 3.7 

Brazil Nut 4.7 17.4 63.0 5.7 3.9 3.3 

Butternut 4.5 27.9 61.3 3.4 3.0 

Chestnut (fresh) 43.4 6.4 6.0 41.3 1.5 1.4 

Chestnut (dry) 6.1 10.7 7.8 70.1 2.9 3.4 

Chestnut (preserved) : 18.2 1.3 .5 70.7 . .3 

Chincnpin or water chestnut 10.6 10.9 .7 73.8 1.4 2.6 

Chuf a (earth almond) 2.2 3.5 31.6 50.3 10.5 2.0 

Cocoanut 13.0 6.6 56.2 13.7 8.9 1.6 

Cocoanut. desiccated (copra.) 3.5 6.3 57.4 31.5 1.3 

Cocoanut milk 92.7 .4 1.5 4.6 .8 

Filbert 5.4 16.5 64.0 11.7 2.4 

Ginkgo nut 47.3 5.9 .8 43.1 .9 2.0 

Hickory nut 3.7 15.4 67.4 11.4 2.1 

Litchi nut 16.4 2.9 .8 78.0 1.9 

Paradise nut 2.3 22.2 62.6 10.2 2.7 

Peanut 7.4 29.8 43.5 14.7 2.4 2.2 

Peanut Butter 2.1 39.3 46.3 17.1 3.0 

Pecan 3.4 13.1 70.7 8.5 3.7 1.6 

Pine nut (American) 3.4 14.6 61.9 17.3 3.8 

Pine nut (Spani-sh) or pignolia 6.3 33.9 48.2 6.5 1.4 3.8 

Pistachio 4.3 22.6 54.5 15.6 3.1 

Walnut 3.4 18.3 60.7 13.7 3.3 1.7 

It will be noted that several varieties — the Spanish pine nut, the peanut and the 
butternut particularly — rank much higher in protein value than a majority of either 
animal or vegetable foods and that a number of others equal the averages of the best 
known examples. 

The fat value is very high — pecans, Brazil nuts, buttei-nuts, filberts, hickory nuts, 
walnuts, almonds, cocoanuts, pistachios, beechnuts, peanuts, etc., containing 50% or 
more — up to nearly 71% in the pecan. 

Most noteworthy among the few nuts ^^■hich offer a large percentage of carliohy- 
drates and a small percentage of fat, are the dry chestnut and chufa. 

Many special nut foods, such as malted nuts, meat substitutes, etc., have been 
devised and extensively advertised by manufacturers for general dietetic use and for 
the special needs of vegetarians and fruitarians. It is said that some of these products 
contain soy beans, but apparently the peanut is very important in their composition. 

NUT OILS. INfany varieties of nuts yield oils of value as food and medicine and for 
soapmaking and numerous other commercial purposes. Prominent among them are 

21 



414 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



the almond, cocoanut, peanut and walnut, all of which are treated in their alphabetical 
positions. 

The principal sources of imported nut oils, other than that of the cocoanut, are 
China, Holland and France. 

NUTMEG (see illustration in Color Page of Spices). The nutmeg is the kernel of 

the fruit of a tropical tree, native to Asia, Africa and South America. The pink 

or red flesh covering it, is the almost equally popular spice known as Mace (which see). 

The whole fruit, about as large as a peach 

and of a yellowish-green color, is in the 

East Indies often preserved entire as a 

sweetmeat. 

The tree begins bearing at the age 
of eight years, and continues to yield for 
about seventy-five years. It carries ripe 
fruit at all seasons, but there are three 
principal harvest periods — July, when 
the fruit is most abundant, though yield- 
ing thin mace ; November, when the fruit 
is thickest, but the nutmegs are small, 
and March, when both nutmegs and mace 
attain their finest condition, but the total 
product is less in quantity on account of 
the dryness of the season. 

After the nutmegs have been gathered 
and strif)ped of their outer covering, they 
are placed upon gratings over slow fires 
and dried at a low heat, not over 140° 
Fahr., until the kernel rattles freely in 
the shell. The shells are next cracked and 
removed and the kernels are sprinkled 
with lime, to protect them from the 
attacks of insects and to destroy their 
power of germiiiation, and then packed 
for export in tight casks, previously 
soaked and coated on the inside with 
limewash. In this condition they will keep for an indefinite length of time. 

In purchasing nutmegs, choose those which are round and compact in shape, of 
oily appearance and heavy. They are graded and quoted by the number to the pound 
^—varying from 80 to 140. The largest are the more showy, but those of moderate size, 
other points being equal, are just as good. Light, dried, dull kinds or those of long, 
oval shape, should be avoided. 

Sift-top cans of ready-grated nutmeg find good retail demand and give satisfaction 
when the contents are pure and fresh. 

The bulk of the United States supply — which is more than the total consumption 
of all other countries combined ! — comes from Penang and Celebes, of the East Indies. 

There is also a small, steady importation from the British West Indies. 

See also general article on Spices. 




COPTEICBT, U.N'DEB\VCM3D & USDEBWOOD, S. T. 



Nutmegs, Kingston, Jamaica 




(1) Pecan 
(5) Almond 
(8) Chestnut 



(2) Pl&nolla (Pine) 
(4) Ll-tchl Nut 
(7) Hickory Nut 



(3) Filbert 
(6) Paradise 
(9) Pistachio 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 417 



NUTROSE: a food prepared, principally for invalids, hj the action of alkali on the 
dried casein of milk. 

OATS (see Color Page opjjosite 676) : a grain which has long been cultivated as 
food for men and horses. Its several varieties, White oats. Black oats, Potato oats and 
Pilcorn or "naked" oats, etc., all grow best in cold climates. See Oatjieal, following. 

OATMEAL. The title "Oatmeal," though properly applicable only to the ground 
meal of the grain, is commonly applied indifferently to both ground and "rolled" oats. 
It was formerly retailed principally in bulk, but to-day package goods are almost 
exclusively used. The change has been of great advantage to both merchant and con- 
sumer, for oatmeal exposed to the air, as in the ordinary bin, is much subject to 
depreciation in flavor — and consequently in value. Unless packed in airtight boxes 
or bags it rapidly becomes "old" and acquires a disagreeably bitter flavor. 

In manufacture, the grain is cleaned by various processes, next kiln-dried — which 
loosens the hull and also develops the nutty flavor of the kernel or "groat" — and then 
put through machines which remove the hulls. All forms of oatmeal are produced from 
the "groats" thus obtained. 

For Rolled Oats, the groats go to heated rolls which flatten them into the flakes 
familiar to the consumer, the rolling being followed by additional cleansing processes 
to loosen and remove the fine particles of floury matter, etc., before the flakes are filled 
into the packages. Fully 90% of the present consumption of oatmeal in this country is 
of this semi-cooked "rolled oats" type, which owes much of its popularity to its easier 
preparation for the table. 

Oatmeal other than Eolled Oats is divided into two classes : Bteel-Gut, in three 
sizes, and Ground, graded from Coarse to Extra-Fine. Steel-Cut is obtained by passing 
the groats through special cutting machines. Ground Oatmeal is Steel-Cut Oatmeal 
ground between corrugated steel rolls. 

The use of oatmeal, of the Eolled Oats type, is largely on the increase here, but it 
is not yet so extensively consumed as in many European countries. There is, however, 
an important foreign demand for the American product. 

Oats are very rich in gluten and contain appreciable quantities of fat and sugar. 
In this country, the grain is used very little for human food purposes except as a cereal 
or as "groats" or "grits" in the preparation of gruel, but in other parts of the world 
it is employed in a variety of ways. It cannot be leavened into bread because it lacks 
the proportion of gliadin found in the gluten of wheat, but it makes excellent "cakes." 

In Scotland, the most popular form of consumption is as "brose," prepared by 
stirring the meal with boiling water, or broth, etc., until it has the consistence of 
"hasty pudding." If moi'e diluted and boiled for a longer time, it becomes "porridge." 
The coarse meal is also cooked in thick cakes called "bannocks," and finer qualities in 
thin cakes or wafers. Another palatable dish is made by toasting the meal before a 
bright fire, then mixing it with a little beef or mutton fat, pepper, salt and fine-chopped 
onions, and again toasting it. 

In Ireland, oatmeal is mixed with cornmeal and then stirred into boiling water or 
whey and milk, the result being known as "Stirabout." 

In Norway, a common food among the peasantry is a thin cake, called "flad brod," 
made of ground oats, husk and all, mixed sometimes with barley meal, potatoes or pea- 
meal, baked in a griddle or frying pan. See also article on Cereals. 



418 THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



OFFAL: a AYord frequently applied to all parts separated from the carcass of ar> 
animal while dressing it for market. 

The most important food items which come within the classification are hearts, 
livers, tongues, oxtails, oxlips, ox-iaalates and stomachs (tripe). 

The items more correctly styled "offal" are those unfit for use as food — the hair, 
emploj'ed in making mattresses; the skin, Avhich goes to leather tanneries; the bones, 
dried and ground for sale as fertilizer, used in refining, etc. ; the intestines, which 
become sausage casings, etc. The white skin and bones also serve in the manufacture 
of gelatine. 

OILS: are divided according to their sources as Animal, Vegetable and Mineral, or 
for various specific purposes, as Edible and Industrial, Cold Drawn and otherwise. 
Fixed and Essential, Drying and Non-drying, etc. 

Animals Oils may be divided into those from (1) fish and marine mammals, as 
Menhaden and Whale Oil for industrial purposes, and Cod Liver Oil; and (2) land 
animals, as Lard Oil, Oleo Oil and Neatsfoot Oil. 

The chief Vegetable Oils are almond, castor, cocoanut, corn, cotton-seed, hemp, 
linseed, olive, palm, palm kernel, peanut, poppy-seed, rape, sesame and walnut. Cold 
Drawn or Cold Pressed oil, the highest grade of vegetable fixed oil, is that obtained by 
the first expression, without heat or chemical additions. The general rule in the treat- 
ment of fruits and seeds which give edible oils, is to use cold-expression first to 
obtain the edible grades, then to extract the remaining oil-content after heating or 
chemical treatment, or first one and then the other, for industrial purposes. The hot- 
ex^jression always changes the character of the oil and in some cases entirely alters 
the fiavor. 

Mineral Oils, as benzine, gasoline, kerosene, etc., are in this country obtained 
chiefly by the distillation of Petroleum (which see). 

Fixed Oils are those which, under ordinary temperature, leave a permanent 
greasy residue on any substance, as paper, etc. The classification includes the major- 
ity of the vegetable oils of general use, the heavier mineral oils and all the animal 
oils. 

Essential or Volatile Oils speedily evaporate in ordinary temperature. They are 
divisible into two main classes, vegetable and mineral. Vegetable essential oils, 
obtained from herbs, fruits, flowers, seeds, etc., are used in great variety by the per- 
fumer (see Perfumery), in medical practice and in the manufacture of flavoring 
extracts for food purposes (see Extracts). They are soluble in alcohol, ether and 
fixed oils, but only to a limited extent in water. The mineral volatile oils include the 
lighter Petroleum products. 

Drying Oils — as hemp, linseed, poppy, walnut and some whale oils — are those 
which on contact Avith the air form a tough skin and are therefore suitable for use in 
the manufacture of paints and varnishes. Castor, corn, cotton-seed, rape, sesame, sun- 
flower and most whale oils, are Partial or Sloiv Drijing. Almond, lard, mineral oils, 
oleo oil, olive, peanut and sperm oils, are Non-Dri/ing. In temperate climates, cocoa- 
nut, palm, palm kernel and kindred types are nearly solid fats. 

OIL-CAKE: is made from the pulp remaining after the extraction of oil from cot- 
ton-seed, linseed, etc. When the extraction is confined to the use of presses, the cakes 



THE GROCER ^S ENCXOLOPEDIA 



419 



make excellent cattle food, as the residue contains some oil. If all the oil has been 
removed by a supplementary chemical process, they are suitable only for use as fer- 
tilizino' material. 



OKA: 



a plant native to Peru which is worthy of more extensive cultivation in this 
couutrj- — it has already made a place for itself in Europe. Its 
principal value is in its roots. When fresh pulled, their flavor 
is too acid to be generally acceptable, but South American 
producers rectify this by placing them in woollen bags and set- 
ting in the sun for a few days, the result being to give them 
a sweet and floury character suggestive of fine sweet potatoes. 
If the drying is continued, they wrinkle and shrivel, acquiring 

The young leaves and shoots 




a flavor resembling dried figs. 



are also eaten as 



Oka 



or salad. 



OKRA or Gumbo: a West Indian plant of the Mallow 
family, largely cultivated in the southern states and in 
warm counti'ies generally. Its mucilaginous pods are 
excellent in soup or stewed as a vegetable, separate or 
with tomatoes, etc. They were formerly dried in large 
quantities for consumiJtion when fresh okra is unobtain- 
able, by cutting into rings and hanging in the sun on 
long strings, but their use in that form has decreased in 
recent years, as the canned product is decidedly prefer- 
able. Okra seed, known as "ambrette," is much em- 
ployed by perfumers and is occasionally roasted for use 
as a coffee substitute. 




Okrii 



OLEO OIL: is the oil obtained from animal fat, especially beef fat, by the removal 
of the tissues and solid fatty acids (see Stearin). It is largely used in the manu- 
facture of oleomargarine. 

The word Oleo is also employed as an abbreviated form of Oleomargarine and as an 
adjective signifying "oily." 

OLEOMARGARINE, also called Margarine and Butierine: was invented by the 
French cliemist, Mege Mouriez in ISTl. 

As manufactured to-day it is generally composed of 40% to 45% beef or Oleo oil ; 
20% to 25% Neutral lard (from the" first rekdering of the leaf fat of the hog) and 10% 
■to 30% butter, milk or cream. Vegetable oils, such as cotton-seed oil, are sometimes 
added. The mixture is churned at a temperature above the melting point, and tlien 
chilled and salted, worked, etc., in about the same way as butter. 

At the solicitation of those interested in the production and sale of butter. Con- 
gress passed a law, effective July 1, 1902, placing a tax of one-quarter of a cent a pound 
on uncolored Oleomargarine^ and a tax of ten cents a pound on the colored product. In 
a great many states, manufacturers are, under severe penalties, entirely forbidden tlie 
use of coloring matter. 

The lawaiso requires that all Qleomirgariiie sliall be, plainly so labeled', that it 
shall' not be sold ih"substitutibn for butter, au(T tliat when used in hotels, boarding- 



420 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



houses, etc., the fact must be made known by announcements to that effect posted where 
they may be readily seen. 

The manufacturers of Oleomargarine claim that their product is equal to the finest 
dairy butter in purity and nutritiveuess and that in flavor it is far superior to the 
cheaper grades of butter. These claims are supported by many chemists and scientists. 

OLIVES. Asia Minor is generally credited with being the original home of the olive, 
which is one of the oldest of known fruits and is often mentioned in ancient writings. 

The tree is an evergreen with abundant foliage of very small greenish-gray leaves. 
It often reaches a great height and attains a remarkable age — there are trees in the 
districts near Nice, France, and Genoa, Italy, believed to be more than 2,000 years old. 

Fruit is borne every other year. The flowering begins in the spring and the olive 
is formed by the end of Juh^ It is green in color until it attains its full size, but it 
then gradually becomes yellowish and, later, a dark purplish brown as it ripens. 
The picking commences in November and frequently lasts until the beginning of April. 
The oil obtained from the January and February crops is generally considered the best. 

The olive is cultivated in many countries — in the Eastern flemisphere in all 
countries bordering on the Mediterranean ; in the United States, chiefly in California. 
There are many varieties, differing considerably both in the size of the fruit and its oil 
content, the latter averaging from 20% to 30%. For the production of Olive Oil, the 
feature next in importance to a sufficient crop is a large percentage of oil. For pick- 
ling, the chief desiderata are large size and firm fiesh. France, Italy and California 
produce the bulk of the fruit used in the making of oil. The finest pickled Green 
Olives come from the South of Spain, some of the fruit reaching the size of a plum. 
California and Arizona lead in the marketing of the pickled ripe or "Black" olive — on 
the Pacific coast, the green olive is passing into oblivion. 




California Olives 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 421 



Among the best known varieties of pickling olives are the Queen, Manzanillo and 
Mission. 

The fruit for pickled green olives are gathered when they have attained full size, 
but before the final ripening commences. They are assorted according to size and qual- 
ity, then washed and placed in a solution of lime and potash to remove their bitter 
taste. Next comes washing with sufficient water to remove the caustic flavor of the 
solution and finally the pickling, the process varying with the customs of various locali- 
ties. Some use brine only, or salt and vinegar mixed — others add fennel and thyme or 
coriander, laurel leaves, etc. The fruit is generally pickled whole, but when it is 
desired to give it a stronger pickle savor, it is marked Avith incisions to the stone. 

A perfect pickled green olive is yellowish-green, very firm, with pinkish pit and 
agreeable flavor. It must have all of these points, for each is essential to a flne prod- 
uct. Fruit of lesser quality is generally dark in color, with meat soft and mushy or 
woody and tasteless, these defects being caused either by age or imperfect curing. ' 

Pickled or salted ripe or "Black" olives are purplish-black in exterior appear- 
ance and dark and rather soft in pulp, with a bland flavor due to the oil developed in 
ripening. They are processed in much the same manner as the green fruit, as prior to 
pickling they still retain the characteristic bitter flavor. 

Green olives are essentially a relish. Eipe olives constitute a wholesome and very 
nutritious food. Dry bread, unsweetened biscuits, boiled or baked potatoes or similar 
articles should be eaten with ripe olives, as they are too rich for consumption alone. 

Olives are not.at first taste generally enjoyed by the average person in this country, 
but appreciation of them is, in most cases, readily acquired and there is a steadily 
increasing consumption of both imported and domestic brands, many varieties of green 
olives being very popular stuffed or filled with peppers, celery, etc., especially the first- 
named. 

A saucer of olives placed on the counter convenient to the customer's reach, will 
sometimes start the olive habit in a famil'y^fnid lead to steady sales. When plain olives 
are not relished, the stuffed varieties may often be advantageously "demonstrated," or 
offered free to be sampled. 

Olives should be served in a small quantity of brine and cracked ice, after being 
thoroughly chilled in the refrigerator. They should never be rinsed in water. 

OLIVE OIL: is made from the tree-ripened fruit of the Olive and commercially 
holds first place among vegetable oils. The best is that from the small fruit extensively 
cultivated in the section of Southern France formerly known as Provence; the Lucca 
district, Italy, and California. The highest production is generally from trees growing 
on rocky hillsides. A climate of uninterrupted warmth is essential — a cold spell dur- 
ing the months of November and December \\ill often render the fruit hard and the oil 
of inferior quality. 

In regions where quality is of paramount importance, the fruit is carefully plucked 
by hand. As soon as possible after gathering, it is carried to the nearest mill, for the 
manufacture must commence within ten to twelve hours, ripe olives having a tendency 
to rot, to the great detriment of the oil. The result is that, as a general thing, a number 
of small mills are scattered throughout each district. 

The olives are first spread out and slightly heated for about twenty-four hours, as 
this renders the extraction of the oil easier by expanding the oil vesicles. The process 
requires much skill and experience, as even slight over-heating will damage the product. 



422 



THE GROCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The fruit is then grouud or crushed to a paste until the oil begins to swim on top. The 
paste goes into round baskets made of rush or alpha weed, called "scourtins," or into 
sacks of similar materials, or iron hoops covered with crash, and a certain number of 
the receptacles are piled together, with or without slat-grating between, and subjected to 
gentle pressure. This first oil is of the finest qualitj- and is called "Virgin Oil." For 
the second pressing, more force is employed and is continued until nothing further can 
be extracted iu that manner, the oil thus obtained varying in grades and value. The 
paste is then saturated with boiling water, and subjected to a third and fourth press- 
ing by hydraulic power, but the resultant oil is used only for industrial purposes, for 
the manufacture of soaps, etc. 

The oil as extracted by pressing contains a considerable percentage of water and 
some vegetable matter. This may be removed by repeated "settling" and "decanting." 
By another -method, the oil is put in tanks and mixed thoroughly until it presents a 
milky appearance. Then fresh water is added and this, as it passes through, takes with 
it the greater part of the fruit-water, leaving the oil to rise to the surface. This prod- 
uct, skimmed off or "decanted," is known as "unrefined" or Crude Olive Oil. If made 
by one of the old style firms, it goes next to underground cellars or vaults, where it is 
allowed to settle for about a fortnight, when the cleared oil is run off and filtered 
several times. It is then ready for market. One hundred pounds of olives will yield an 
average of fifteen to twenty pounds of edible oil, i. e., oil of the first pressings. 

The accompanying illustration shows 
on the left, a modern olive crusher — the 
upright, wide, circular Avheels crushing 
the fruit in a stone or metal basin. Im- 
mediately to the right, in the rear, is the 
press for extracting the oil from the 
baskets or bags of crushed pulp. From 
the press, the oil goes to a small round 
separator tank, kept nearly full of water, 
being ejected into it, near the bottom, 
through the outlet of a pipe running 
down the side and making a short turn 
up into the center of the bottom of the 
tank. Just beloAv the oil-jet, is a water- 
jet which keeps the oil-flow and the main 
body of water gentlj' but constantly agi- 
tated, with- the result that the heavy im- 
purities fall to the bottom and the oil drops rise to the top, where they are drawn off 
through a faucet. 

The oil thus obtained is "settled" in the funnel-shaped apparatus shown on the 
right of the illustration and is then passed through cotton-wool into the settling 
tanks, where it is allowed to rest for about a month. It is next "racked off" into other 
tanks, the process being repeated two or three times in lieu of additional filtering pro- 
cesses. 

As olive oil is very sensitive to foreign odors and flavors, manufactui'ers are obliged 
to use the greatest care in handling and storing it. The leading manufacturers stock 
their finished marketable oils in vaults, with walls of glass tiles to facilitate the most 
scrupulous cleanliness. The merit of the finished product depends upon many different 




Olive cruslier, press and "settler*' 




Fruit bearing Branch of the Olive Tree 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



425 



points — the quality of the fruit, its condition when picked — for neither unripe nor 
over-ripe fruit will give the finer grades — and the methods of refining, etc. 

The best test is its color — that of a golden or straw j-ellow tint is best. If it is of 
greenish hue, it is either an inferior grade or it has not been well refined. When 
fresh and of good quality, it is of sweetish, nutty flavor. 

Italian olive oil is more fruity in flavor than the French, and has a more decided 
olive taste. Some people enjoy this, but the majority prefer the French, as it is more 
neutral, softer and more delicate. There is an increasing demand among the best class 
of customers for the flner grades of California olive oil, which in flavor and purity 
alike have attained front rank. 

Olive oil should not be exposed to extremes of light or temperature. Light will 
fade its color, heat will make it rancid and cold will cause it to congeal and separate. 
Cold does not however injure the quality. 

Housewives would flnd it profitable to employ olive oil more generally for cook- 
ing, etc. In the average American household it is used only for salads and salad dress- 
ing, but it is also excellent for frying — it can be heated to higher temperature than 
either lard or butter and it has no disagreeable odor or flavor. Nor is it expensive, in 
spite of the general impression to that effect, for one gallon of oil is equivalent to seven 
and a half pounds of butter for cooking. 

After all deep frying, such as fritters, doughnuts or French fried potatoes, the oil 
should be carefully strained and placed in a clean, tight bottle for further use. 

OLLA PODRIDA: one of the national dishes of Spain — a rich soup stew of meat, 
sausages, chick peas, etc. Because of the varied character of the mixture, its name is 
often used to describe any jumble of words or ideas. 



ONION: a common garden vegetable, of the lily family, cultivated in great variety 
and supplied to the markets nearly all the year round. It is a native 
of Turkey in Asia, but it has been an article of diet in various 
countries for a great many centuries, and is now grown in nearly every 
part of the world — in particularly large quantities in Germany, Spain, 
parts of Africa and parts of the United States. In quantity, it stands 
third among the "truck" crops of the United States, the most import- 
ant states being Texas, Ohio, Western New York and Connecticut. 

Among the principal varieties are the White or Silver-skinned, 
Yellow and Red — all with various names according to their size, shape, 
season and flavor. The different colors are, alone, no gauge of quality 
— there are all grades in each color and the choice is almost entirely 
one of individual preference. The demand varies in different localities 
and changes from time to time — one section will for a long time give 
the preference to Yellow, then popularity will veer to White, etc. 
Local taste is the only correct guide for the merchant on this point. 

The strong smell and flavor of the onion is due to a pungent vola- 
tile oil, rich in sulphur. When grown in warm places, it is generally 
milder and sweeter than the more northern product. Those of moder- 
ate size contain about 91% of water. ""'"" 

The earliest shipments to this country are from Bermuda — wliicli was at one time 
almost equally famous for Easter lilies and onions — but which is in the latter respect 




426 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



diminishing in importance as the result of the development of the industry in the South 
— particularly in Texas. The importations of the famous Spanish onions are, on the 
other hand, increasing yearly in volume, and Spain is now the largest individual 
exporter to this country — the United Kingdom, Bermuda and Egypt occupying the 
next most important positions. 

The domestic crop is always shipped in gunny sacks, holding about tvfo bushels, or 
in wooden boxes — never in bulk. 

Many people make a mistake in storing onions. They need to be kept dry instead of 
damp, and consequently an airy place is the best for them — though, for the same reason, 
on foggy days all windows should be kept closed. Open crates of lath, such as are used 
to ship potatoes, make good receptacles, as they afford ventilation and keep the onions 
from lying in a deep mass. When many are piled together, they are liable to sweat, 
grow and induce rot. A temperature of 34° to 40° Fahr. is best. Curing in the sun for 
several days should precede placing in the cellar. 

Care should be taken to avoid bruising, and damaged specimens should be promptly 
removed. When possible, it is a good idea to turn the stock over occasionally. If one 
has bought largely to take advantage of market rises, it is well to leave the tops on until 
it is time to make ready for market, as they tend to protect against bruising and 
the consequent liability to rot. When removing the tops, it is also advisable to avoid 
cutting too close to the bulbs. 

The uses of onions are many and varied. In this country, the fresh vegetable is 
cooked in every imaginable way, and there is a large sale of small onions pickled in 
numerous styles. Increasing in popularity also is Onion Essence or Sauce, in bottles, 
for flavoring soups, etc. In Europe, the laboring classes eat onions raw as we eat 
apples. 

A good idea for the housewife, is to keep a knife with a different-colored handle 
for peeling and cutting onions. Then there is no danger of its being used for, and car- 
rying the flavor into, other articles. The color signal proves an effective deterrent! 



OPOSSUM: a small an- 
imal of the marsupial fam- 
ily found in the Southern 
States, the Common or 
Virginia type being about 
the size of a cat, with grey- 
ish fur and black ears and 
feet. It has recently been 
popularized as a "new" 
dish among the white race 
in the North, generally 
roasted or baked and 
served with sweet potatoes 
(roasted around it) and 
corn bread. It tastes 
somewhat like young pig. 

ORACHE : a pot-herb 
which makes good "greens." 




Opossum 




ORANGES— Flowers and Fruit 



- .i«jm.iMWt - a.vjjit.ax*: 



THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



429 



ORANGES, The oi'dinary Sweet Orange appears to have been first cultivated in the 
fifteenth century, but it has since spread to every part of the world where the climate 
is of sub-tropical warmth. The tree is an evei'green of moderate height with white 
flowers of heavy, sweet fragrance and considerable beauty (see Color Page opposite 
page 426). It bears foliage, flowers and fruit simultaneously, for the fruit requires 
about twelve months to become fully ripe. Mature cultivated California trees of good 
growth will generally give from two hundred and fifty to four hundred fruit annually. 
Those in more tropical latitudes average considerably higher and often produce several 
times that number. 

The first oranges in the mai'ket are the early Floridas and, next, the Arizona 
Navels, commencing November 1 or even earlier. Then comes the bulk of the Califor- 
nia and Florida products — Navels and others. The finest summer orange is the Late 
Valencia of California, in season from the middle of June to November. 

There is an increasing demand for fancy varieties of the Tangerine type — strongly 
aromatic fruits, generally small in size and flattened at the ends, with loose dark- 
colored skins and mild, sweet, rather dry pulp. They have been nicknamed "kid- 
glove" oranges, because one can eat them without the aid of plate or spoon, as conve- 
niently as candy. The most popular of the numerous varieties are the Tangerine proper, 
the Mandarin, larger and lighter in color, the Satsuma, and the King of Siam, or 
"King" — the last named generally of fair to large size and of very rough skin (see 
Color Page of orange types opposite page 430 ) . 

The ordinary sweet orange imported from Europe is the variety known as the 
Lisbon or Portugal and its near relatives. The most noteworthy special types include 
the St. Michael; the "China," with very smooth, thin rind and abundant juice; the 
Maltese or "Blood Orange" with mottled pulp, and the Tangerine. The European Tan- 
gerine is grown in two sizes — one about half the size of an ordinary orange, and the 
other very small and sweet, scarcely an inch in diameter. The latter is seldom seen in 
this country. Still others are the Majorca, a seedless type, and the Egg Orange, so 
named from its oval shape. 

By far the greater part of the oranges eaten in the United States are now grown in 
Florida and California, supplemented by a considerable supply from Porto Rico. The 
importations from the other West Indian Islands 
and Europe, formerly very large, have been great- 
ly reduced and are still falling. A noteworthy 
X>ercentage of the present supply of imported 
oranges comes from Mexico, and there is also a 
small regular influx from Japan (chiefly of a 
type a little larger than the Mandarin), parts 
of Central America, etc. 

The fame of the California product has been 
much enhanced by the fine "Navel" or seedless 
oranges marketed in increasing quantities each 
year. Contrary to general belief, these oranges 
are not the result of scientific development by 
horticulturists. They are a natural fruit of 
special variety. 

The story of the rise of the Navel to its pres- 
ent commercial importance, reads like a fairy orange Groves m mid«inter"'caiifornir' 




430 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 




OiMimx- Irees iJiotected from freezing b^ tlie use of extensible coverings, Florida 



tale. In 1872, an United 
States Consul at Bahia, 
Brazil, sent a few young- 
seedless orange trees from 
the swamps of the Amazon 
to Washington. The fol- 
lowing year, a Mrs. Eliza 
Tibbets, of Maine, took 
three of the shrubs to 
Riverside, California, and 
planted them on land 
which her husband had 
purchased there. Two 
died, but the third sur- 
vived, throve and bore 
fruit. California growers 

were quick to appreciate the merits of the Navel and competition in its cultivation 
was very keen. As the oranges were seedless, propagation had to be accomplished by 
budding, and for a time Mrs. Tibbets secui-ed a dollar a bud for all she sold. 

In 1880, the navel orange crop was one whole box! — but since, from that one tree 
has grown an industry whose yearly value averages from fifteen to twenty million 
dollars. Tlie original tree planted by Mrs. Tibbets still lives and bears fruit. It is 
now in the court of the Glenwood Hotel, Riverside, California, where it "svas trans- 
planted with much ceremony in 1903. 

The Washington Navel, the original type, so called because the first trees were 
secured from the agricultural department in Washington, D. C, is accredited Avith bet- 
ter and longer keeping qualities than any varieties of later introduction or develop- 
ment, but that known as the Valencia is considered the choicest in flavor. 

The Florida orange is too well known to need much description. In its best types, 
it may be conservatively described as one of %e finest fruits the world has ever produced. 
The skin is generally thin, and the pulp and juice are rich in flavor and very generous 
in weight and amount. Among the best types of the mid-season Floridas are the Indian 
River and Pineapple — of the later, the Tardif. 

The best Porto Rico oranges are of delicious flavor and sweetness, but they do not 
appeal to the public as strongly as the Florida and California, the product being small 
and less "fancy" in style, because West Indian shippers have not yet learned to exer- 
cise the same care in selection, sorting and "polishing" the fruit. 

In California, oranges receive much "grooming" after leaving the parent tree — 
and they are gathered only on sunny days, as the damp fruit would attract dust, to the 
detriment of their appearance. 




Sulphuring orange trees to kill i)arasite life 




(1) Florida 
(3) Tangerine 



ORANGE5 



THE G R C E E ^ S E N C Y C L T K 1) I A 



433 



The first step after plucking, is to 
give them a bath to remove any dust that 
may liave settled on them. For this, they 
are placed in a long, narrow tank of 
Avater, at one end of which is a large wheel 
with a tire of soft bristles, revolving in 
connection with another set of brushes 
in a smaller tank below, the oranges pass- 
ing in between the wet brushes and com- 
ing out bright and clean. This device has 
almost entirely done away with the 
method of hand scrubbing, but at some of 
the smaller packing houses may still be 
seen groups of women, each busily scour- 
ing the £>olden balls. 



After their bath, the 



are 



spread out in the sun to dry, on long 
slanting racks. At the lower end, they 
roll off into boxes, to be carried away to 
the warehouses for their "rest," for A^ari- 
ous changes take place in the fruit so 
recently cut off from the sap supply, the 



skin drawing 
"sweating" or 



closer to the pulp and 
giving off moisture that 







f^^\ '^^ • ''P^ 



COPYRIGHT, TJKDEIIWOOD fi OSDEKWOOI), N, T. 

Picking: oranges, California 



would result in damage if the fruit were 
packed at once. 

After the days of curing, the oranges are fed into a hopper, which drops them on a 
belt running between revolving cylindrical brushes, which produce the smooth, shiny 
appearance of the fine market fruit, and then they go to the "sorting tables," where they 
are rapidly graded according to color and general appearance, as "Fancy," "choice," 
"standard," "culls," etc., and, mechanicall.v, by size. The "Fancy" fruit are perfect in 
form and style and with unmarred skins of the typical orange color. The lesser grades 
are principally those in which the skin is more or less stained or "russet"-brown in 
color. Other trade terms of division are "Brights," divided into "Fancies" and 
"Seconds" ; "Golden Russets," "Dark Russets," etc. The sorting tables are built at a 
slight incline and the divided streams of oranges run in files on tracks of moving ropes. 
The smallest fruit falls through first, and so on to the largest, the oranges graduating 
themselves into their proper bins. There are twelve principal sizes, from those which 
run three hundred and sixty to a box, to the big specimens which take only forty-eight. 

ShariJ corners are avoided or carefully padded in all these processes, for the fruit 
is so susceptible that even a small scratch might fester and destroy its merit between 
shipping point and destination. For the same reason, handlers and packers are obliged 
to keep their finger nails short and filed smooth. 

Finally comes the wrapping of the finer fruit in paper — there are machines which 
can each handle forty thousand to fifty thousand a day — and the packing in boxes, the 
barrel method of shipping having been almost entirely superseded. 

Though only fruit of fair size and appearance are, as a rule, offered for sale to the 
public, there is use for all undersized specimens. Very small oranges, generally unripe, 



434 THEGEOCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

are preserved whole in sugar as a sweetmeat, or used to make some varieties of 
''curagoa" and other liqueurs, for juices and jams or marmalades, extracts, essential 
oils, etc. 

The orange peel most in demand for confectionery, preserves, candying, etc., is, 
however, that of the sour or Seville orange, described in the next article. 

Eipe oranges should be stored in a cool, dry place with a temperature never much 
iibove 40° Fahr. and never falling to the freezing point. If subjected to careful sort- 
ing beforehand and properly crated, they will at that temperature generally remain 
sound for from eight to twelve weeks. For a moderate length of time, they will stand 
warmth up to 80° or 85° Fahr., but anything beyond that will dry and shrivel them. In 
warm weather, a plentiful supply of fresh air is essential to their proper keeping, 
whether in transportation or in store or home. Wrapping in soft paper and packing 
in sawdust is recommended. The thin-skinned varieties are especially liable to absorb 
odors, so proximity to strong smelling articles should be avoided. 

Oranges received in a green state may be ripened in a temperature of 70° to 75° 
Fahr. While ripening, it is well to cover the boxes with burlap soaked in water. 

Oranges are probably the most wholesome and useful of all the sub-acid fruits. 
Their juice differs from that of the lemon chiefly in containing less citric acid and more 
sugar. Their free and regular consumption is beneficial to nearly everyone and with 
many persons they are a real specific for ill health based on digestive disorders. 

A point to be remembered by the consumer is that many a choice fruit is concealed 
in a mottled-looking skin! Weight for size, ripeness and soundness, are the principal 
points for consideration. All of these may be found equally in those of "fancy" and 
those of less pleasing appearance. Both "Brights" and "Russets" may be plucked from 
the same tree and under the skin will average exactly the same in quality. The russet 
color is caused by the puncturing of the rind by a tiny insect known as the 
Rust Mite, which permits the oil of the rind to exude — but the mite does not touch 
nor affect the fruit pulp. "Golden Russets" are those attacked later or in less degree. 
For ordinary family purposes it is not necessary to confine oneself to the more expensive 
fruits, classed as "fancy" because of their handsome exteriors. 

Seville Orange, Bigarade Orange, Sour Orange. The foregoing article dealt with 
the ordinary Sweet Orange, the one with which the general public is almost exclusively 
familiar. The first orange known to civilization was, however, the Seville or Sour 
Orange, the French Bigarade, which was brought into Spain by the Moors early in the 
eighth century, nearly seven hundred years before the Sweet Orange made its appear- 
ance in Europe. 

The Seville Orange tree is smaller than that bearing the Sweet Orange, more 
inclined to be spiney and with leaves more nearly elliptical in shape. The oil cells of 
the fruit are concave and both the pulp and rind are heavier and coarser. 

Unless very ripe and considerably sweetened, the Seville orange is not to the 
average palate a pleasing fruit to be eaten raw, but it is grown very largely through- 
out Southern Europe, and to some extent here, for use preserved and in liqueurs, per- 
fumery, etc. 

In the preserved form it is best known as Marmalade (which see), but great quan- 
tities of the green fruit are also preserved and candied whole. The peels, by distilla- 
tion, furnish the characteristic principle of Ciiragoa and are similarly utilized for 
many other liqueurs, flavoring syrups, etc., and medicinally as a stomachic. Neroli, 



436 THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



or Orange Flower Oil, aud Orange Floicer Watei-, produced in France in enormous 
quantities for perfumery, soap manufacture, syrups, liqueurs, etc., are made from the 
blossoms and, lesser grades, from the leaves and small twigs. 

The greater part of the commercial supjdy of orange flowers is obtained from the 
especially developed variety known in France as Le Bouquetier, or '•'Nosegay Plant," 
Avhich furnishes also the "orange blossoms'" (»f the European florists. The flowers are 
similar to those of the Sweet Orange, but in Le Bouquetier they grow in thick clusters 
at the end of the branches. There are some varieties with double blossoms and others 
with myrtle and purplish-white flowers. 

The practice of wearing orange blossoms by brides is derived from the Saracens, 
among whom it Avas regarded as emblematic of happiness aud prosperity. 

South America is also important as a source of orange-flower and leaf essence — 
in Paraguay, for example, the wdld groves are dotted with numerous small establish- 
ments devoted to the industry. In addition to its commercial uses, the extract is 
employed locally as a healing ointment and the dried flowers are made into a gently 
stimulating beverage. In some places, a "Tea" brewed from the leaves is considered 
efficacious in fever cases. 

The Spaniards brought the Seville Orange to Florida and there it found a soil and 
climate so well suited to its requirements that wild groves were soon to be found all 
over the State — to such an extent, indeed, that many authorities held for a long time 
that the tree must be native to the country. The wild groves have, however, almost 
entirely disappeared — many of them were killed by the severe freezing spells of a few 
decades ago, and a majority of the remainder have been budded to the Sweet variety. 

The Sour-Sweet orange is merely a local variety or adaptation of the Seville. 

ORANGE AMANITA. See sub-head in article on Mushrooms. 

ORANGE BLOSSOMS: are employed in the preparation of many Southern pud- 
dings, ices, etc., being crushed to bring out the flavor as strongly as possible, and they 
are also candied whole in the same way as violets, but their chief use is in the manufac- 
ture of Neroli and Orange Flower Water. 

ORANGE EXTRACT: is made in the same ways as Lemon Extract (Avhich see), 
and the orange oil used is extracted in the same manner as Lemon Oil. nearly all the 
trade supply coming from Sicily. 

ORANGE FLOWER OIL. See matter following trade title of Xeroli. 

ORANGE FLOWER WATER: the fragrant liquid resulting from the distillation 
of orange blossoms after the essential oil, ISTeroli, has been remoA'ed. It is used in the 
making of syrups, perfumery, soaps, etc., aiul in the household in the preparation of 
various desserts. 

ORANGE MARMALADE. See general article on Marmalade. 

ORANGEADE: an orange beverage similar to lemonade in preparation. 

ORANGEAT : a term applied both to candied orange peel and to orangeade. 

ORCHANET. See matter following heading of Alkanet. 

ORGEAT: a form of Almond Syrup (which see). 




OYSTERS (.and method of oyster-dredging) 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 439 

ORMERS : a shellfish found on the coast of Florida. The flavor may be described as 
between that of oysters and very delicate veal. 

ORTOLAN: a European bird about the size of a lark, distinguished by its black 
wings and greenish-grey head. When fat, it is considered a great delicacy. The "Orto- 
lans" sold here are generally various kinds of small "reed" birds. 

OTAHEITE APPLE: a fruit of the cashew family, about the size of an apple and 
generally resembling an orange in color. Its rind has an odor suggestive of turpentine 
but the pulp resembles the pineapple in aroma and flavor. 

OUTING SUPPLIES. When the summer approaches it is well for the retailer to 
bear in mind that "outing supplies" afford liberal profits. If a dealer proves himself 
expert in furnishing needed outfits, packing in a superior manner, etc., the informa- 
tion spreads rapidly among customers, for a judiciously selected and arranged supply 
of good things to eat is equally important whether the buyers merely intend to spend 
the day in a city park or are going further afield. 

Among the many articles that may be appropriately suggested for any occasion 
are: crackers and sweet biscuits; cheese, of the types easily handled; pickles, olives, 
candy, etc., and canned goods such as salmon, sardines, tongue, devilled meats, boned 
game and poultry, condensed milk, fruits, etc. 

Camping parties offer a still wider range of possibilities, for the supplies should 
also include sugar, tea, coffee, salt and pepper ; butter of the very best quality, in screw- 
top glass jars; pilot bread for chowder or to use with the early cup of coffee; toilet soap 
and a bar of laundry soap, matches, etc. These are only sample suggestions, for there 
are scores of other articles in a grocer's stock that may be included. 

Worthy of consideration also are the numerous "camp kits" composed of collapsi- 
ble articles that occupy little space and enhance the comfort of a camping party. In- 
cluded are usually found various cooking utensils and a stove, the whole fitting closely 
together and capable of being packed in a big boiling pot or fitted into a box that may 
be slung over the shoulder. A wisely selected kit will include a stove, kettle, frying 
pan, gridiron, coffee pot, a few canisters and pepper and salt boxes. 

As individual items, are collapsible chafing dishes and picnic baskets of various 
kinds and sizes. 

In many places it pays to advertise in local papers a readiness to meet all demands 
for outing supplies; to send special circulars to customers, and to scatter advertising 
matter throughout the district. 



'&^ 



OYSTERS. One of the most democratic of food luxuries is the oyster — you find it 
in high favor in the most expensive establishments, yet it is equally abundant in "popu- 
lar price" restaurants, in lunch rooms and in the cheapest of eating stalls. In stores, 
it is sold both in and out of the shell, fresh and canned, and it is eaten in every con- 
ceivable way! 

Among the best known varieties are: Blue Points, Eockaways, Lynnhavens, 
Saddle Kocks, Cotuits, Cape Cods, Buzzard Bays, etc. 

These titles have in many sections lost much of their first significance by trade 
misuse. "Blue Point," for example, is often, though incorrectly, applied to all small 
oysters, irrespective of their geographical source; and "Rockaway" and "Saddle Rock," 

2U 



440 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



particularly the former, are similarly employed for large sizes. As a matter of fact, 
there are both small and large oysters of all varieties, the difference in size being chiefly 
that of age. 

A small quantity of European oysters is imported every year — particularly of 
the French Marennes, which has a greenish color from feeding on a green seaweed, but 
it is intended only for limited consumption in a few cosmopolitan establishments. The 
general trend is the other way 'round, for every year sees large exports of American 
oysters, which are almost universally conceded to be the finest in the world. 

Oysters have been enjoyed as food as far back as history takes. us and have been an 
object of special culture for a couple of thousand years. Every country has its own 
particular method of cultivation, for within the last century even those sections where 
the natural crop is largest have been compelled to resort to special growing to keep 
pace with the enormous annual consumption. 

In England, the most popular method consists in spreading the brood-oysters over 
smooth, hard, clean areas. In Holland and France, they are bred on tiles ranged 
sideways in rows along the shores and thence later removed to the deeper waters from 
which they are dredged for the market. In this country, the seed-oysters are gener- 
ally spread on a carefully laid bed of old shells — oyster shells, mussel shells, etc. 

The growing period intervening between the first setting and the final shifting, is 
ordinarily three years, but is subject to variations in accordance with the size of the 
seed when planted, its rate of growth, the size desired, etc. On some grounds the rate 
of growth is much more rapid than on others. 

Between March 1 and July 1, the planter 
shifts the oysters he intends to market in the fall, 
from beds of soft bottom to those of hard bottom. 
This change has been found beneficial to the 
oyster, as it clears it of mud and other extraneous 
substances and improves its color and flavor, and 
it also gives an opportunity for separating the 
clusters, when necessary, into single oysters. The 
bed thus cleared by shifting is replanted with 
seed-oysters, obtained generally from natural 
beds. 

The season for marketing opens with Sep- 
tember. The oysters are taken by means of 
dredges and tongs and are prepared for the mar- 
ket by "culling" or sorting by sizes, the dirt and 
attached shells being removed during the process. 
In some cases the cleaning is assisted by dump- 
ing them on the sand at low tide, removing them 
at the next low tide. 

The three sizes chiefly recognized in the trade are "half-shells," the smallest, 
usually preferred for eating raw ; "culls," medium size, for consumption raw, stewing, 
etc.; and "box," the largest, generally for frying — although true oyster lovers take 
delight in large Lynnhavens or other deep sea oysters "on the half-shell." 

The eating of oysters raw is as correct from a hygienic standpoint as from that of 
the epicure. Eaw, the component parts of the oyster practically digest themselves in 
the human stomach. Cooked, the human stomach must do the work as for other food. 




A mountain of "Seed" Oysters ready for planting, 
Hampton, Va. 






(1) Raking 



the " oj'--Ui 
(3) Loadiiif; 



Ij;irk-" ;iiKi ])l;i(.iiiir Uir .]y.-,ter-; in tlie trays or " c.'irriers. 
a thttland, ;i hirye tJat-ljottorned buat used for transporting; 



■■ (?) Fillinp: sacks from the ' 
the filled sacks or baskets 



THE OYSTER INDUSTRY AT LOCMARIAQUER AND LA TRINITE-SUR-MER, FRANCE 



fealiliBfehMtff iftiriaffiiiii?!^ .,11 








(I) Gathering oysters at low tide. (2) Unloading the Chalands 
THE OYSTER INDUSTRY AT LOCMARIAQUER AND LA TRINITE-SUR-MER FRANCE 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



443 



California oysters are very mucli like those of the Mediterranean and other parts 
of Europe — small and of the same coppery taste. Those found further north, on the 
coasts of Oregon and Washington, are similar to the Atlantic varieties. 

Large quantities ai'e grown also in Japan and China, and in the latter country 
there is a heavy trade in dried oysters, the bivalves being cooked and then sun-dried. 

The oyster is peculiar in the fact that age makes no diif erence in its tenderness. 
Custom and trade demands result in its being consumed while still young and com- 
parativeh' small, but if left to live until old and very much larger, the flesh is just as 
tender and fresh. The illustration on page 444 shows the aA^erage size of an oyster at 
the ages of one, two, six and eight years. 

By almost universal custom, oysters are tabooed during the months of May, June, 
July and August, but there is really no good reason for thus banishing them from the 
bill of fare. The oyster is not a desirable article of diet when spawning, which period 
covers from three to four weeks, but as the time of spawning differs in various locali- 
ties, no elimination of certain fixed invariable months can ensure protection against 




A tj'pical Tong Boat, and men "tonging" oysters 

tlieir use in that condition, and the same care that is now exercised during eight months 
in the year could certainly be extended to cover the remaining four. 

The rule is, however, a tradition of great and venerable age! It was first, we 
believe, put on record in 1599, by a certain Dr. Butler, the vicar of an English 
country parish — but he can hardly be considered an authority sufficiently weighty to 
bind the human race for all time to come ! The custom has been sustained with some 
reservations by recent European investigations, because of a disease apparently 
peculiar to that hemisphere to which oysters cultivated there are subject during the 
summer months, but the symptoms noted have not been found in this country to any 
appreciable extent and to little, if any, greater degree in summer than at other 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



445 



seasons. In some sections of the United States, oysters have indeed always been eaten 
as freely in summer as in winter without any bad effects being noted. 

A valuable peculiarity of oysters is the ease with which their lives can be sus- 
tained for a long time after being removed from their native element. Placed in a 
cool damp place, with the deep shell down and occasionally sprinkled with brackish 




Turtle Rock, Newport River, showing a section of tonging area 
(From a pliotograph taken at very low tide) 

water, they may be kept alive and in good condition for weeks. This tenacity is 
attributed to the liquor in the shells, which serves to sustain the respiratory currents. 

When removed from the shell or "shucked," the oyster may still be kept in edible 
condition for several days, but it is then necessary to remove its liquor, for, although 
this is the medium by which existence is sustained while in the shell, it has been 
found to have the opposite effect after shucking. Shucked oysters which are to be 
transported any considerable distance, are carefully washed, frequently in five or six 
waters, until no particle of any substance but the bivalve itself remains. Thus pre- 
pared, packed in air-tight receptacles and kept cold, they may be held eight to ten 
days without injuring their flavor or otherwise affecting them as an article of food. 

Oysters should always be kept in a cool place, but never where there is any danger 
of freezing. The Color Page oi Oysters faces page 436. 

OYSTER CRABS. See reference in article on Crabs. 



OYSTER PLANT or Salsify : a vegetable, native to Europe and now generally grown 
in this country, chiefly for its long and tapering root, which is white and fleshy in 
texture and contains a large proportion of milky-white juice. It owes its name to 



446 THE GROOEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

its resemblance in flavor, when cooked, to that of the oyster. There are two main 
varieties, the "White" and the "Black," distinguished by the color of the outside skin, 
the meat of both types being white. The Black Salsify is also known as Scorsonera. 
The best market season is during July and August, the home supply being supple- 
mented by imports from Europe, principally from Belgium and Germany. 

Oyster Plant is prepared in various ways — half-boiled and grated fine, made into 
small flat balls, dipped in a batter and fried like oysters— or stewed like carrots, etc. 

The young flower stalks, if cut in the spring of the second year, may be dressed and 
served like asparagus, which they resemble in flavor. The white part of the stalk and 
the young top leaves, if well bleached, make an excellent salad. 

PADDY: a name applied to rice before the hull has been removed (see Rice). 

PALM OIL: is made from the oily, generally red, pulp surrounding the nuts of sev- 
eral varieties of the low thick-trunked Oil Palm, found in Africa and South America. 
When fresh, it is generally orange-yellow and of pleasing odor. The color changes 
with age to red or dirty white, and old stock and inferior grades obtained by local 
methods of fermentation, are rank in flavor and disagreeable in smell prior to refining. 

Palm Kernel, or Palm Nut, Oil: is obtained by expression or chemical extraction 
from the kernels of the same fruit. It is generally white or pink and of agreeable odor 
and taste, resembling cocoanut oil and being frequently substituted for it. 

PALM TREES : endogenous plants, native to tropical regions, often growing to great 
height and generally with straight bare stems and tops of constantly growing, long 
green leaves. Mark Twain likened them to "huge feather-dusters." No other genus of 
plants has been so generous a provider for the needs of mankind. The two types 
most important to civilization are the Date and the Cocoanut, 

PALMETTO, or Gahhage Palm : a palm growing freely in the Southern States. The 
young leaf buds are eaten like cabbage and are very delicate in flavor. The mature 
leaves are used in hat manufacture. 

PANCAKES. The pancake is probably the oldest form of bread. Ancient ceremonies 
connected with it are still practiced in some places, although, generally speaking, their 
first significance long ago passed into oblivion. The most widely observed is the popu- 
lar custom in many communities of eating them on Shrove Tuesday, which, especially 
in Prance, often develops into a veritable pancake feast. 

English, American and French pancakes all have distinctively national character- 
istics. The old-fashioned English type is the lightest of all, as the batter is mixed with 
ale and allowed to rise. This method also makes the English pancake thicker than 
the American. It is properly served flat, as also is the American, instead of folded like 
the French, piping hot, dusted with pulverized sugar and sprinkled with lemon juice. 

The American "batter cake" is usually raised by means of baking powder or yeast, 
but not with ale nor to the same extent as the English. 

French pancakes contain no leavening material other than the eggs which are in- 
cluded in the best receipts — it is only their thinness that prevents them from being 
tough. They are generally spread with jam or jelly, rolled up omelet fashion, covered 
with sugar and glazed by melting the sugar in an oven or branding with a red-hot iron. 




Culllwitcil 



OYSTER PLAN! s,,iMI\ 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



4t9 



PANCREAS. See remarks in article on Sweetbread. 

PAP AW, Paw-Paw, Papaya. As the result of an erroneous impression that they 
are related, there are two entirely different fruits known under the name of "Papaw." 
One is a wild fruit of the middle United States ; the other is a tropical product. 

The North American Papaw is 
shaped somewhat like a short banana, 
but thicker. When ripe, it contains a 
yellowish pulp which resembles an over- 
ripe muskmelon in taste. It is excellent 
cooked, but opinions are divided as to its 
desirability for eating raw- — ^some people 
pronounce it delicious, but its peculiar 
flavor is not generally appreciated. 

The tropical Papaw, supplied to 
American markets chiefly from Florida 
and the West Indies, is about the size 
of a cantaloupe, elongated in shape and 
with a thick, greenish or dull-orange 
roughly corrugated skin. It is eaten raw 
with salt, being agreeable in flavor when 
at its best, and also cooked and pickled, 
particularly the last-named. It is especi- 
ally noteworthy for the character of its 
juice, which includes a principle known 
as "Papain," which has much the same 
digestive eifect as pepsin, and also 
"fibrine," a principle rarely found outside 
the animal kingdom which has been 
described as "blood without color." 

Water containing a few drops of 

papaw juice is said to possess the prop- Papaw Tree, Honolulu 

erty of imparting tenderness to tough meat immersed in it for a few minutes. 




PAPER: was first made at Nuremberg in the year 1390 ; in England, in 1450, and in 
America, near Philadelphia, in 1690. It was probably known in China 2,000 years ago. 

Modern paper is manufactured from a great variety of articles — wood, rags, rope, 
etc. — reduced to a pulp. Bag-paper is made principally from wood pulp, the wood 
being converted by either mechanical or chemical means. 

Mechanically-made pulp consists of the wood ground up, generally by water pres- 
sure, and then pressed into thick sheets or "blankets." 

When chemically treated, the wood is cut into chips and treated with sulphurous 
or other acid. The pulp finally appears in "blankets" as from the mechanical process. 

The next step is the mixing of different kinds of pulp to produce the desired 
grades of paper, followed by "beating," in which the fibres are drawn out and the 
pulp again thoroughly mixed, various chemicals being added for "size" and color, etc. 
The "stock" is then ready for the paper machine, where the fibres are shaken on mov- 
ing wire cloth, the greater part of the water being thus removed and the fibres so 



450 



THE GROCERY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



interlocked as to obtain tlie desired strength. Next comes the drying, a very important 
process — thorough dryness is essential, yet paper that is overdried is brittle and 
entirely unsuitable for bag purposes, etc. 

Paper is put up in reams, containing when full count twenty quires of twenty-four 
sheets each. It is sold by count, but is usually short of the standard number of sheets 
called for by the ream, quire, etc. Its quality for bags, etc., is easily tested by its 
strength in comparison with its weight. See also Bags and Waxed Paper. 




Paprika Peppers. Whole dried fruits as they appear when ready for market 



PAPRIKA, called also Hungarian Pepper and Sweet Cayenne Pepper: is the 

powdered flesh of a long 
large-fruited variety of cap- 
sicum, grown principally in 
Hungary and Spain but also 
to an increasing extent here. 
It is red and mildly pungent. 

The several grades are 
determined by the selection 
of the peppers and their 
treatment both before and 
after grinding. Pods of especially reddish color and mild flavor are considered the 
choicest. Sharpness of taste denotes inferiority. 

Paprika is a very valuable spice for flavoring dishes and is almost universally 
liked even on the first use. It should always be kept dry. 

PARADISE NUT (see Color Page opposite 
410 ) : a sweet oily nut resembling the Brazil Nut, 
but with a thinner, smoother shell, the fruit of a 
large forest tree growing in the Amazon valley. 
The nuts are formed inside a large urn-shaped 
shell, commonly known as a "Monkey Pot," simi- 
lar in construction to that enclosing Brazil 

Nuts but generally 
much larger. 

The high cost 
and comparative 
scarcity of Paradise 
Nuts are attribu- 
table to the fact 
that when the ma- 
ture pod falls to the 
ground, the natural 
gas formed inside 
blows out the neat- 
ly fitting lid which 
nature has fash- 
ioned for the top of 
the urn or "pot," 
scattering many of 

Paradise Nuts and the "Monkey Pot" in which they develop i,oiie-flfth average size) 





THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



451 



the nuts among the dense tropical undergrowth and at the same time emitting a char- 
acteristic report which brings all the monkeys in the neighborhood rushing to the 
feast ! 

PARAFFIN, Paraffin Wax: a whitish waxy substance, tasteless and almost odor- 
less, obtained as a by-product in the refining of petroleum. It is employed in a great 
many trades and professions, its uses being almost innumerable. It is best known 
to the average person as an easy and eflflcient sealer of preserve jars, as a substitute 
for wax in ironing and for other purposes in the family laundry, for waxing floors, etc. 
It is employed in creameries to coat the inside of wooden butter packages ; by pickle 
makers for similar treatment of barrels, kegs, etc. ; by packers for coating hams, etc., 
and in the manufacture of candles, etc. 

For the sealing of preserve glasses and bottles, paraffin is simply melted and 
poured on top of the preserve — it forms a cake which makes an air-tight seal with 
no further labor to the housewife. This use has become very popular. 

Paraffin must not be kept near steam pipes or radiators, or in the sun. See also 
Waxed Paper. 

PARCHMENT PAPER. See under Waxed Paper. 

PARMESAN: the most popular grated cheese. See Cheese. 

PARR: a young salmon. Up to the age of two years the salmon has dark mark- 
ings and is without the silvery lustre which characterizes it when mature. See also 
special article on Salmon. 

PARSLEY: a favorite kitchen herb, popular for garnishing and flavoring, for the 

latter purpose being sold both fresh and dried. Common Parsley is 

said to be native to Egypt but it is now thoroughly naturalized both 

here and in several European countries. The variety chiefly 

grown is the curly leafed type. The finest received in the Eastern 

markets comes from Bermuda. 

In addition to its flavoring qualities, parsley contains an essen- 
tial oil which is mildly stimulating. 

Hamburg Parsley, or Turnip-Rooted Parsley, is a special 
variety grown in Europe for its large, white root, which is cooked 
in the same way as the parsnip and tastes somewhat like celeriac. 




PARSNIP: 




Common Parsley 

a vegetable of the parsley family, which grows wild in many parts of 
Europe and Asia. The Romans are credited with having been the first 
to cultivate it. It is one of the most nutritious roots, popular for 
table purposes and surpassed only by the beet as a food for cattle. 

In parts of England and Ireland a "wine" is made from the 
fermented roots. 

Parsnips make their best growth very late in the fall and it is 
customary to leave part of the crop in the ground over the winter, the 
frost action improving the flavor. Dug roots should be kept in a cool 
cellar or similar place, protected both from light and air currents. 



452 THE GR OGEE'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

PARTNERSHIP. A partnersliip exists wherever two or more persons combine their 
labor or capital, or both, to secure the profits to be produced thereby. The terms upon 
which this is to be effected are regulated by agreement between the parties and are 
generally, although not necessarily, expressed in a written instrument called "Articles 
of Partnership." 

Partners are agents for each other, and any one may bind the firm in transactions 
within the scope of the firm's business, and each one, whether he be known to the 
world or not, as in the case of a "dormant" partner, is individually liable for the 
firm's debts. That one who shares in the profits of a business must share in its losses, 
is a general principle. No arrangements among the partners themselves can alter these 
facts to the prejudice of third parties, hence no one should enter a partnership without 
reflecting that he commits the whole of his fortune to the integrity and intelligence 
of his associates. On the other hand, any person dealing with a partner in any matter 
within the scope of the firm's business, knows that he has the security not only of the 
firm's property, but also of the property of the individual partners. 

Although it is a general rule that only those who share in the firm's profits can 
be held liable as partners, one without share may be made liable by allowing his name 
to be used or himself to be held out to the world as a partner, so it is essential that one 
retiring from a firm should not Only advertise the dissolution in the newspapers, but 
should also send special notice of his retirement, by circular, to all persons who have 
been in the habit of dealing with the firm. 

There are statutes in a majority of states which enable persons to contribute 
money loans or personal property as "special" partners, and limit their liability to 
their actual contribution. This is often called a "limited partnership" and the firm 
name announces it as "Brown & Smith, Limited." Legal advice is most important 
in entering into any such relation. 

PARTRIDGE. In different parts of the United States, the title "partridge" is 
given to various American birds, but in strict parlance it is applicable only to the Euro- 
pean bird of that name. Kecent attempts to propagate the true partridge have en- 
couraged the expectation that it will in time be added to the list of American game 
birds. There are two principal varieties — -the Grey and the Red-legged or "French 
Partridge." A large number of killed birds are imported every year for local consump- 
tion. Young birds may be distinguished by their tender unworn beaks and sharp toes 
and by the fine skin over their legs. 

Good general usage now applies the name "American Partridge" to the native 
"Ruffed Grouse" (see Grouse). 

PASTES. The term "Paste" is popularly employed in a great diversity of ways. 
Among the articles so styled are (1) for culinary purposes — glutenous dough mixtures 
similar to macaroni made in fancy forms, such as letters, animals, stars, etc., generally 
used in soiaps; (2) in candy-making — stiff forms, such as Jujube Paste, Pig Paste, etc. ; 
(3) Fish Pastes and Meat Pastes (see Potted Meats) ; (4) Furniture Paste, or 
Cream, composed of beeswax and turpentine, etc., for cleansing and polishing furni- 
ture, and (5) an adhesive mixture generally, or chiefiy, of flour and water. 

PASTILLES: a class title for lozenges, gum drops and similar confections. In 
medical practice, the word has other specific meanings. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



453 



PASTRY: a class name for a variety of articles made of light, puffy dough, as pies, 
tarts, etc. The finest and richest kind is usually termed Puff Paste, which requires 
considerable skill, as its success largely depends on lightness of hand in kneading. 

PATES: meat preparations, both domestic and imported from France, Germany and 
elsewhere, put up in earthenware jars, tins and boxes. They are so called because 
they were originally sold in pastry or "pat6'' form. The most famous of all is the "PM6 
de Foie Gras" or goose liver pat6, described under Foie Gras. Other noted examples 
are the chicken and ham pates from Kouen, France ; those of trufiied game and poultry 
from P^rigueux, Angouleme and Nerac; woodcock, from Montreuil; duck from 
Amiens; game from Pithiviers, Ohartres and Nogent-le-Kotrou, and fish from Abbe- 
ville. Pates should always be thoroughly chilled before serving. 

PAW-PAW. See matter under title of Papav\'. 




PEA. The Pea is one of our most valuable and most nutritious vegetables. Those 
cultivated for table use are grouped in two main classes — "edible-podded," and "tough- 
podded" or shelling. Tough-podded peas 
may be divided into two chief types, those 
with smooth seeds and those with 
wrinkled, the former being the more at- 
tractive to the eye but the latter generally 
the sweeter and therefore more desirable. 
Edible-podded peas are little cultivated 
here, but in Europe large quantities are 
grown for use in the same way as string 
beans. 

The Cowpea, or "field pea" of the 
South, belongs to the bean family (see 
Beans). 

Peas should always be kept in a dry, 

cool place. Xougli-podded or Shelling Peas 

Canned Green Peas. Green peas are extensively canned both in this country and 
Europe. The market offerings vary very much in quality, many of the cheaper packings 
described as "green peas" being merely dried peas soaked in water and canned — a 
practice often resorted to by unscrupulous parties when prices are high. 

Careful sorting and separating precede the putting up of the better grades. The 
general formula calls for equal quantities of brine and green peas in each can, with 
sometimes the addition of sugar, the sealed cans being cooked and sterilized in similar 
manner to other canned vegetables. The domestic output is graded as "Fancy," "Stand- 
ard," "Seconds," etc. 

The most expensive grades are those imported from France. Peas preserved by 
the French process retain their natural flavor but are artificially colored, as in prepara- 
tion their original green hue becomes slightly yellow. The coloring process consists 
in placing them before canning in a solution containing sulphate of copper in the pro- 
portion generally of one gram to a liter of water. "Extra fine" peas are allowed to 
remain in the liquid for eight to ten minutes; "fine" peas, seven to eight minutes; 



#54 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

"medium" peas, six minutes, and "coarse" peas, five minutes. The peas so treated 
resume and retain a fine green color, hence their name of Petits Pois reverdis. 

French peas are also prepared in a number of special forms — the most important 
of which is Petits Pois au Beurre, "small, or new, peas in butter." Ordinary canned 
peas require seasoning before service, but in this style the seasoning is added before 
canning and they require nothing but heating. A well-trained palate is needed to dis- 
tinguish them from the fresh vegetable. , 

"Evaporated" Green and "Split" Ripe Peas. During the last few years the market 
has taken an increasing quantity of evaporated green peas, both whole and "split," 
domestic and imported. They are sold at much lower prices than the canned goods and 
they make a very pleasing dish. The peas after hulling are steamed, then slowly dried 
in the evaporator by a current of warm air not above 162° Fahr., and finally screened 
and graded by size. The smallest, being the most savory, bring the highest prices. 

There is also a fair consumption of the ripe pea, hulled and "split," but it merits 
much wider appreciation. Its food value is very high (see article on Food Values). 
In Europe, it is as largely consumed as the dried bean. 

When preparing dried or evaporated peas for the table, they should be soaked in 
cold water for eight or ten hours, during which they will resume their normal size and 
moisture. The subsequent boiling should be long and slow to make them easily digesti- 
ble, but they are well worth the trouble. 

Pea, or Pease, Soup is especially agreeable to the palate if a little meat — fresh-beef, 
ham or salt pork, etc. — is boiled in it. 

PEA FLOUR: offers the nutritive value of the dried ripe pea in convenient form for 
easy preparation. As however it is easily adulterated, caution is advisable when pur- 
chasing. It is used in the preparation of pea soup, as a thickener of other soups or 
added to them in the form of small cakes or balls rendered cohesive by mixing with a 
little fat — and in many other ways. "Erbswurst," one of the staples of the German 
army and famous as a condensed food of high merit, is a mixture of pea flour, fat and 
condiments. 

PEACH: a fruit belonging to the almond family, native to Persia but now culti- 
vated in all temperate climates. There are a great many varieties, capable of general 
classification under "White" and "Yellow," both types being again divisible into "Free- 
stones," with flesh pulling free from the stone, and "Clingstones," with the flesh 
adhering to it. 

The "Peen-to," in shape somewhat like a tomato, is a Chinese variety now largely 
grown in some semi-tropical sections of North America. 

In addition to their consumption as a fresh fruit, vast quantities of peaches are 
canned, dried and evaporated, principally the first-named. Lemon and Orange "clings" 
and Crawford "freestones" are among the most popular types for canning. Dried 
peaches come from California, the annual product amounting to from twenty to thirty 
thousand tons. The most widely sold of evaporated peaches are those from Delaware. 
Peeled dried or evaporated peaches retailed in cartons bring double the price of the 
bulk product. 

Fresh peaches are imported from Bermuda toward the end of April and realize 
fancy prices at that time. They come from the South during June, and from New 




PEACHES 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 457 



Jersey about the middle of July. The season is at its height in July and August and 
ends in October. 

They should be turned over as speedily as possible, as they quickly deteriorate. 
They keep best and longest— if properly selected and crated, for two to four weeks — 
in a temperature of 34° to 36° Fahr. Above that, the process of ripening continues 
and soon spoils them. 

They should not be eaten raw unless thoroughly ripe, but in that condition they 
are accounted among the most wholesome and "safest" of all fruits for sick and well 
alike. 

Among other commercial products of importance obtained from the peach are 
Almond Oil, from the seeds or kernels, Peach brandy, Peach loater and Persicot (see 
Liqueurs). 

PEACH BRANDY: is obtained by distilling the fermented juice of the fruit. Its 
consumption was once large, but it has greatly diminished within recent years. 

PEACH "PALM": a South American tree bearing a fruit that suggests the apricot 
in appearance though it is somewhat triangular in form. It is generally eaten roasted 
and otherwise cooked. The dried and ground meal is also made into a cake of pleasing 
flavor. 

PEACH WATER: is produced by bruising fresh peach leaves into a pulp with 
water, and then distilling. It has the smell and taste of bitter almonds and is used 
for flavoring. 

PEACOCK. During the Middle Ages, the peacock frequently graced the banquet 
table, cooked whole and served with its own gorgeous plumage as garnishing, but 
modern taste has condemned the flesh of the mature bird as unpleasant and in every 
way undesirable. There exists, however, a limited demand for young peafowl, with 
preference for the young peahen. The flesh is abimdant in proportion to the bone, but 
its quality is a matter of individual opinion — some declare it to be very pleasing and 
delicate, others decry it as tasteless and dry. 

PEAFOWL. See matter under preceding caption of Peacock. 

PEANUTS. The plant which produces the fruit generally known as the Peanut in 
this country, and as the Groundnut in Europe, is one of a class which bury their pods 
in the earth to ripen, instead of raising them into the air (see Color Page opposite 458). 
In order to effect this, the flower-stalk, holding the very young pod, gradually curves 
downward after the flower has passed away and finally forces its point perpendicu- 
larly into the soil. When it has penetrated to a sufficient depth, the pod begins to swell, 
and when ripe becomes the oblong, rugged, pale brown fruit, usually containing two 
seeds, so well known to consumers. 

The peanut is native to Brazil, but is to-day cultivated in all sub-tropical and 
tropical countries. About 300 million pounds are annually raised in the United States, 
and a total of nearly 600 million pounds in Africa, Spain, China, Japan, Java, etc. 

The American crop is consumed principally in the form of the whole nut, peanut 
butter and peanut candy. There is also a growing market for peanut oil, peanut 



458 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

meal, etc. A few million pounds of the American product are annually exported, but 
to offset this is a small but steady importation, principally of the small but especially 
delicate Spanish type, both whole and shelled. 

The 400 or 500 million pounds sent to Europe every year from Africa and Asia 
are chiefly converted into oils and flour in factories at Marseilles, France — and in 
lesser quantities at other points on the Continent and in England. 

Eetailers find it profitable to cater to the increasing demand for the nuts them- 
selves, fresh roasted and salted, and products such as peanut butter, both for regular 
home consumption and for party and picnic purposes. 

The commercial history of the peanut in this country commences with the Civil 
War. Before that time, only a few garden peanuts were grown in Virginia and the 
Carolinas for family use — almost as curiosities. During the war, soldiers discovered 
that they made excellent food, and the result was that in the years succeeding the end 
of hostilities the acreage assigned to them steadily increased, until to-day when the 
crop employs nearly 200,000 persons and covers between 300,000 and 400,000 acres. In 
parts of Virginia and North Carolina, it is of more importance that corn or wheat. 

Virginia and North Carolina produce more than half of the present total crop, but 
every year sees greater attention devoted to it in other States, especially Georgia, Ala- 
bama, Florida, Tennessee, Texas, Arkansas and Mississippi. 

The best known types of American Peanuts are the Flat or Running, or 
"Virginia" Flat and Running, the Bunch, "Spanish" and North Carolina or "African." 
The most widely planted is the Flat or Running type, a large nut excellent for 
general commercial purposes. The Bunch is similar in nut characteristics, its name 
referring to its more upright method of growth. 

The "Spanish" nut is similar to the imported Spanish variety — small in size but 
very mild and savory, and the choicest for eating raw or cooked, candy making, etc. 

The North Carolina, or "African," is similar to the Flat or Running variety, but 
the kernels contain a larger percentage of oil. , 

Tennessee has two varieties, known as the White and the Red. Both somewhat 
resemble the Flat or Running variety, except that the Red gives kernels covered with 
dark red skin. The Georgia Red is similar to the Tennessee Red. 

As American trade demands a bright-colored shell and the pod assumes the 
color of the ground in which it grows, the soil most desirable is a light, sandy loam. 
Lime is an essential ingredient and is added when lacking, and the soil must be kept 
light and friable or the ovary cannot bury itself and develop into a pod. Planting 
begins in May or June. The nuts form the seed, and about two bushels are required 
for an acre. The plants get above the earth and begin to leaf out within a few weeks. 
The pods mature during September or October, the harvesting season in some local- 
ities continuing until November. 

White peanuts are harvested by running a furrow on each side of the row with a 
bull-tongue plow or a pea digger, so as to dislocate the roots. The vines are then gently 
lifted by hand, the dirt shaken off, and laid on the- ground to wilt. Later, they are 
brought together and stacked. The Red nuts are more easily harvested than the White 
as they have but few I'oots and the nuts adhere closely about the stem. In loose land, 
they may be pulled up without running furrows. 

The stacks are usually allowed to stand to dry for about four weeks, the nuts 
being then picked off, either by hand or machinery, the former generally obtaining 
higher prices. 



i«K».K..: 




■%ESI 




ROASTED 



PEANUT 



THE GKOCKU'S ENCYCLOPEDIA iOl 



The peanuts reach the factory in sacks containing from 90 to 100 pounds each. 
They are first dumped in hoppers and taken through cleaning machinery, which removes 
all the vines, sticks and sand, and are then graded in sizes by screens and powerful fans. 
The cleaning and scouring processes are especially important in preparing the prod- 
uct intended for bag trade, as those with clean glistening pods command from 15% 
to 20% more than others equally good in kernels but of less attractive appearance. 

The screen-grading is followed by hand-sorting, and those which pass the final 
inspection are carried by a chain apparatus into bags of about 100 pounds each. 

The nuts intended for manufacture into peanut butter or for confectionery, etc., 
are next roasted, generally in the shell, and are then shelled and blanched and again 
passed through fans which drive out or draw up the hulls, skins, etc., going finally to 
moving tables where all faulty kernels are picked out by hand. The good sound 
kernels thus obtained are distributed, by machinery, to the various departments. 

Supplementing the principal market forms of the peanut, is an extensive trade in 
the by-products. The little germs or hearts sifted out of the ground nuts in the manu- 
facture of peanut butter, etc., make excellent poultry food. The roasted hulls ground 
into meal are an excellent food for stock — analyzing about 11% protein and from 8% 
to 9% fat. The red skins removed from the shelled nuts are also well up in protein 
and fats. Even the wilted plants left in the fields form valuable fertilizer when left 
to rot before plowing under, being prolific in nodules of bacteria. 

PEANUT BUTTER: is made by grinding roasted peanuts to a paste, the germs 
being removed in the process. It is very nutritious, containing the full food value of 
the peanut in an easily edible form. An average of analyses shows approximately 
29.3 protein matter, 46.5 fat and 17.1 carbohydrates (see article on Foods). It is con- 
sumed both as an agreeable "nut food" and as a "spread" for bread, or bread and butter. 

PEANUT MEAL and Flour: consist of ground peanuts from which the greater 
part of the oil has been extracted. The finer grades are sold in large quantities to the 
bakery and candy trades for use in the manufacture of various kinds of cakes, breads 
and confections. Economists urge its more extended use as a general food article, as 
it is very rich in protein and carbohydrates, especially the former. In Europe, the flour 
is baked into a bread which has a large sale in Germany and France. The lower 
grades are used for stock feed, etc. 

PEANUT OIL: properly refined, is an excellent table, cooking and preserving oil, 
and is recommended for use medicinally when pure vegetable fat is required. In 
France, it is extensively used in the packing of the cheaper qualities of sardines and 
numerous other food products. It is also employed in many other industries, in the 
making of fine silks because it does not readily turn rancid, and as a lubricant for fine 
machinery because it does not "gum," etc. 

A bushel of selected, shelled African peanuts will yield about a gallon of good qual- 
ity oil suitable for such purposes. Subsequent pressings give in addition an inferior 
quality known in some trade circles as "butterine oil," employed chiefly in soap manu- 
facture and as a basis for liniments. 

The American Peanut, though superior for edible purposes, does not yield as large 
a quantity of oil as the true African Peanut. Present experiments are toward a com- 
bination of the flavor of the American nut with the oil content of the African. 

23 



462 THE GBOCBE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

PEANUT ROASTERS: are seen in increasing numbers in groceries. They are now 
made so handsomely that they are really ornamental as well as profitable. They take 
up little room and require little attention. 

PEARS. The pear is of all temperate fruits one of the most susceptible to improve- 
ment by cultivation. There are to-day more than one thousand varieties, ranging from 
the tiny Seckel to the marvelous fruit grown in the Island of Jersey, one of the Chan- 
nel Islands between England and France. These Jersey pears frequently bring a price 
of $72.00 or more a dozen in the London market. Only a few of the monsters can 
though be grown on each tree. 

The pear grows wild in some parts of southern and eastern Europe and in many 
places throughout Asia. It is not an easy tree to start in an orchard, but when once 
well established, it is usually very vigorous and frequently lives to a great age. There 
are a number in existence known to be more than four hundred years old. 

The states of Washington and California produce the largest pears found in the 
American market, but connoisseurs are inclined to favor those of the Middle West and 
Eastern states as having usually a finer flavor. 

Among the best varieties for general consumption are the Anjou, Bartlett, Bell 
Flower, Bergamot, Beurre Eose, Black Grant, Grimes Golden, La Comice, Nelis, Bed 
Astrakhan, Eoman Beauty, Seckel, Talman and Willow Twig. 

The fruit are generally gathered about two weeks before they are ripe, as most 
varieties are too delicate for transportation when thoroughly mature. The ripening 
can be delayed for months, if desired, by cold storage. If, on the other hand, the stock 
needed for immediate retail purposes is received hard and green, the fruit should be 
placed in shallow trays and carefully ripened at a temperature of 60° to 70° Fahr. 
Excessive heat must be guarded against, or the fruit may rot inside even though the 
exterior give no warning of the change. Crowding also should be avoided as much as 
possible. 

PEARL MOSS: one of the many names for Irish Moss or Carragheen (which see). 

PEARL ASH: a somewhat purified form of crude carbonate of potash (see Potash). 

PEARLED BARLEY: the polished decorticated whole grain. See Barley. 

PECAN NUT: a species of hickory nut, extensively grown in the West and South of 
the United States. It is agreeable in flavor, with a very sweet and oily meat, and, in 
the best "paper-shell" varieties, a shell that is easily cracked. It is generally olive- 
shaped, though some types are sharp-pointed and others blunt and somewhat four- 
angled. It ripens about December and is seasonable until April. See Color Page 
opposite 414 and also Nuts {Food Values). 

PECTIN : a sweet "jelly" which is formed in fruit pulps during the ripening process 
and the principle which causes cooked fruit to thicken and jellify. It is developed 
from pectose, which gives the characteristic hardness to many, unripe fruits. 

PEMMICAN: an invention of the American Indian, is lean beef, or venison, dried hard, 
pounded to a powder and pressed into cakes. Sugar, melted fat, etc., are sometimes 




BARTLETT PEARS 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



465 




added in manufacture. It is now a commercial article, manufactured on a considerable 
scale both here and in Australia. It is especially suitable for Arctic exploration, etc. 

PENANG SPICES: a term occasionally applied to a mixture of various spices, em- 
ployed in cooking, preserving, etc. 

PENGUIN EGGS: the eggs of the penguin, a bird found in all high southern lati- 
tudes, but in especially large numbers along the coasts of Cape Colony, S. A., and the 
adjacent islands. They resemble large plovers' eggs in texture and flavor and are very 
rich — so much so that if kept for any length of time it is necessary to turn them over 
every few days to prevent the yolk from settling. They are eaten by all classes in 
South Africa, but the expense and risk of transportation makes 
them a luxury when exported to other countries. They are eaten 
boiled — twenty minutes being the best boiling time — baked, fried, 
in salads, etc. 

PENNYROYAL. See general article on Mint. 

PEPINO, or Melon pear: a fruit native to South America. It 
is generally of about the shape and size of a goose egg, of lemon 
color streaked with violet. The interior is a solid pulp of light 
yellow, resembling a muskmelon in flavor. Pepino 

PEPPER. The Black or White powdered pepper used as a condiment is the ground 
fruit of the Piper nigrum L., a perennial climbing shrub, native to the forests of 
western and southern India but for centuries cultivated also on the Malay Peninsula 
and in Sumatra, Java, Ceylon and Siam, and to a limited extent in Borneo and various 
other tropical countries. The fruit is a small, round berry, the "peppercorn," grow- 
ing in loosely packed clusters of from twenty to thirty, closely attached to a common 
fruit stalk (see Color Page opposite 468), a good vine producing an annual average of 
from one to two pounds. Pieces of the stalk may often be found in whole black pepper 
and examination will show the depressions formed where the berries were attached. 
The shrub or vine grows to a height of eight to twelve feet and is supported either 
by poles or trees. The peppercorns are exported in bags of 64 or 128 lbs. 

Black Pepper: consists of the dried immature berries of the shrub, gathered as soon 
as one or two on the clusters commence to turn red. After removal from the stem, they 
are dried in the sun or near a mild fire, the outer fleshy portion of the berry shriveling 
in the process, turning brown or black and becoming hard, brittle and adherent to 
the stony, inner portion, thus forming a hardened wrinkled cortex. 

Among the principal commercial varieties listed in a recent government report 
are Malabar (Mangalore, Tellichery, Alleppey, etc.), Singapore, Penang and Trang, 
Acheen (or Sumatra or West Coast) and Lampong (or East Coast), named either from 
the place of cultivation or that of shipment. 

Malabar Peppers are those from the Malabar Coast of India. "Mangalore" 
peppercorns are very large, twice the size of ordinary pepper, of a deep black, very 
clean and uniform, giving when ground a powder of greenish-black appearance. 
"Tellicherry" and "Alleppey" are sun-dried and light-brown. 



466 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Sinapore Pepper is that grown on the Malay Peninsula, principally in the 
southern extremity known as the State of Johore. It constitutes a considerable por- 
tion of all the pepper raised and, because of its dark color and fairly uniform quality, 
is a product of good appearance. It is not, however, so highly regarded for grinding 
purposes because of its smoky odor. The pepper and gambler plantations of Johore 
are usually under one management, and the pepper is dried by placing it on mats 
suspended over the kettles in which the gambler is boiled down to make the vegetable 
extract. The smoke from the furnace underneath dries the pepper but at the same 
time imparts to it a distinctly smoky smell, which is retained to a considerable degree 
even after the pepper is ground. It is, indeed, one of the tests by which the pepper mer- 
chant determines whether a given sample is Singapore or not. 

Trang and Fencing Pepper, shipped from Penang, is grown in either Java or 
Sumatra. It is of especially rich color. 

Acheen, Sumatra or West Coast, are names applied to the pepper obtained from 
Acheen, the western extremity of the Island of Sumatra. 

Lampong Pepper or East Coast, is grown on the east end of the Island of Sumatra, 
near the Straits of Sunda. 

As a general rule, the heavier the peppercorns for size, the better the grade. They 
should be firm and round, clean and uniform in appearance and not too much furrowed. 

Acheen Pepper has been standardized by general agreement and the four chief 
grades are now determined by their specific gravity. 

"A" grade weighs at least 4 lbs. 13 oz. to the imperial gallon or 481 grams per liter. 

"B" grade weighs at least 4 lbs. 5 oz. to the imperial gallon or 431 grams per liter. 

"C" grade weighs at least 3 lbs. 13 oz. to the imperial gallon or 381 grams per liter. 

"D" grade weighs at least 3 lbs. 5 oz. to the imperial gallon or 356 grams per liter. 

(Dust not to exceed 3% in any class.) 

The many advantages of this method will probably result in its extension to all 
Black Peppers in the near future. The other varieties described in this article are gen- 
erally superior to Acheen and give much higher results on the weight test. Alleppey, 
for example, sometimes goes as high as 6 lbs. 12 oz. to the Imperial gallon and con- 
tains practically no dust ; Tellicherry ranges from 6 lbs. to 6 lbs. 12 oz. and is equally 
clean; Lampong averages about 6 lbs., with a dust percentage of 1%% to 3%, and 
Singapore from 5 lbs. to 5 oz. to 5 lbs. 8 oz., the dust though ranging up to 4%. 

v. S. Standard Black Pepper is black pepper free from added pepper shells, pepper 
dust and other pepper by-products, and containing not less than 6% of non- volatile 
ether extract; not less than 25% of starch by the diastase method ; not less than 28% of 
starch by direct inversion; not more than 7% of total ash; not more than 2% of ash 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 15% of crude fibre. One hundred 
parts of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than 3.25 parts of nitrogen. 

White Pepper: is practically the same product as Black Pepper except that the outer 
shell or pericarp of the berry is removed to a greater or less extent by friction, follow- 
ing soaking in water. It is sometimes made at the plantations, but just as frequently 
by manufacturers who buy the peppercorns in open market. Some manufacturers pre- 
fer, for White Pepper, berries that have been allowed to ripen before picking as- they 
are more easily decorticated, but this is not an universal rule. 

Decorticated White Pepper is the term applied to the product which, in addition 
to losing the outer dark shell, has also had the seed-coats partly or entirely removed. 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 46T 

There are numerous qualities according to the length to which the process has been 
carried. The most expensive is that from which all three seed-coats have been removed, 
producing smooth, hard, pearly kernels. Other grades retain one or two seed-coats. 

There are several varieties of White Pepper on the market, corresponding in a 
general way with Black Pepper, such as Singapore, Penang, Tellicherry, Siam, etc. 

Coriander White Pepper is a product of especially attractive appearance — 
screened to uniform size and then bleached. 

Pepper Shells is the by-product of external shell or cuticle obtained in the manu- 
facture of White Pepper. 

U. S. Standard White Pepper is white pepper containing not less than 6% of non- 
volatile ether extract; not less than 50% of starch by the diastase method; not less 
than 40% of starch by direct inversion; not more than 4% of total ash; not more than 
.5% of ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid, and not more than 5% of crude fibre. One 
hundred parts of the non-volatile ether extract contain not less than 4 parts of nitrogen. 

Ground Pepper: whether black or white, should consist only of whole or hulled pep- 
percorns reduced to proper fineness by grinding and sieving. 

Long Pepper: is chiefly derived from wild plants of the genus Ghavica Miq. The 
fruit spikes, gathered when green, are cylindrical in form and covered with closely 
packed, small round berries. The product is crudely prepared, the berries hardened 
together and adhering to the woody stem, and generally including a large quantitj' of 
dirt and other extraneous matter. It does not possess the fine flavor or strength of true 
pepper and its addition is rated as adulteration. Its principal use is for pickles. 

Red Pepper, Cayenne Pepper, Paprika. Red Pepper is the powdered ripe pod, both 
flesh and seeds, of any variety of capsicum, the plant which gives us the edible fresh 
"pepper" but which bears no relation to the true pepper-plant. The most noted vari- 
eties are the capsicum baccatum, capsicum frutescens and capsicum fastigiatum, all 
distinguished by very small narrow pods — varying from one-half to one and one-half 
inch in length — cultivated in the East and West Indies, Mexico and the Southern 
States. 

Cayenne Pepper is, by the ruling of the Board of Food and Drug Inspection, 1906, 
distinguished from Bed Pepper in general as being obtained only from small-fruited 
varieties of capsicum — the three types named above or similar varieties. It should be 
of dull red color. The best known commercial varieties are Zanzibar, Mombassa, Sierra 
Leone and Japan, the last-named being less pungent than the others. 

"Nepaul Pepper," from a capsicum grown in Nepaul, India, is a choice variety of 
Cayenne Pepper, yellowish-red and very pungent but of especially agreeable flavor. 

U. S. Standard Cayenne Pepper is cayenne pepper containing not less than 15% of 
non-volatile ether extract; not more than 6.5% of total ash; not more than .5% of asb 
insoluble in hydrochloric acid; not more than 1.5% of starch by the diastase method,, 
and not more than 28% of crude fibre. 

Cayenne is a powerful stimulant, producing a sense of heat in the stomach and a 
general glow throughout the body without narcotic effect. In small amounts it is an 
aid to digestion, particularly of vegetables, which partly accounts for its general use 
in warm weather. 

Paprika (which see) is a Hungarian red pepper made from the flesh only of »> 
variety of the Common Capsicum. 



468 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



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Drying "[Peppers," New Jersey 



PEPPERS — Fresh. The fresh "peppers" cultivated as a vegetable are mild-flavored, 
large-fruited varieties of capsicums. They may be prepared for the table in many ways 
— "stuffed," mixed with hashed meat, in sauces and soups, etc. To many people, the 
especially sweet types are enjoyable eaten raw as a fruit. All kinds are extensively used 
in the commercial manufacture of condi- 
ments and sauceSi 

Fresh peppers are now in season all 
the year, being in the East cheapest dur- 
ing the summer months when the market 
is supplied by local growers. 

The winter's supply comes in large 
part from Cuba and Porto Rico. Some 
grades are very choice, arriving in small 
crates as carefully packed as peaches and 
bringing high prices. These go princi- 
pally to hotels and restaurants. 

Florida also ships early peppers; 
Virginia, around Norfolk, comes next — 
and then, as the season advances, many 
other states — New Jersey being the main 
source of supply for the New York mar- 
ket. Immense quantities are grown in 
the vicinity of Vineland, N. J., by Italian 
farmers. 

The winter sale of the dried fruit for home use is an industry of steadily increas- 
ing importance. 

In the tropics the capsicum is a perennial, but in the United States it is cultivated as 
an annual. It is easily grown in any rich soil, and in almost any part of the United 
States. It should be started early in a hot-bed, or in a green-house, and treated simi- 
larly to the tomato and egg-plant. 

There are many varieties, differing chiefly in the shape of their fruit, which, when 
ripe, turns to a red, yellow or dark violet color — shiny and brilliant when fresh, but 
becoming duller and wrinkled in drying. The types most commonly grown are the 
Bell, Ruby King and Long Red Cayenne. Other popular kinds are the Sweet Moun- 
tain, Golden Dawn, Red Cluster and Spanish, the last-named being generally preferred 
for Oyster Cocktails. 

PEPPERCORN: the whole berry of the pepper-plant. See Pepper. 

PEPPER-DULSE: a pungent seaweed used in salads in some parts of Scotland. 

•PEPPERGRASS, or PEPPERCRESS : one of several names for Cress (which see) . 

PEPPERMINT: the most widely cultivated variety of Mint (which see). 

PEPPER POT: a national soup stew of the West Indies which has found much 
favor in the United States, especially in Philadelphia. It is composed of various meats, 
vegetables, herbs and small dumplings, finished and seasoned with cassareep or chilies. 




(1) PIPER NIGRUM L. (3) COMMON CAPSICUMS 

"Black" and "White" Pepper Fresh Peppers, Common 

U) PEPPER CORNS "Red Pepper" etc. 



(4) SMALL-FRUITED CAPSICUMS 
Cayenne Pepper 
and Chllies 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 471 

PEPPER SAUCE : consists of, or is prepared from, red capsicums, generally of the 
small or "chili" type, steeped in vinegar, etc. See also Tabasco. 

PEPSIN : a ferment, related to the proteins, contained in the gastric juices of humans 
and other mammals. The commercial product is obtained from the stomach lining of 
the pig or calf. 

PERCH : a title popularly applied to a large family of both fresh and salt-water fish 

found in all parts of the world. The chief American type 
is the fresh-water Yellow Perch, a true member of the Perca 
genus. Among other well-known varieties are the salt-water 
and fresh-water White Perch, the former being credited 
with the choicer flesh. The main season extends from 
September to May — "Pike Perch" from September to April. 
Yellow, or Barred. Perch The average Weight is from small to 2y2 pounds each. 

PERCENTAGE: literally "by the hundred." In commerce, the term is applied prin- 
cipally to interest charges (so much "per cent"), analysis (such and such percentage 
of butter- fat in milk, for example), custom duties (so much per cent on the value 
of goods), etc. 

PERFUMED LYE: a superior grade of lye in finely powdered, perfumed form. 

PERFUMERY. With the exception of a very limited retail sale of the absolute oils, 
all perfumes consist of fragrant essences in alcoholic solutions. The most expensive 
are generally based on essences obtained direct from the blossoms or leaves of various 
plants, but the bulk of those marketed owe their fragrance either wholly or in part 
to odors of artificial manufacture, for chemistry has devised methods of imitating 
nearly all natural perfumes at much lower cost than by extraction from the plants, 
and has also produced many new odors and combinations that are very pleasing to 
the sense of smell. Perfumes, or extracts, of proprietary or trade titles frequently 
owe their characteristic fragrance to the blending of a number of odors — drawn from 
any one, or all, classes— animal, vegetable and artificial. One of the best known 
brands contains, for example, the blended natural odors of rose, vanilla, musk and vio- 
let. Less expensive kinds are produced by similar mixing of cheaper natural or arti- 
ficial essences. 

A few natural essences, as musk, civet, etc., are obtained from animal sources, 
but the great majority are vegetable in character. All parts of the world contribute to 
the supply. Considerable quantities of the essential oils of Birch, Cedar, Sassafras, 
Wintergreen, etc., are produced in the United States. England supplies an especially 
fine grade of Lavender. Bulgaria is an important source of Rose Oil. Italy furnishes 
the bulk of the commercial supply of Orris Root extract. Mexico gives, among others, 
the best Vanilla and Linolea, the fragrant oil of a native myrrh tree. The East 
Indies, the Philippines and the Orient generally, furnish Patchouli, derived from the 
leaves and head of the Patchouli Plant, a member of the mint family ; Tlang Ylang, 
from the flowers of a tree of the custard-apple family and a variety of others, includ- 
ing the cheap and popular oils of Lemon Grass, Palma Rosa and Citronella, and San- 
dalwood and many spicy types. Nine-tenths of the world's supply of natural flower 



472 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



essences is, however, obtained from a stretch of hilly land, about 115,000 acres in 
extent, situated in Southeast France, spreading in triangular form from the city of 
Grasse, the center of the industry, in the direction of Nice and Cannes. The surround- 
ing country is protected by mountains on three sides — it is open only to the South and 
the heat thence is tempered by the waters of the Mediterranean. Perpetual spring 
reigns and the entire region may be described as one large flower garden, the atmos- 
phere ever laden with the sweet odors arising from millions of blossoms. The late 
winter and early spr'Ing are the principal harvest times for violets, jonquils, etc., gath- 
ered for perfumery purposes; the early summer for orange blossoms, carnations and 
roses ; mid-summer for jasmines and tuberoses and the fall for the acacia. These are 
only a few of the flowers grown— a full list would include the broom, geranium, helio- 
trope, lavender, mignonette, mimosa, narcissus, rosemary, verbena and a great many 
others. The annual "crop" averages about 5,000,000 pounds of orange blossoms, 
3,000,000 pounds of roses, a million pounds each of jasmines and violets, six to seven 
hundred thousand pounds of tuberoses, half a million pounds of carnations, etc.; — in 
addition to the large quantities of cut flowers supplied Continental florists. 

The greater part of the flower-growing territory is distributed among a large 
number of peasant owners, who attend personally to the cultivation and gathering. 
Infinite pains are exercised in the care of blossoming plants. Many kinds, as carna- 
tions, are protected at night and during rough weather with straw matting, imposed 
on framework dividing the beds at regular intervals. 

The prices paid for the blossoms vary with the seasons — a fair figure during a 
good harvest is about six or seven cents a pound for rose leaves or orange blossoms, 




Growing carnations on the hillsides near Nice, France. An early morning scene — the upper gardens have been exposed by rolling 
back the mats, but the majority of the lower beds are still covered 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



473 



up to fifty cents a pound for violets — the large difference in the favor of the latter 
being due to the small quantity obtainable from any given space of land and the much 
longer time required for gathering. An experienced person can pick fifteen or sixteen 
pounds of roses in an hour but only about one-tenth of that quantity of violets. 

A rose bush of average strength will give annually from ten to fifteen pounds of 
blossoms and an orange tree about twice that amount. 

A great quantity of blossoms is required to produce any appreciable amount of the 
absolute flower oil. One pound of attar of roses represents about five million roses, 
and a pound of violet oil, about twelve million blossoms. It is not therefore surpris- 
ing that genuine high grade attar of roses sells at wholesale for |80 to |110 a pound. 
The total of the flower crop in the Grasse country may be judged from the fact that 
Paris perfumers alone purchase annually a million pounds of natural flower oils. 

All flower essences are obtained by Distillation, Extraction by Fixed Solvents or 
Extraction by Volatile Solvents. Distillation is the most widely used. A mixture of 
the petals and water is heated in a still and the condensation of the mixed steam 
and essential oil obtained, shows a layer of oil on the surface of the water. This first 
separation is followed by refining and cleansing processes. The "water" residue of the 
distillation is the Orange Water, Rose Water, etc., of commerce. In some sections, 
portable stills are carried from place to place in the mountains for the treatment of 
those flowers which will not stand transportation. 

Violets, jasmines, tuberoses and a number of other flowers will not, however, read- 
ily yield their odors in their native delicacy by the distillation process and they are 
therefore treated bv the "fixed" or "volatile" solvent methods. 




A closer view of one of the gardens shown in the photograph on'the opposite page 



474 THE GROCER ^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Extraction by fixed solvents is performed in two ways, (a) by Hot Maceration and 
(b) by Inflowering (Enfleurage) . In the first named, the blossoms are added to high 
grade, thoroughly refined melted fat or heated vegetable oil (generally olive oil) and the 
mixture is allowed to digest, with frequent stirrings, for several hours, the oil being 
kept fluid and at a uniform temperature. When the flowers have exhausted their aroma, 
the oil is strained into another pot and fresh blossoms are added, the process being 
repeated from ten to flfteen times until the fat or oil is thoroughly saturated with the 
odor. If fats are used, the product is known as "Pomade"; if oils, as "Perfumed Oil." 
By Infioioering , or the cold process. Pomades are secured by spreading cold fat on both 
sides of framed sheets of glass known as "chassis." The flowers are placed on top of 
the fat and the chassis on top of each other, the blossoms being thus pressed between 
two layers of fat. Fresh flowers are substituted from time to time until the fat is 
heavily charged with the perfume. Cold Process Perfumed Oils are obtained by substi- 
tuting thick cloths saturated with oil for the glass sheets. 

The essences are later extracted from the pomades or perfumed oils by treating 
them with alcohol, which absorbs the greater part of the perfume but very little of 
the fat. Subsequent distillation and washing processes produce the pure essence. 

Extraction by volatile solvents consists in bringing petroleum spirit in contact 
with the blossoms. When thoroughly charged with their odor, the spirit is dissolved, 
leaving a residue which consists chiefly of the odorous principle. This process presents 
many difSculties in the attainment of the best results, but, successfully performed, 
gives absolute flower oils of high quality. 

Artificial and Imitation Flower Essences are variously obtained. Some of them — 
as Carnation, Clover, Heliotrope, Lilac, Eose, Sassafras, Vanillin, Verbena, Violet — 
are successfully produced, in whole or in part, from other vegetable essential oils. 
Carnation and Vanillin are both made from eugenol, derived from oil of cloves. 
Safrol, extracted from essential oil of camphor, gives Heliotropine, the basis of 
Artificial Heliotrope, and is also sold as Artificial Sassafras Oil. Violet is formed by 
a combination which includes citral extracted from the East Indian Lemon Grass^ 
which also furnishes an odor closely resembling Verbena and marketed as such. 
Terpineol, obtained by the action of sulphuric acid on turpentine oil, supplies a 
strong Lilac odor. Geraniol from the Palma Eosa, an East Indian grass of the gera- 
nium order, and Ehodinol, the alcoholic portion of true geranium oil, are the source 
of the Eose scent of many cheap soaps and perfumes. Amyl Salicylate, produced by 
treatment of amyl alcohol (see Extracts) and salicylic acid, gives a pleasing Clover 
odor which is similarly employed. 

Coal tar is the most prolific of all sources of artificial perfumes. They are obtained 
from its numerous products in great variety — some closely imitate the expensive 
natural essences; others have won popularity as delightful odors not met with in 
flowers. Many are obtainable at such low cost that they have revolutionized some 
branches of the perfumery and soap trades. Among the most widely employed are 
Artificial Musk ; the Orange-blossom perfume from naphthol ethers ; benzaldehyde or 
Artificial Oil of Bitter Almonds, and Benzyl acetate, which gives a coarse but pleas- 
ing odor resembling Jasmine. 

Perfumery Display. Perfumes should be displayed in a glass case of appropriate 
size and of as elegant appearance as possible — they should never be so exposed to 




(I) American 



(2) Japanese 



PERSIMMONS 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 477 

dust or flies as to endanger the dainty appearance of the packages. Bottles and labels 
of fancy design are always preferable for retail purposes, but it must be remembered 
that they do not guarantee quality — careful discrimination should be exercised before 
laying in a stock, if the perfumery department is to meet with continued success. The 
grades purchased should be commensurate with the living standards of the community. 

PERRIER. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

PERRY: a fermented liquor of pleasing flavor and wholesome properties, prepared 
from pears in the same way as cider is from apples. The red rough-tasted fruits are 
principally used for the purpose. The best qualities contain about 9% alcohol, ordi- 
nary grades from 5% to 7%. When bottled "Champagne fashion," it has frequently 
been substituted for champagne without the fraud being suspected. 

PERSIAN INSECT POWDER, or Buhach, or Dalmatian Powder: is the dried 
and pulverized flower of the Pyrethrum, a plant found in Asia and capable of easy cul- 
tivation in this country. It is a very valuable article as it is fatal to all insects, but is 
not poisonous to animals. It is usually scattered in cracks, etc., by means of a small 
bellows or air-gun. It is extensively employed in greenhouses and gardens, in addition 
to its use in stores and residences. 

PERSIMMON: a fruit concerning which there is much confusion of information — 
and misinformation — even in works otherwise generally reliable. This is probably due 
to the fact that there are two distinct fruits bearing the title — the North American and 
the Japanese — belonging to the same class and both now grown in this country, but 
with many points of difference in size and character (see Color Page opposite 474). 

The native American Persimmon is about the size of a small plum and grows on 
a big tree which often reaches a height of sixty feet. The Japanese Persimmon ranges 
from the size of a peach to that of a small melon, and is borne by a tree that is com- 
paratively small. 

The American is at its best after it has been touched by frost. It becomes then 
a veritable sugarplum- — its sweetness has earned for it the nickname of the American 
"Date Plum," and the oddly wrinkled lumps of richly concentrated sugar-flesh hang- 
ing among the vari-colored leaves of autumn are as eagerly sought by "Possums" and 
other wild creatures as by human beings. 

The Japanese Persimmon, or "Ka-Ki," or "Chinese Pig," varies widely in quality 
and shape — from some inclined to be tasteless and dry, to a delicious and juicy type; 
from perfectly round, to extremely elongated in shape. It is as rich in food values as 
the banana. It will probably receive much attention in the future, as it is readily 
susceptible to cultivation, produces with prodigal abundance and stands shipment 
well. The Eastern market is supplied chiefly by Florida and California. 

Unlike the American variety, the Japanese type does not need the frost touch, but 
neither is it damaged by frost as are most other fruits. It is just right for eating when 
the skin first begins to wrinkle. 

In addition to their excellence for eating raw, both fruits can be easily and suc- 
cessfully dried for future use. The American and the "chocolate" or dark-meated vari- 
eties of the Japanese also lend themselves readily to a great variety of preserves, and 
in several parts of the South the ground roasted seeds are used as a substitute for coffee. 



478 THE GKOCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



PETITE MARMITE: a famous French soup, now retailed in canned form, which 
consists of beef stock, together with the meat cut into small pieces, and a variety of 
vegetables, such as carrots, cabbage, turnips, celery, etc., in long sections. It is of 
the same order as P6t-au-feu ("pot on the fire"), the typical home-made beef and vege- 
table soup of the French peasant, except that it is richer and sometimes contains chick- 
en, marrow bones, etc. The title signifies "little pot," the reference being to the earth- 
enware cooking pot which forms part of the household equipment of every French 
family. Similar pots, obtainable from crockery dealers, are very appropriate for the 
service of this soup. 

PETROLEUM or Goal Oil: is found in many parts of the world. Of the numerous 
theories advanced for the explanation of its generation, two stand out pre-eminently : 

(1) the formation of oil from vegetable matter by subterranean decomposition; and 

(2) its production from carbonaceous metallic compounds. In either case, terrestrial 
heat is thought to have been the producing agency. 

The Indians used petroleum as a liniment before the white man colonized America, 
and, later on, it was sold as "Seneca Oil," or "Rock Oil," for many years before the 
present refining processes were devised. The crude article had also been employed in 
past ages in Europe and Asia, but its use had been discontinued there because in that 
condition it was not as serviceable or economical as many vegetable and animal oils. 

It was in 1885 that the improvement in refining processes began to render the 
crude oil really valuable. Modern distillation releases a number of important prod- 
ucts, divisible for the purpose of this article into four classes — (1) Crude Naphtha, 
the lightest, which in refining gives gasoline, refined naphtha and benzine ; ( 2 ) Burning 
Oils — Kerosene in its various grades; (3) Lubricating Oils and Yaseline, and (4) the 
solid Parafjfifi Wax. The Burning Oils generally constitute from 40% to 50%, and 
Lubricating Oils from 20% to 30%, of the crude product. 

See also Gasoline, Kerosene and Paraffin. 

PHEASANT. The true pheasant is, with few exceptions, found only in Europe, but 
much attention is being paid to efforts to p -opagate it here and with good promise of 
success. Among the best known types are the "Ringneck," a native of China, distin- 
guished by the broad white ring around its neck; the "English," and the Japanese or 
"Versi-color." The Ringneck is also variously known as the Chinese, 
Mongolian, Oregon, etc., and the English as the "Dark-necked" and 
Hungarian. 

Before cooking, a pheasant should be hung by its tail for at least 
a week, or till its gamey fiavor is pronounced. 

PICCALILLI or Indian Piclde: a pickle which contains 
a large variety of cut vegetables — :cucumbers, white 
cabbage, green tomatoes, celery, 
cauliflower, peppers, etc. 

PICKEREL: young pike, '^^^'' ' ^ ' ''-"'■ 

a very gamey fish, in sea- Ringneck, or Mongolian, pheasant 

son from June to Decem- 
ber. 




THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 479 

PICKLES : a term popularly applied to numerous kinds of vegetables and fruits pre- 
served in vinegar, mustard, etc., and variously flavored. Among the most popular 
items and combinations are "mixed-pickles," gherkins, piccalilli, chow-chow, chilies, 
onions, "mango pickles," cauliflower, cucumbers, etc. Large quantities are imported, 
but the greater part of the consumption is of the domestic product. 

One of the most noticeable differences in flavor between American and English 
pickles is attributable to the general use of malt vinegar in Great Britain, whereas 
cider or rye vinegar is principally employed here. 

There is good profit in pickles, but they require care in handling. Those pur- 
chased in bulk are usually delivered in wooden buckets. The best way to maintain 
their fresh condition, is to transfer them to glass jars with tightly-fitting covers and 
to place them where the temperature is moderate and uniform and where the dust, dirt 
and unstable temperature of the street cannot reach them. When taking some out of 
the jar, it is essential to see that none are left exposed and to avoid taking out too 
much liquid, for unless pickles are continuously immersed, they quickly dry and be- 
come moldy. When the pickles are lighter than the liquid and persist in floating 
to the top, a plate about the diameter of the jar may be placed over them, with a 
weight on top. This serves to keep them under and thus greatly assists in preserving 
them in proper condition. 

Pickles should be stirred from time to time, as both strong brine and sweet vinegar 
have a tendency to sink to the bottom, leaving a weakened liquid on top, in which they 
are liable to soften and spoil. Any scum forming, should also be removed as it tends 
to softening. Cider or other table vinegar should be used for refilling leakages in 
vinegar pickles. 

Stock not needed for immediate sale should be stored in a dark, dry, moderately 
cool place — never on an upper shelf, as it is usually hot there and heat is detrimental. 
Excessive cold will injure them also — brine pickles do not freeze easily, but vinegar 
goods freeze nearly as quickly as water. 

A paper pail with a close fitting lid, similar to a small oyster pail, is a good pack- 
age in which to deliver pickles to customers. The pails are light, inexpensive and 
easy to handle. 

A metal dipper should not be used unless of pure tin or silver, and separate dippers 
should be kept for sour and sweet goods. 

Pickles are not especially desirable for window displays, for if kept in the sun for 
anj length of time they lose their color and are thus sometimes rendered unsalable. 
Exposure in a well-shaded window for a moderate length of time will not, however, 
hurt them much if proper care is taken to exclude flies and other insects. 

The spring is the best season for pushing the sale of pickles. It is, though, also 
the period when it is most difficult to keep them properly, as a small fly does much 
damage at that time, particularly to the mustard varieties. 

When putting in a stock, select a moderate number of the best selling lines — of 
those whose purity and quality are unquestionable. It is poor policy to handle any 
goods that are open to criticism on the question of health. The employment of 
chemical coloring is unnecessary, for picklemakers can obtain a healthful green color- 
ing by steeping cabbage, spinach or parsle,y greens in the vinegar. 

To test for Copper in PicJdes. The use of copper to brighten pickles is highly in- 
jurious to health. Its presence can easily be detected by putting a steel knitting needle 
into a jar — if much copper is present, the needle will soon become coated with it. A 



480 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




more thorough test is to pour dilute ammonia into a bottle containing a doubtful pickle 
— the slightest trace of copper will cause the ammonia water to turn blue. 
See also articles on Capers, Olives, Peppers, etc. 

PICNIC GOODS. See general article under the heading of Outing Supplies. 

PIE PLANT: a familiar title for the cultivated Rhubarb. 

PIGEON. In this country there is little favor for the adult pigeon as a poultry bird, 
though it has always been a popular item in Europe, but the young birds are very highly 
regarded (see Squabs). 

PIGNOLIAS: a trade title for imported Pine Nuts (which see). 

PIKE: a fresh water fish abundant in the Great Lakes, 
ranging in weight from one-half to eight pounds. It is in 
season from June to December. There are several vari- 
eties, including the "Wall-Eyed," considered the best ; the 
Yellow, the Blue and the "Grass." waii-Eyed pike 

PILCHARD: a European fish of the clupeoid family, resembling the herring in 
general appearance. The young fish is the most highly prized and is famous the world 
over as the French sardine (see Sardines). The true pilchard is not found in Ameri- 
can waters, but a similar fish is plentiful along the Pacific coast. The young of the 
menhaden are in some sections colloquially termed "Pilchards." 

PILOT BREAD: another name for Ship Biscuit (see Hard Tack). 

PIMENTO : the aromatic berries of the Pimento tree, popular known in this country 
as Allspice (which see). 

PIMIENTO, or Pimento : a large-fruited capsicum, cultivated in Spain. The flesh is 
extensively used for stuffing olives, etc. See also Peppers (Fresh). 

PIMPINEL: a salad plant of the Pimpernel family. See Burnet. 

PINE NUT, pignon, pinon, pignoUa, pinolia: the seed of numer- 
ous varieties of the pine tree, found in many styles and sizes. 
Those imported from Italy and the South of France are princi- 
pally from the Stone Pine, Pinus Pinea, and are knovm here as 
"Pignolias," or "Pinolias," a corruption of the Italian name, 
Pinocchio. In Mexico and the western states, the native pine 
nuts, from the Pinus Edulis and other species, are known as "Pig- 
nons" or "Pinons." The Spanish nut contains more protein but 
less fat than the American. See general article on Food Values 
and also Nuts (Food Vahies). 

Pine nuts are used in confectionery, pastry making, etc., and 
eaten raw, roasted and salted, in the same way as almonds. pine Nut cone 




eE39»r>:cr'jT-.:,-' 




482 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



PINEAPPLES. The pineapple takes its name from its resemblance to the pine cone, 
but the title is misleading for it grows on a low, spreading plant. Its native home is 
tropical South America, but from there it was long ago carried to every tropical and 
semi-tropical country, and is in Northern Europe raised under glass for wealthy pri- 
vate trade. It is one of the most satisfactory of sub-tropical crops, bearing freely, 
having few insect enemies and being particular only in the matter of moisture — too 
much rots the roots and too little reduces the size and juiciness of the fruit. 

A new pineapple patch is set out with slips — either the crown cut from the ripened 
fruit or the shoots which grow directly under it. When from a fine variety, they are 
rather costly, which accounts for the fact that some growers still waste time raising 
the poor, hard, woody, old-fashioned types. The new plant takes from eighteen to 
twenty-two months to ripen its first fruit. When the pines are cut, the plants send 
out new suckers which produce a second crop, the same process giving generally a third 
crop. The plants are seldom allowed to bear after the third time, as the fruit then 
begins to deteriorate. 

The first sign of a fruit is the appearance of a tiny "crown" which develops slowly 
into a miniature of the matured pineapple. Next come, while the pine is still small, a 
number of pretty little purplish-blue flowers, one tiny blossom in each "eye," but these 
disappear long before the fruit attains its full size. The flower has but little odor, and 
oven a field of fully ripened pines has less fragrance than would be expected from a 
fruit so pungently sweet. With miles of pineapples ready to be harvested, there is 
really little perfume unless one happens to be bruised or injured. 

In the West Indies, the source of the majority of our fresh pineapples, there Is a 
well-recognized division of the product into "field pines" — the little hard, reddish fruit 
which sell from ten cents up on city fruit stalls — and "garden pines," which are to be 
found in fancy fruit stores at considerably higher prices. The industry there is an old 
one, and in many sections is more or less cumbered with poor varieties and antiquated 
methods, but great advancement has been made recently, especially in Cuba and Porto 
Rico. 

Most of the Florida fresh fruit is 
very good in quality and is improving 
every year, but the total possible crop 
there is comparatively small. Other 
sources of supply are the other Southern 
States, the Bahamas and Mexico. The 
two most popular types are the Red Span- 
ish and the Smooth Cayenne. 

In buying fresh fruit for immediate 
consumption, select those which look yel- 
lowish on the smooth surface, though this 
is not conclusive proof of ripeness. If one 
of the lot prove unripe, set the remainder 
aside and hold them a few days — -'they are 
not likely to spoil and will soon mellow. 
Ripening storage room must be kept at 
an even temperature of about 65° to 70° 

Tn I TA. " T • T J 1 COPSBIGHT, EETSTOITB VIEW 00. 

Fahr. It is a good idea to wrap each Loading Pmeapples on a Motor Flat-Car, Florida, the 

fruit in thick paper when setting to ripen. tracks running through the pine fields 





PINEAPPLE 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



485 



lu preparing a fresh pine for the table, peel off the outer skin, take out the eyes 
with a patent remover, cut in slices and core with a patent corer. 

A still better method, which does not, however, give the even round slices of the 
preceding directions, is first to remove the outer covering and eyes as above, then stand 
the piue up on the table, insert a fork in the blossom and, with another silver fork, pick 
away the fruit-flesh from the core in small or large chunks as desired. 

In either case, the result will be infinitely superior if the slices or pieces are. packed 
in a glass fruit-jar, covered with sugar, and set in the ice box for at least twenty-four 
hours before serving. 

The pineapple is credited with digestive properties and has other medicinal virtues, 
but it should not be eaten unless fully mature, as the unripe juices are caustic and are 
liable to irritate the coating of the stomach. 

Canned Pineapple. The bulk of the canned pineapple now consumed comes from 
Hawaii. The present industry in that country dates from only about 1899, but the 
product has won its commanding position by both the quantity of the output and the 
t-are exercised by growers to ensure an uniformly high grade. 

Hawaiian growers have specialized on the Smooth Cayenne, one of the choicest "gar- 
den pines," and, both climate and soil conditions being very favorable, the fruits on 
maturitj^ reach a weight of from six to eight pounds and are entirely devoid of the 
woody fibre so objectionable in poor grade pines. 

Very few of the Hawaiian fruits are ex- 
ported raw, though some may be found in the 
Pacific Coast markets, 95% being ripened on the 
plant and put up immediately after gathering in 
modern canneries erected on the plantations. 
All the work is done by machinery, and the cans 
used are of a size to hold the best part of an 
average fruit, cut into slices of regular size. The 
trimmings, which, in the case of those pines run- 
ning larger than the average, amount to a con- 
siderable proportion, are cut into cubes or grated 
and thus canned, to be used for cooking, soda- 
fountain purposes, etc. An increasing number 
are also canned whole, only the skin and eyes 
being removed. 

One of the reasons for the growing popu- 
larity of the high grade canned product, whether from Hawaii, Florida, the West Indies 
or other sources, is that it is impossible to transport fully ripe pineapples any consider- 
able distance without damage, and the fruit does not generally ripen to its full flavor 
if cut before maturity. 

In buying canned pineapple from countries where there is no control of the output, 
special caution is given against any plain- packed, or water-packed, varieties. Only 
those put up in syrup have the fine sweet flavor that the customer expects — and of the 
syrup kind the best are those which consist of selected naturally ripened fruits, i. e., 
pineapples packed where grown. 

Singapore was at one time the chief source of the world's supply, but it has lost 
much of its importance owing to the improvement of the quality of the fresh and canned 
West Indian and Florida products and the establishment of the Hawaiian industry. 

24 ■'<','■ 







^|»v'i' 


^«s« '^r^^ 


tiiii in^ 






: <CBii ■^^S^B^^.^^'v i 


HiU^ i. tj-;^-^' , ^ 


• ■•—-^-9' 



Boxinii: Pineapples. Florida 



486 THEGROCEB-'SENCYCLOPEDIA 

PINEAPPLE CHEESE: a hard cheese of Cheddar style and attractive appearance. 
See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 

PINEY TALLOW: an oleo-resinous substance obtained from the fruit of Vateria 
indica, a tree common in Malabar, by boiling it with water. It is intermediate between 
fat and wax, and makes good soap and excellent candles. It melts at 98° Fahr. 

PINON NUT: one of the many names of the Pine Nut (which see). 

PINT. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

PINTAIL: a wild waterfowl popularly so named because of its long tail-feathers. 
See Ducks (W^^rf)• 

PIPES. The most widely used pipes are Meerschaum, Wood (such as Briar-root and 
Cherry) and Clay. 

Meerschaum is a silicate of magnesia, obtained chiefly from alluvial deposits in 
Asia Minor. It is also occasionally found on the seashore, washed up by the waves, 
with the result that it has been poetically, but erroneously, called the "petrified foam 
of the sea." As mined, it is white and so soft as to be easily cut with an ordinary 
knife. Long and expensive manipulation is necessary to produce the hard Meerschaum 
of commerce, the finest quality of which is known as Spiegel Meerschaum, or "look- 
ing glass" Meerschaum, because of its lustre when colored. 

The coloring of Meerschaum pipes is the effect of the smoke, drawn through the 
pores of the Meerschaum, settling on the waxy surface which is produced by the boil- 
ing in wax which forms one of the final processes of preparation. 

Briar-root is the extremely hard wooi-root of a variety of heath, grown chiefiy 
in Southern France and Italy, "Briar" being a corruption of the French Bruyere. 
Good-sized s]3ecimens frequently have a circumference of two to three feet. Before 
export, the roots are cut into blocks and then boiled. 

Amber, shaped into mouth-pieces for the more expensive pipes and cigar-holders, 
is a fossilized vegetable resin found in bituminous beds along the Baltic Sea. In addi- 
tion to this use, it is employed in the manufacture of beads, earrings^ etc. 

Clay Pipes are made from a fine white, or red, clay, known to commerce as "pipe- 
clay." The pipe is first fashioned "solid," consisting then of a slender stick with a 
lump on the end for the bowl. When this has slightly hardened, the stem is pierced 
with an oiled steel wire and the bowl is formed with a brass mold. Next comes "shap- 
ing up" with a knife, further drying, baking in a kiln and polishing. 

The finest clay pipes are imported from France. They are generally soft and 
rather creamy in appearance, and easily absorb nicotine. Thej'' are made in all man- 
ner of fanciful designs, large bowls embellished with heads of public characters being 
in special demand. 

French, and German, manufacturers also turn out a great variety of pipes of red 
and other colored clays. Gambler bowls, of French clay and handsomely decorated in 
colors, meet with a steady sale among a certain line of customers. 

Dutch clays are usually distinguished from other types by smaller bowls and 
long, slim stems. 

The Scottish "cutty-pipe" and Irish "dudeen" are short clay pipes. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



487 



The trade in the Porcelain ioicl pipes, popular in Holland and Germany, is very 
limited in this country, and is confined almost solely to the children of "der Vader- 
land." Americans object to them on the ground that they are not sufficiently porous 
and easily become heated in smoking. 

The numerous other kinds made include several styles with an outer covering of 
cork; those of "Congo Wood," nearly black in color; others fashioned from gourds, 
etc. There is also a large sale in many parts of corn-cob pipes, the bowls consisting of 
sections of the corn-cob from which the inner pith has been removed. 

A primitive pipe, still in use in some rural districts of England and the Continent, 
consists of a stick of elder from which the pith has been removed, with a bowl formed 
of common clay dried by the kitchen fire. Aubrey, 1680, says that gentlemen smokers 
in England at first used silver pipes, "but the ordinary sort made use of a walnut-shell 
and a straw." 

PIQUETTE. (1) A thin wine obtained from the grape-residue after expressing for 
better grades, by the addition of water and sugar. (2) A wine made by the fermen- 
tation of raisins or dried grapes macerated in water. 



PISCICULTURE: 

TLTRE (which see). 



the science of fish-husbandry or Fish Cul- 



the kernel of the small, gener- 



PISTACHIO NUT, or PistacJie: 
ally reddish, fruit of the Pistachio tree, a member of the cashew 
family and native to Western Asia, now cultivated in all Medi- 
terranean countries. The nut is inclined to oval in shape, with a 
smooth, thin, brittle inner shell and light-green meat, very oily 
and of delicate flavor. Large quantities are used in the manufac- 
ture of confectionery, ice cream, etc., and eaten as a dessert nut. 
See Color Page opposite 414 and also Nuts {Food Values). 




Pistachio Nut.-- 



PLACARDS : a very striking mode of advertising, and one which, used judiciously, 
will result in a good return for the money invested. Grocers will rarely find it an econ- 
omy to make their own placards, as show-card painters will supply numerous designs 
of great excellence at very low prices, and nothing disfigures a store more, or more 
decidedly gives the impression of a poor quality of stock, than clumsy-looking placards. 
Have good ones or none. 

PLAICE: a rather large English flatfish, resembling our flounder, of an average 
weight of six to eight pounds. Its flesh is thick, firm and of fair flavor. It is seldom, 
if ever, imported — the "plaice" of the bill-of-fare being generally domestic flounder. 



PLANTAIN : a fruit of the same family as the Banana, but larger in size, flatter in 
shape and coarser and less agreeable in flavor when raw, which serves as a valuable 
food staple in various tropical countries, to a considerable extent taking the place of 
the grains, root vegetables, etc., of other latitudes. It is generally cut while still green 
and firm, and roasted or baked, resembling then the potato in texture and being decid- 
edly pleasing to the palate. It is also dried and ground into a flour which is 
both convenient and nutritious. 



488 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



PLASMON: a yellowish powder obtained by treatment of the curd of skimmed 
milk. It contains about 757° protein and is used principally in special dietaries for 
iuvalids. 



PLOVER : a genus of birds which includes many vari- 
eties, from some no bigger than a sparrow, to the Field 
or Grey Plover, which is generally a little larger than 
the Woodcock. The upper plumage of the Field Plover 
is usually blackish, varied with brown, buff and grey, 
the lower being whitish with black streaks at the sides. 
The most highly esteemed type is the Golden Plover, 
principally imported from Europe, so called from the 
golden color of its upper plumage and especially dis- 
tinguished by the great stretch of its wings. Where 
their use is not prohibited by law, plover's eggs are con- 
sidered a great delicacy. 




American Golden Plover 



PLUCK: a common popular term for the heart, liver and lights of small animals. 

PLUM: a fruit largely cultivated all over the United States and found wild in 
numerous sections. It is a development of the Sloe (which see) and originally came 
from Asia. 

Cultivated plums may be roughly classified into Purple, Red and Yelloto or 
"green," each division including a number of varieties of widely contrasting size, fla- 
vor and appearance. The range of sizes is very great — from the big Yellow Egg, 
which often reaches two inches in length, to some types of the Black Damson, no larger 
than a good-sized cherry. 

One of the most esteemed types is the Greengage, of greenish-yellow skin and 
flesh. It is unsurpassed in sweetness and flavor and is very popular for canning, in 
addition to its consumption as a dessert fruit and preserved. 

Other favorite kinds are the Golden Drop, White Washington, red-black Colum- 
bia and Bradshaw, blue-black Tragedy-Prune and Black Diamond, and two Japanese 
varieties; — the Kelsey and Japan Plum — yellow and purplish-green, both very sweet and 
easy to keep. California and New York State are the largest producers. 

Many alcoholic beverages are made from the fruit, one of the most famous being 
Slivovitz (which see). In France, two brandies of high alcohol content are distilled 
from fermented mixtures consisting in the one case of plums, honey and flour and in the 
other of apples and plums. 

Several wild American plums rival the cultivated product in form and color and. 
not being as sweet, are preferred by many people as dessert fruit. Among the best 
known examples are the red or yellowish-red Chickasaw and the reddish Beech Plum. 

PLUM PUDDING. This palatable dish has been made the theme of many a story 
and many a song, and since it has been put up in canned form, in 1, 2, 3 and 4-pound 
sizes, it has become more popular than ever. It is the most convenient dessert dish 
that the grocer can supply to the puzzled housewife who has to prepare for the com- 
ing guest. Large quantities are exported to England, thus supplying John Bull with 
bis national dessert in improved shape! 




Blue and Yellow PLUMS 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 491 



The very earliest mention of pluna pudding, or "plum porridge" as the first type 
was styled, is by Southey in his "Omniana,'' and this, curiously enough, is not in Eng- 
lish but in French. The quotation is from the memoirs of the Chevalier d'Arvieux, and 
its date is about 1665. It is probable, however, that this Frenchman borrowed his 
receipt from Great Britain, for he took a voyage on a British forty-ton warship in the 
year 1658. A century and a half after that date, plum "porridge" seems still to have 
flourished, for a writer named Brand gives an account of a Christmas breakfast 
served at the royal chaplain's house in the year ISOO, where the first dish was "rich 
and luscious plum porridge I" 

POLAND SPRINGS. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

POLARISCOPE: an instrument now extensively employed for examining subjects 
in polarized light. One of the most important uses from the standpoint of food sup- 
plies, is to determine the amount of saccharose contained in sugars. The chief under- 
lying principle is the fact that when a beam of polarized light is passed through a 
solution of pure sugar and water, it is rotated or twisted to a certain uniform extent 
toward the right. When any commercial sugar is similarly tested, its comparative 
purity is determined by its variance from, or agreement with, the standard of pure 
sugar. 

POLENTA: a pudding popular among all classes in Italy. It was formerly made of 
chestnut meal, but is now generally of semolina (farina) or cornmeal, except during 
the autumn months when chestnuts are plentiful. The meal is mixed with milk or 
water, or a mixture of the two, boiled to the proper consistence and poured into a dish 
to jellify. When firm and thick, it is flavored according to taste, by grating cheese 
over it, the addition of various condiments, etc., and is then cut in slices and thus eaten, 
or is further prepared by a quick frying in oil or other fat. The finest polenta is that 
made from semolina, and numerous additional ingredients are frequently incorpor- 
ated bv way of variety. Cornmeal is used by the poorer classes. 

POLISHES. Metal polishes consist generally of deposits of white clays (silicious or 
diatomaceous), ground silex or quartz, powdered pumice or similar substances and 
oxalic acid, incorporated in putty powder, oil, soft soap or turpentine, etc. Other 
articles sold for the purpose include Bath Brick^ Pumice and Eotten Stone (which 
see). • 

Furniture and Floor Polishes and Pastes are usually composed, in whole or part, 
of wax and turpentine, together in some cases with oil soap or linseed oil, coloring mat- 
ter, etc. 

Windoiv and Mirror Polish can be made by moistening calcined magnesia with ben- 
zine. This must be kept stoppered or the benzine will evaporate. 

See also Blacking, Ejiery, Jeweler's Rouge, Silver Polish, Starch Polish and 
Stove Polish. 

POLLACK, or Pollock {see Color Page opposite 250) : a fish of the same genus and 
about the same size as the cod, which is much esteemed fresh, salted, etc. The best 
of the several varieties is the Common Pollack, with brown-green back and white belly. 
The Black Pollack, or Coal Fish, named for its black back, ranges from New York 
northward. 



492 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



POMEGRANATE (see Color Page opposite) : a tree native to Persia, but intro- 
duced into Europe at a very early date and now flourishing in all sub-tropical coun- 
tries of both hemispheres. 

The fruit, which follows showy orange-red waxy flowers, is about the size of a 
large orange, with thick leathery rind of brownish or reddish j^ellow. The interior 
consists of a delicate sweet or sub-acid reddish pulp enclosing a number of white or 
purplish-white seeds, giving the appearance of a mass of reddish berries. It is cooling 
to the palate, and therefore especially pleasing in warm climates, and it lends itself 
readily to the preparation of summer beverages. Scented with rose water, the juice 
forms one of the most delicious sherbets of the Levant. Fermented, it serves as the 
basis of several Persian wines. 

Pomegranate Syrup is a popular fruit-syrup, generally known as "Grenadine 
Syrup"" — an adaptation of Grenade, the French name of the fruit. 

The seeds possess considerable medicinal value but they are not pleasant in flavor, 
so if for any purpose they are removed from the pulp, by pressing through a sieve or 
otherwise, care must be exercised to avoid crushing them into the fruit. 

POMEGRANATE MELON. See Melons. 

POMELO: one of the original titles of the Grape Fruit (which see). 

POMPANO {see Color Page opposite 504) : one of the most delicious of Southern fish, 
especially noted for its fine nutty flavor. It is shaped like the sun-fish, with very 
small scales of grey color, and weighs from one to five pounds. It is in season from 
Maj- to July, and during November and December. A few pompano are caught each 
season off the Long Island and New Jersey coasts. 



PONT L'EVEQUE. See Cheese. 

POPCORN : a name applied to several kinds of Indian corn 
with small ears and small hard grains, with or without sharp 
points, containing sufficient moisture to explode in roasting. 
The heat "pops" the corn by breaking the coat of the grain, and 
the sudden release of the puffed white interior turns it inside 
out. 

In addition to its popular consumption salted or sweetened 
in rolls and packages, popcorn, either whole or ground, is some- 
times eaten as a breakfast dish with milk or sugar, and it has 
also found favor as a free-lunch-counter item — loose, salted, 
in a bowl. 

Iowa is the centre of the popcorn growing industry. Cul- 
tivation and harvesting are identical with that for ordinary 
maize, except that special attention is given to the ventilation 
of the cribs during drying to insure uniformity, as on the 
thoroughness of the process depends largely the "popping" quality of the grain. 




POPPY SEED: of both the Black and White Poppy, is retailed to some extent for 
use on or in bread, generally of the Vienna shape, and rolls such as the German "Salt- 




POMEGRANATE 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



495 



stangen." Analysis shows about 50% oil, and 25% protein and pectins. It is also sold 
as bird food, then frequently styled "Maw Seed," and is considered an especially 
desirable diet when birds are molting. 

POPPYSEED OIL: is obtained by crushing and pressing the seeds of the opium 
poppy, but it contains no narcotic properties. The best grades are obtained from the 
White Poppy, extensively cultivated in both Europe and Asia. Fine "cold-drawn" oil 
is pale-yellow, almost odorless, and, when fresh, of pleasant taste. It is popular for 
table use in some parts of Europe, and, commercially, is employed in soap manufac- 
ture and various other industries. 

PORGY: a small flatfish weighing from one-half to two pounds, plentiful in the 
markets of the Eastern States. It is in season from the middle of June to the middle 
of October. 

PORK. The title "pork" covers all the flesh, fresh or cured, of pigs or swine, but in 
ordinary use it is not applied to tlie flesh when smoked, as ham and bacon. This is 
another example of the curious changes that have occurred in the English language, 
for "bacon" was formerly applied to all meat from the pig, of any part and whether 
fresh, salted or smoked ! 

A general division of the carcass is shown in the accompanying diagram from a 
Bulletin published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 




"»Ti^p 



_ ... ////'J/-,.i/ 



Pouk Cuts 

1 Head 

2 Shoulder 

3 Back Cut 

3a Ribs (beneath the Back Cut) 
3b' Loin " " " " 

i Middle Cut 

5 Belly 

6 Ham 




The Back Cut designated is almost clear fat and is used for salting and pickling, 
or "corning." The Middle Out and Belly are generally used for bacon, but also for 
salting, the former being sometimes termed "lean ends" salt pork. From the Ribs 
and Loin (beneath the Back Cut) are obtained "spare ribs," eaten both fresh and 
corned; "chops" and "roasting pieces." The Tenderloin proper is a comparatively lean 



496. THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

and very small strip of meat lying under the bones of the Loin and usually weighing a 
fraction of a pound. 

The Hams and Shoulders are generally cured, but are also sold fresh as "pork 
steak" and "fresh pork," etc. The Shoulder is in the South frequently sold entire, dry- 
salted — being then known to many in the trade as the "English shoulder." Through- 
out other parts of the country it is generally cut into two parts — the "picnic," or 
"smoked shoulder" (formerly styled "Picnic" or "California Ham") and the "bone- 
less butt" or "regular butt." The "picnic shoulder," plain cured or cured and smoked, 
is very popular because of its conveniently small size. 

The fat trimmed off the hams and shoulders, may be rendered for lard or it may 
go, with all other trimmings, into the manufacture of sausages. 

The leaf fat which lies around the kidneys furnishes the finest quality lard, 
called "leaf lard" in many localities. 

"Larding pork" is very fat pork, from the loin and ribs, cured and preserved with 
ordinary cooking salt. 

The head, feet and tails are eaten both fresh and pickled. 

The annual consumption of pork is enormous, attributable partly to its food value, 
which is enhanced for use in cold and temperate climates by its heating properties, and 
partly to the fact that it lends itself more acceptably to "curing" than any other form 
of animal food. 

The United States is a long way in the lead as a pork-producer, consuming a high 
per capita amount at home and shipping vast quantities to Europe and other parts of 
the world, both for private consumption and for the commissary departments of armies 
and navies. Ireland is the next largest producer of cured pork. 

Pork should be smooth and cool to the touch. If it feels clammy and looks flabby, 
it is not fresh — and therefore not desirable. If it has many enlarged glands or ker- 
nels in the fat or fine black spots in the belly strips, it may generally be regarded as 
from a diseased animal, and therefore unfit for human consumption. 

It should always be thoroughly cooked before eating (see Trichinae). 

Following are the requirements of the Chicago Board of Trade concerning the 
cutting and packing of pork : 

CUT MEATS. 

Standard Shoulders, should be cut as close as possible to the back part of the 
fore-arm joint, without exposing the knuckle and butted off square on top; neckbone 
and short ribs taken out, neck squared off, blood vein lifted and cut out, breast-flap 
trimmed off, and foot off on or above the knee joint. 

Skinned Shoulders, should be cut and trimmed in all respects like the New York 
Shoulder (see Pickled Meats, following), except that in addition the skin should be 
taken off to the shank and the fat trimmed off within half an inch of the lean. 

Beaded Shoulders, should be cut the same as Standard Shoulders, except that the 
shoulder blade should be taken out and the corners rounded. 

KouGH Sides, should be made by slitting the hog through or on one side of the 
backbone. An equal proportion of both sides must be delivered on sales to make them 
Standard. 

Short Clear Sides, should be cut reasonably square at each end, the backbone 
and ribs taken out and henchbone and breastbone sawed or cut down smooth and even 



THE GROCEK'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 497 



with the face of the side. Feather of bladebone should not be removed and no incision 
or poclcet should be made in the side. 

Extra Short Clear Sides,, should be made the same as Short Clear, except that 
all the loin must be taken off the back. 

Short Eib Sides, should have the backbone taken out and henchbone and breast- 
bone sawed or cut down smooth and even with the face of the side; feather of blade- 
bone not to be removed and no incision or pocket to be made in the side. 

Long Clear Sides^, should be cut reasonably square at both the tail end and 
shoulder end; the neck taken off and smoothly trimmed; backbone, shoulder bones, 
and ribs taken out, and the leg bone and blade, henchbone and breastbone sawed off 
or cut down smooth and even with the face of the side. 

Extra Long Clear Sides, should be cut and trimmed in all respects like the Long 
Clear, except that in addition all the loin should be neatly trimmed down to the fat. 

Short Clear Backs, should be made from the sides of smooth hogs, from which 
the bellies have been cut and backbone and ribs taken out, the lean left on, tailbone 
sawed off even with the face of the meat, and trimmed smooth and square on all edges. 

Short Fat Backs, should be made from the sides of heavy, well-fatted hogs, from 
which the bellies have been cut, backbone and ribs taken out and all the lean taken off, 
trimmed smoothly and properly squared on all edges. 

Long Fat Backs, should be made from smooth, heavy, well-fatted hogs, the side 
to be cut through the center of the ribs, from the ham to and including the shoulder, 
all the lean taken out, trimmed smoothly and properly squared on all the edges. 

Cumberland Sides, should have the end from which the ham is taken cut square, 
the leg cut off below the knee joint, the shoulder ribs, neckbone, backbone and blood 
vein taken out, the breastbone sawed or cut down smooth and even with the face of 
the side, and should not be backstrapped or flanked. 

Long Bib Sides, should be made the same as Cumberlands, except that the blade- 
bone must be taken out and the leg cut off close to the breast. 

Birmingham Sides, should have the backbone, ribs and bladebone taken out, 
pocket piece cut out and pocket nicely rounded, knucklebone left in, and leg cut off 
close to the breast. 

South Staffordshire Sides, should be made the same as Birmingham, except the 
loin is taken out full to the top of shoulder blade, leaving only a thin strip of lean 
along the back, knuckle left in, and leg cut off close to the breast. 

Yorkshire Sides, should be made the same as Cumberland, with the ribs out. 

Irish Cut Sides, should be made the same as Long Clears, with the knucklebone 
left in. 

Dublin Middles, should be cut from light, smooth hogs, and made the same as 
Cumberlands, except that the leg should be cut off close to the breast. The side must 
be thin. 

Wiltshire Sides, should be made from smooth hogs; the shoulder side and ham 
left together in one piece, the bladebone taken out, foot cut off, shoulder same as the 
Cumberland, hip-bone taken out, not to be backstrapped, belly trimmed up even and 
the leg of the ham cut off above the joint. 

Three Bib Shoulders, should be made from smooth, fat hogs, cut three ribs wide, 
squared at butt, and in all other respects the same as the Standard Shoulder. 



498 THE GROCER -'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

PICKLED MEATS. 

Standard Sweet Pickled Hams^ should be cut short and well rounded at the butt, 
properly faced, shank cut off enough above the hock joint to expose the marrow, 
reasonably uniform in size, and to average, in lots, not to exceed sixteen pounds each, 
with no ham less than twelve pounds, and none over twenty pounds. Three hundred 
pounds of block weight shall be packed in each tierce, with twenty-two pounds of salt, 
three quarts of good syrup, and tAvelve ounces of saltpetre and the tierces filled with 
water ; or tierces to be filled with sweet pickle, made in accordance with the standard 
given. 

New York Shoulders, should be made from small, smooth hogs, shank cut off 
one inch above the knee joint, butted about one inch from the bladebone, neck and 
breast flap taken off, trimmed close and smooth, reasonably uniform in size, and to 
average, in lots, not to exceed fourteen pounds. Three hundred pounds, block weight, 
shall be packed in each tierce, with pickle the same as for hams. 

Boston Shoulders, should be made from medium-sized, smooth, fat hogs, shank 
cut off about one inch above the knee joint, and butt cut off about two inches above 
the second knuckle and slightly rounded, neck cut square and breast flap taken off, 
trimmed close and smooth, and not to exceed twelve pounds average. Three hundred 
pounds block weight, shall be packed in each tierce, with pickle the same as for hams. 

Sweet Pickled Rib Bellies, should be made from nice, smooth hogs, well cut and 
trimmed, to average, in lots, not to exceed fourteen pounds. Three hundred pounds, 
block weight, shall be packed in each tierce, with pickle the same as for hams. 

Sweet Pickled Clear Bellies, should be cut and packed, the same as Sweet 
Pickled Rib Bellies, except that all the bone should be removed. 

Dry Salted Rib Bellies, should be well cut and trimmed. No bellies that are 
coarse, bruised, soft or unsound shall be accepted. 

Dry Salted Clear Bellies, should be cut, trimmed and selected the same as Dry 
Salted Rib Bellies, except that all the bone should be removed. 

BARRELED PORK. 

Standard Mess Pork, should be made from sides of well-fatted hogs, split 
through, or on one side of the backbone, equal proportions of both sides, cut into strips 
of reasonably uniform width, properly flanked and not backstrapped. 

Each barrel must contain, between October 1 and the last day of February, inclu- 
sive, one hundred and ninety pounds of green meat, and between March 1 and Sep- 
tember 30, inclusive, one hundred and ninety-three pounds of green meat, numbering 
not more than sixteen pieces, including the regular proportion of flank and shoulder 
cuts, placed four layers on edge without excessive crowding or bruising, together with 
not less than forty pounds of coarse salt, the barrel being filled with brine of full 
strength ; or fifty- five pounds of salt, the barrel being filled with cold water. 

Prime Mess Pork, should be made from the shoulders and sides of hogs weighing 
from one hundred to one hundred and seventy-five pounds, net, cut as nearly as practic- 
able into square pieces of four pounds each ; the shank of the shoulder to be cut off 
close to the breast. 

Each barrel must contain one hundred and ninety pounds of green meat, in the 
proportion of twenty pieces of shoulder to thirty pieces of side cuts, properly packed 
with not less than twenty pounds of coarse salt, the barrel being filled with brine of 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



499 



full strength; or, thirty-five pounds of salt, the barrel being filled with water. Each 
barrel shall also contain twelve ounces of saltpetre. 

Extra Prlnie Pork, should be made from heavy untrimmed shoulders, cut into 
three pieces, the leg cut off close to the breast, and in all other respects cut, selected 
and packed as mess pork. 

Light Mess Pork, should be made from the sides of reasonably well-fatted hogs; 
in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed the same as mess pork, except that as 
many as twenty-two pieces may be put into each barrel. 

Back Pork, should be made from the backs of well-fatted hogs, after the bellies 
have been taken off, cut into pieces of about six pounds each ; in all other respects to be 
cut, selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork. 

Extra Shoulder Pork^ should be made from heavy trimmed shoulders, cut into 
three pieces, the leg to be cut off close to the breast ; in all other respects to be cut, 
selected and packed in the same manner as mess pork. 

Extra Clear Pork^ should be made from the sides of extra heavy, well-fatted 
hogs, the backbone and ribs taken out and the number of pieces in each barrel not to 
exceed fourteen; in all other respects to be cut, selected and packed in the same man- 
ner as mess pork. 

Clear Pork, should be made from the sides of extra heavy, well-fatted hogs, the 
backbone and half the rib next the backbone to be taken out, and the number of pieces 
in each barrel not to exceed fourteen; in all other respects to be cut, selected and 
packed in the same manner as mess pork. 

Clear Back Pork, should be made from the backs of heavy, well-fatted hogs, 
after the bellies have been taken off and the backbone and ribs have been taken out, 
cut into pieces of about six pounds each, in other respects packed as mess pork. 

See also articles on Bacon, Ham and Smoked Meats and Color Page of Smoked 
Meats opposite 292. 



PORK SAUSAGES: are made of pork trimmings, seasoning, etc., put up in casings 
of various sizes. See Sausages. 



PORPOISE: a title correctly applied only to the 
genus Phocaena, but in popular usage extended to 
a large number of the smaller members of the whale 
order, especially to the many kinds of Dolphins 

The Common Porpoise is generally about five 
feet in length, with a smooth, shiny, hairless skin, 
dark grey or nearly black on the upper part, shad- 
ing to white on the belly. It usually travels in 
small companies. The Japanese resembles the 
Common variety in conformation but is smaller 
and darker. 

Porpoise fiesh is highly esteemed in many parts 
of the world. It is seldom eaten here, but it was 
formerly much relished in Europe. 




copvniciiT, KETSTONi: view cO. 

Butclierin? a Porpoise. Japan 



PORRIDGE: a preparation made from the meal of any kind of grain by adding 
water or milk and lioiling until a pulp is formed. 



500 THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

PORT: a strong fortified red wine, produced chiefly in the district bordering on the 
Douro Elver, Portugal, and named after Oporto, the city from which it was flrst, and 
is still largely, exported. It is of two main types — Vintage, from the pressings of 
grapes of a single season, generally when the crop is especially iine, and Blended, 
the "ordinary" port, obtained by mixing wines of two or more years. Both during 
and after fermentation, small quantities of brandy are added to retain the sweetness 
of the "must" by checking fermentation, giving also the strength or "headiness" for 
which it is noted. All ports are "sweet" by wine standards, but some varieties liuown 
as "dry" contain less sugar than the very rich liinds. 

The color of young (red) Port is a very darli ruby, changing with age to ruby- 
tawny and still later to light brownish tawny. When thus naturally developed it is 
generally of high value, but the process is very slow, requiring at least ten years and 
often much longer to obtain the desired mellow flavor and distinctive tawny hue, and 
for general trade purposes the time is shortened by mixing White Port with the Bed, 
the result being a wine less choice to the connoisseur, but nevertheless very pleasing 
in general style and marketable at moderate prices. Even after blending, the wine 
needs careful and thorough aging, for Port does not attain its characteristic qualities 
until it has "rested" for several years. Genuine medium and even loAv-priced brands 
range from three to ten years old — after the latter period, the value increases rapidly 
if the wine is a good type of either "Vintage" or "Blended." The desire for quicker 
profits has, however, in many establishments substituted extensive adulteration and 
coloring of younger wines for the aging process, with the unfortunate result that Port 
has lost some of the high prestige which it formerly enjoyed as a rich dessert wine 
and a valuable tonic beverage. 

In selecting port, the best estimate of its qualities can be obtained by sampling 
it while munching a dry biscuit or a piece of bread. It should taste pleasantly full 
and fruity with a nutty dryish after-taste — it should not leave either heat, harshness 
or the feeling of sugar on the tongue. Tlie best time for serving it, is at dessert with 
the fruit, but it is also very good at luncheon and with bread and cheese, etc. 

Port should be drunk at about the temperature of the room. If an old vintage, it 
should be very carefully poured or decanted, because of the "crust" which forms on 
the under-side of the bottle. The "thick" wine left in the bottle should not be thrown 
away^it is excellent for cooking purposes. 

White Port is a distinct variety of the color of very dark sherry, from white grapes. 

The term Invalid Port does not signify a specially medicated wine — it is employed 
to designate vintage port carefully selected for purity and delicacy and intended for 
use as a tonic. 

Tarragona Port is a Spanish product, resembling the Portuguese wine in general 
characteristics. It is good for early consumption but it generally deteriorates instead 
of improving with age. 

See also American Wines. 

PORT du SALUT: a French cream cheese. See general article on Cheese. 

PORTER: a dark-colored malt liquor. See under Stout. 

PORTERHOUSE CUT: the thicker part of the sirloin of beef (see article on Beef 
and Color Illustrations of beef cuts). Its use and title are credited to a saloon or 



THE GROCER-'S ENCrCLOPEDIA 501 



'•porter-house" situated near the old Fly Jlarket, New York, during the early years 
of the nineteenth century. Its proprietor, discerning the excellence of steaks cut from 
the thick end of the sirloin, then used only for roasting, refused to buy any other 
from his butcher. The fame of the "porterhouse steak" rapidly spread and the term 
is now firmly established in the language of meats. 

Another explanation credits the term to a roadhouse known as "Porter's," located 
at Cambridge, Mass., during the middle of the last century, which won fame for the 
excellence of the steaks it served from the cut now known as "Porterhouse." 

PORTUGUESE WINES. Portugal makes a large amount of wine, being sixth in 
the scale of the world production, but with the exception of limited importations of 
varieties such as Bucellas, both red and white and sweet and dry; Monsao (in sevei'al 
styles) and the ruby Calvel, it is known here only for its Port (which see). 

POSSET: a milk curdled with wine or any other slightly acidulous liquor. It is 
usually sweetened with sugar or molasses and is drunk hot. 

POSSUM: a local abbreviation of Opossum (which see). 

POT HERBS : herbs used as "greens," in soups, etc. See Herbs. 

POTASH: is, correctly speaking. Potassium Hydroxide, but in general usage the 
title is applied also to various salts of potassium. The best known commercial types 
are (crude) Carbonate of Potash; Hydrate of Potash (Potassium Hydroxide) or "caus- 
tic potash," and Muriate of Potash. It has many industrial uses, prominent among 
them being employment in the manufacture of soft soap and several special forms of 
glass, such as "Bohemian," "Flint," etc. Caustic Potash is more alkaline than the 
Carbonate because of the extraction of the carbon-dioxide content. 

Potassium is present almost everywhere — in the water of the ocean, in soil, rocks, 
trees, plants, etc. The principal present commercial sources are the land deposits in 
Germany and other parts of Europe, because of the ease Avith which it can there be 
separated from the other associated minerals. It was formerly obtained largely from 
the ashes of timber, plants, etc., and is still so extracted in sections where wood is 
the principal fuel or where there is a large amount of A^aste wood. 

The word "potash" describes the old method of manufacture — the wood ashes 
were first dissolved in water and then the water was poured off the residue and 
evaporated by steaming in large iron pots. The "pot-ash" remained at the bottom of 
the pot in a semi-granular condition, as the result of frequent stirring toward the end. 
The name remains, but the product is now generally obtained by 
evaporation in special furnaces. 

Pearl-ash is a partly purified form of Carbonate of Potash. 

POTATO. There is difference of opinion as to the discoverer 
of the potato, but authorities generally agree in describing it 
as native to South America. It was brought to Ireland by 
Sir John Hawkins in 1565 ; and to England by Sir Francis Drake 
in 1585 and by Sir Walter Raleigh in 1586, but it did not come 
into general use until the close of the eighteenth century. To-day 




502 THE GROOER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

in Europe and America, the only food crops which exceed it in value are wheat and 
rye. Germany heads the list as the greatest potato-using country in the world, averag- 
ing 160 acres planted with potatoes to every 10,000 inhabitants, the United States fol- 
lowing next with thirty-four acres, and Great Britain and Ireland with thirty-one 
acres. A considerable percentage of the German harvest is, though, devoted to indus- 
trial uses. 

It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the potato as a food crop — it has 
played a prominent part in the improvement of agricultural conditions which has pre- 
vented the recurrence of the periodic famines of former ages. 

The varieties under cultivation are constantly changing. A certain type will for 
several years lead the market as the most desirable product, only to gradually deteri- 
orate in quality and eventually to be supplanted by another variety which will run a 
similar course of mediocrity, success and final failure. In this manner, many kinds 
which were popular years ago have become almost extinct. 

New potatoes from Bermuda are received here during October and November and 
again about March. Florida generally sends its first supplies in Februarj', but the 
date varies with the conditions of the season, sometimes being as late as April. 

The following are simple and generally reliable tests for ascertaining the quality 
of potatoes without cooking: 

Choose a sound potato at random from the lot, paying no attention to its out- 
ward appearance, cut it into two pieces and examine the exposed surface. If it shows 
so much water or juice that a comparatively slight pressure causes it to fall off in 
drops, you may be sure it will be soggy after it is boiled. There must be a consider- 
able amount of water, but not an excess. Then note the color — it should be yellow- 
ish-white. If a deep yellow, the potato is not likely to cook well. Next rub the 
pieces together — a white froth, caused by the starch content, will appear around the 
edges and upon the two surfaces. The more starch, and consequently the more froth, 
the better the potato; the less there is, the poorer it will cook. The strength of the 
starchy element can further be tested by loosing the hold upon one piece — if it still 
clings to the other, it is a very good sign. These are the experiments usually made by 
experts, and they are generally willing to buy potatoes which successfully stand the 
tests — but they are by no means infallible. 

An' exception to the color test is necessary in the case of some imported~"potatoes 
— Avhich may be very yellow, yet of high quality. 

Too much emphasis cannot be laid on the fact that the green color in potatoes 
which have grown too near the surface of the earth and have been affected by the 
sun, is an indication of the presence of an alkaloid poison called solanine. It is 
dangerous and renders them unfit for food. The same effect in a minor degree is pro- 
duced by sprouting. If such potatoes are consumed, they should be sliced and placed 
in cold water an hour or two before cooking. 

To keep potatoes in good condition, it is essential that they should be stored in 
a darlc, cool, well-ventilated place. Excessive dampness should be avoided, but ex- 
treme dryness is almost equally bad, as it has a tendency to shrivel them. When the 
latter result is noticed, they may be packed and covered with sand, the latter being 
dampened occasionally. A sprinkle of lime over any that are disposed to rot, will act 
as a deterrent. 

Reference has been ah'eady made to the importance of potatoes in the food sup- 
ply of modern nations. It should though always be remembered that, alone, they are 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 503 



not by any means a satisfactory human diet on account of their overwhelming propor- 
tion of starch. They should always be accompanied by other foods to supply the 
lack of protein (see Food Values). This lack has, apparently by intuition, always 
been supplied in those countries where they have been made the chief staple — the 
Irish, for example, consume quantities of milk ; the Scotch, cheese and oatmeal in con- 
siderable amount, and the Germans, cheese and allied products. In England and 
America, the large per capita consumption of meat has supplied the greater part of 
the protein required. 

To retain the highest amount of nourishment, potatoes should be cooked in their 
skins — so prepared, they have been found by a.nalysis to be nearly twice as rich in 
potash salts as those peeled before cooking. The skins are easily removed before 
sending them to table. An exception is made for new potatoes, which should have 
their loose outer skins rubbed off with a cloth or stiff brush before cooking. 

The first preparation should include the removal with a knife of all bruised or 
damaged parts, worm-holes, etc., and the careful cleaning of all dirt out of the "eyes" 
and from the rough parts of the skins by means of a brush and water, followed by rins- 
ing in clean water and draining in a colander. If at all dry or shriveled, they may be 
advantageously left to soak for three or four hours in clean, cold Avater before cooking. 

After cooking, potatoes should never be held in a covered dish, as thus contained 
they are liable to become sodden. The best method is to serve them in an open dish 
with a napkin over them — the napkin both retains the heat and absorbs the moisture. 

In Europe, particularly Germany, special types of potatoes very high in starch 
content, are cultivated for use in the manufacture of Alcohol — also known as Potato 
Spirit and Potato Brandy; Potato Flour, Potato Syrup and Starch. 

POTATO CHIPS or Saratoga Chips: are very thin shavings of peeled potatoes, 
cut with a machine, steeped in ice water to draw out the starch and fried in boiling lard. 
With proper care they remain fresh for a long time. They are retailed both in bulk 
and cartons and have within the last few years become a free-selling grocery item. For 
use, it is only necessary to heat in the oven, or in a pan, before serving. 

The title of Saratoga Chips is attributed to their having been first introduced by 
a colored chef at Morris Lake, Saratoga, N. Y. 

POTATO FLOUR: is obtained by grinding the tubers to a pulp, as described in 
the article on Starch^ and removing the fibre by water-washings. The dried product 
consists chiefly of starch, but also contains some protein. Large quantities are con- 
sumed in Europe — in the form of bread, in the preparation of soups, etc. It is also 
employed to some extent in this country by sausage makers, bakers, confectioners and 
cooks and for various commercial purposes. 

POTATO* SYRUP: in Europe, an important commercial product, obtained by 
imperfect hydrolization of potato-starch. It corresponds to our Corn Syrup, obtained 
in similar manner from maize-starch (see Glucose). 

POTTED CHEESE: prepared ripened cheese, retailed in small jars. See Cheese. 

POTTED, and "Deviled," MEATS: are meats minced to the consistence of paste 
and seasoned, put up in cans and jars. The "plain potted" should retain the natural 



504 THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

flavor of the meat. The "deviled" are made very hot to the palate by a greater propor- 
tion of peppers and spices. The most popular types are those prepared from ham, 
chicken, turkey, tongue and beef, and various combinations such as ham and chicken, 
ham and tongue, etc. Other items which find favor but which are in less demand are 
anchovy, herring, game, rabbit, etc. In the cheaper varieties, pork in the proportion 
of one-quarter to one-half is generally added to the "character" ingredient. 

Potted meats are especially suitable for sandwiches and are very serviceable for 
buffet lunches, camping parties, picnics and similar occasions. 

POULTRY. Within this classification come all domesticated birds bred and raised 

for use as human food. The most common types are chickens, ducks, turkeys, geese, 
pigeons and guinea-fowls. Other birds occasionally domesticated for the same pur- 
pose are peafowl (peacocks), quail, pheasants and swans. Wild duck, wild turkey, 
etc., come under "game birds" instead of "poultry." 

The Chicken, Turkey, Guinea-Fowl, Partridge, Pheasant, Grouse and Quail 
belong to the same order, known as GalUnae or "Comb bearers." They are distin- 
guished by the flesh of the breast and wings being lighter in color than that of other 
parts of the body. Ducks, geese and swans are "dark meat" birds. Pigeons belong 
midway between the two classes, the flesh on the breast being only slightly lighter. 

It is estimated that more than 250 million poultry birds are consumed annually in 
the United States alone. 

Good general rules for the selection of dressed poultry, are to see that the eyes 
are bright; the feet, soft, moist and limber; the body plump and firm, and the skin 
of clear color — a yellow tint being best liked in this country — and free from bruises or 
stains. With the approach of staleness, the eyes shrink and the feet dry and harden. 
At a later stage, the body becomes dark and greenish. 

The age can be determined with fair accuracy by (1) the lower tip of the breast 
bone, which should be as flexible in a verj^ young bird as the human ear, becoming 
brittle at a year or so and hard and tough when older; (2) the feet, which are soft 
and smooth in young, and hard and rough in old birds, and (3) the claios, which are 
short and sharp in the young, and larger and blunter in the older. 

Poultry should always be washed before using, the best method being to use a 
soft brush and warm water in which a little baking soda has been dissolved. 

Gold storage poultry should never be allowed to remain in a warm room before 
cooking. It should be kept at a low temperature until desired for use. 

In India it is customary in many parts to skin fowls without plucking the 
feathers, and country residents who find very troublesome the task of plucking, might 
avoid it in this way. The method seems radical, but for the majority of culinary pur- 
poses, especially for fricassee, the result is entirely satisfactory^. The skinning is 
easily performed by slitting the skin from the beak down the breast to the tail and, 
laterally, at each wing and leg. 

In Italian markets it is a general thing to dismember a certain number of fowls 
so that customers may purchase separate parts in any quantity needed. Various trays 
or other receptacles are displayed — one full of breasts, another of wings, a third of 
legs and others of livers and other "giblets." This method offers many advantages. 
A housewife with a lean purse can buy a few cents' worth of the cheaper parts, instead 
of being compelled to purchase an entire bird or deny herself the pleasure of having 
chicken on the table. Others, to whom the matter of price is not so important, also find 




(1) Spanish Mackerel 
(3) Pompano 
(5) Smelt 



FISH 



(2) Common Mackerel 
(4) Bulterflsh 
(6) Blueflsh 



thegrocer'sencyclopedia 507 



it both convenient and economical, as they can purchase any desired quantity of the 
choicer parts without having to provide a way to dispose of the less desirable por- 
tions. A popular dish in well-to-do houses is, for example, a pan of chicken breasts, 
garnished perhaps with pieces of ham or sausage — to serve such a dish under general 
American market conditions would pi"obably necessitate purchasing a half-dozen or 
more whole chickens. 

Ketailers catering to a "good" class of trade will find that attractive methods of 
marketing are especially applicable to poultry. Chickens and other birds packed in 
suitable baskets, lined and covered with linen, white paper, etc., will bring much 
better prices than the same birds carelessly handled. 

The directions under ]Meats for their proper keeping, apply equally to poultry of 
all kinds. See also articles on Chicken, Ducks, etc. 

POULTRY SEASONING: a preparation of spices and herbs ready mixed for use 
iu stuffing fowls. It sells easily during the fall and winter holidays. 

POUSSE CAFE: a "mixed drink" consisting of several liqueurs served together in a 
small glass in "layers" without blending. Any desired combination can be used if the 
colors of the liqueurs make a good contrast and if they are so added — the heavier 
below, the lighter above — that they do not intermingle. 

A popular formula consists of a little raspberry syrup {red), in the bottom of 
the glass; then anisette {white), orange curagoa, maraschino {ivhite), green char- 
treuse and brandy {golden) in the order named — the brandy on top. 

POWER OF ATTORNEY: is a writing, under seal, giving authority to the per- 
son named to act in the stead of the maker of the document. The document may 
cover only a single act, as to sell a single piece of property or collect a single debt, or 
it may give authority to conduct or manage an entire business. The first would be a 
special, and the latter a general. Power of Attorney. 

The act of the attorney binds the principal, when done within the limit of time 
and authority set forth in the Power of Attorney, and the attorney is not liable him- 
self to third parties if he acts, in such cases, in the name of his principal. 

Persons under age cannot ajDpoint attorneys, but they may act as attorneys for 
others. 

A power thus given may be revoked at any time, and always expires at death, 
except in cases whei'e the attorney holds a personal interest in the matter, as in the 
authority to transfer or sell stocks to cover a debt due him by the principal. 

PRAIRIE CHICKEN, or Prairie Hen : a game bird found iu the western states. It 
is now generally styled American Grouse (see Grouse). 

PRALINES: a term which was formerly applied only to almond candy — then also 
known as "sugar almonds" — and especially to confections of burnt almonds, but is 
now employed for any mixture of nut kernels and sugar. 

In the South, the word is used chiefly in connection with sugared cocoanut or 
pecan meats — pai'ticularly the latter, a candy which may be described as native to 
Louisiana and the manufacture of which in that state seems to be the conceded privi- 
lege of the descendants of the old Louisiana Indians whose blood has been inter- 



508 thegrocer's encyclopedia 

mingled with that of French negroes. In the larger cities, they also have a natural 
monopoly in peddling it. 

For the making, the Indian generally obtains sugar that has crystallized and 
settled to the bottoms of molasses kegs, because of its delicious flavor. This he sets to 
re-boil and in the meantime cracks the pecans and removes their meats, exercising 
great care so as to secure the two halves in unbroken shape. When the melted sugar 
is ready, he pours it on a flat stone in little pools, three inches or so in diameter, and 
heaps the nut meats up in them in conical form, pouring a little of the hot sugar on 
top of each pile to hold the nuts in place. 

The true Southern "Pralines" are never made in large quantities, as to be fully 
enjoyed they should be eaten before the sugar dries out and the mixture loses 
its aromatic flavor. 

PRAWNS: a small shellfish of the lobster type. When taken from the water they 
are dark-whitish in color, but they are generally boiled before they reach the mer- 
chant and in that condition are of a pleasing pink or red color. Fresh prawns, shipped 
both raw and boiled, are in season from September to March — they are scarce in the 
summer — but the main consumption is of the canned variety, principally of those 
caught and canned in the South. The tails are the only portion ordinarily eaten, but 
the heads may be pounded and used for flavoring soups and sauces. Prawns are in the 
East frequently but improperly called "Shrimps." 8ee Color Page opposite 346. 

"PREPARED" FOODS: for invalids and children, include a great number of 
preparations, but nearly all can be classed as farinaceous — their bases being gener- 
ally the flour of wheat, corn, rice, barley, lentils, etc., variously flavored and sweetened 
and frequently malted or partly pre-digested. 

PRESERVATIVES. The proper control of the methods of preparing and marketing 
food products is indisputably of vital importance to the general health. The sta- 
tutes applying to the subject are not yet perfect in either detail or operation, but recent 
legislation has appreciably raised the general standard by lessening the use of many 
chemical preservatives that are more or less detrimental to the human body and by 
greatly diminishing the sale of unsound foods. 

It should, however, be borne in mind that the mere fact that a preservative is a 
"chemical," does not necessarily signify that it is harmful to the human system. The 
average consumer has an aversion to the idea of "chemicals" being added to his food 
— yet salt, which is freely and willingly used by everyone, which is and always has 
been used as a preservative, and which is acknowledged by both legislative and medi- 
cal authorities to be harmless, is itself a "chemical." It is probably only the cen- 
turies of custom behind its use that prevents it from seeming obnoxious to the aver- 
age individual — if it had only recently been discovered and had been used only as a 
"chemical" preservative of foods, consumers generally would almost certainly object 
to it as a possible menace to health. The advance of scientific research has disclosed 
other chemicals more suitable for use as preservatives for some foods than salt, and 
just as free from any obnoxious features — and their use, after proper analysis and 
experiment, should not be prohibited merely because of their more recent discovery. 

The public has some reason for its attitude, for investigations have disclosed the 
unjustifiable use of many undesirable articles designed to remedy the defects of 



THE GROOER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 509 

uusound foods, but it will readily see the unreasonableness of condemning all preserv- 
atives if properly enlightened on the difference between those which are harmful and 
those whicli are not, and if convinced of the proper control of the use of those innoc- 
uous to the human system. 

It must also be remembered that though many foods can be kept good for a long 
time by the use of salt, sugar, vinegar, spices, etc., and, generally, almost indefinitely 
by heating or cooking before or during the process of canning, there are others which 
are not so readily amenable to those processes — or which by their use are liable to 
lose much of their distinctive flavor or qualities. Further, the natural fermentation 
which is liable to take place in foods that are not properly presCTved, will often produce 
poisons far more dangerous than even the most pernicious of chemical preservatives. 

One of the strongest incentives to the use of unnecessary preservatives, coloring 
matter, etc., is the desire to retain or imitate the color of the fresh article. Some 
items are liable under ordinary conditions to change color during preparation, and 
the packer naturally desires to prevent or remedy this because he knows that appear- 
ance counts for a great deal with the average consumer. A big impetus will be given 
the manufacture of pure food products when the public in general understands that 
though color and general appearance are excellent points by which to judge fresh food, 
they are not always reliable in estimating the quality of preserved food. Unreasoning 
or too keen desire for fine color in the latter may act as a direct temptation to indulge 
in sophistication, for it is often much easier to put up a fine-looking article by the 
use of preservatives and coloring matters or bleaches, than to produce a less sho^y but 
much more wholesome result without any artificial aids. 

To sum up, one may state that food manufacturers should be limited to the use 
of only such preservatives as have been proved harmless to the human system, and in 
only such quantities as are necessary to protect good sound food from disintegration. 
They should not be permitted to avail themselves of any preservatives which do not 
come within that description, nor to employ even harmless preservatives to conceal 
or counteract the use of unsound foods — but neither should the food supply of the 
country be limited to only those articles which can be preserved by salt, sugar or heat, 
just because we are better accustomed to those three methods. 

PRESERVES: a term frequently applied indiscriminately to any kind of fruit pre- 
served by any means and for any use. For purposes of classification, it is better 
applied exclusively to fruits such as peaches, pears, etc., put up in liquids, which, to 
a considerable extent, retain their original shape after cooking. The title "jam"' is, 
similarly, best applied to fruit pulps cooked without regard to the original shape of 
tlie fruit, and "jelly" to the fruit juices from which the pulp has been removed. 
Candied or "crystallized" fruit is fruit boiled in sugar to crystallization. See Jams, 
Jelly and Crystallized Fruits. 

The most widely used "preserved" fruits are those generally knoAvn as "canned 
fruits" — those preserved by sterilization and hermetical sealing, with or without the 
addition of sug-ar. See Canned Goods and Dried and Evaporated Fruits. 

PRETZELS, formerly called Bre*2feZ.s: hard brittle twists of 
dough, shaped into a letter B, dipped in hot lye, salted and 
baked hard. They are common in Germany, and among Germans 
in this country as an adjunct to beer. 

Pretzel 




olO 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




PRICKLY PEAR: a title popularly applied to the edible fruit of a great many 

members of the Opuntia family of cactus, 
now represented by one or more kinds 
in nearly every part of the world. They 
may be generally described as fleshy 
shrubs or trees, often of great size, with 
wide stems and succulent branches. In 
Mexico and Sicily, the fruit constitutes 
a large part of the diet of entire com- 
munities during the main season of pro- 
ductiveness, the plants being also effec- 
tively employed as hedgerows. 
" Prickly Pears ■■ Prickly Pears are found in red, yel- 

low, purple and various other colors. They vary from peai'-shape to round, and from 
an ounce to a pound or more in weight — the most common types ranging from one to 
three inches in diameter. The skin is, in nearly all varieties, marked by bunches of 
the small spicules or spines which are responsible for their popular title. As a rule, 
the best are those with the thinnest skins and fewest spicules. The purplish-red Tuna 
Cardona and the Tii7ia AmariUa, or Yellow Tuna, are the most highly esteemed. 

The fruit is eaten raw — plain or in salads, etc. — and preserved or pickled with 
lemons or other fruits. In the Southwest, the purple tunas are frequently employed to 
color jellies. The pulp generally contains a number of seeds sufficiently large in size 
to be objectionable to the average American — who consequently prefers the fruit in 
preserved and other forms for which they have been expressed — but the Mexican eats 
the entire pulp and part of the skin, the spines being previously removed from the 
latter by rubbing, etc. The flavor is usually rather weak but is distinctly refreshing 
to the palate, and the food value is as high as of most fruits of popular consumption. 
The Mexicans, after expressing the seeds, cook or evaporate the pulp to various 
degrees, producing a syrup known as 
Tuna Honey; a moderately stiff paste 
called Melcocha, and a very thick paste 
or cheese similar to plum or guava cheese. 
They also dry the fruit and make a fer- 
mented beverage from it. 

Because of their rapid growth and 
prolific fruit-bearing habits, the Opuntia 
cacti present greater commercial and eco- 
nomic possibilities than those of any 
other genus. Many experiments are be- 
ing made with the hope of improving the 
best varieties so as to make them more 
generally serviceable, as they flourish in 
soil and other conditions unfavorable to 
general plant growth. The development 
of the Spineless Cactus, which has no 
thorns on the fruit, portends a much 
wider use — the coarser grades for cattle- 
feed and the finer for human consump- 



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" Prickly Pear " Cactus, California 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 511 



tiou. A i-eceut banquet iu Seattle, Wash., demonstrated its versatile utility by its 
appearance on tbe menu in nine different forms. 

The Prickly Pear is generally known iu England as the "Indian Fig." 

PRINT ANIER SOUP, or Consomme Printanier: is a consomme (see article on 
Soups) containing a yariety of vegetables, as carrots, turnips, string beans, green 
peas, etc., the larger ones cut into small pieces, often in fancj' shapes. Printuiiicr 
signifies "Spring style." 

PROOF SPIRIT. The standard of alcoholic strength in spirituous liquors is termed 
"'Proof;' -which designates, approximately, 491/2 % alcohol, by weight. Any liquor 
showing more or less than that proportion is "over" or "under" proof. Proof, 
as the standard, is represented by the figure 100 — so whisky said to be, for example, 
".98" or "lOP' Proof is 2 degrees helow or one degree above Proof. 

PROTEIN: a complex substance of high nutritious value found in nearly all foods, 
but in particularly large proportions in meat, eggs, fish, beans, peas, cheese, cereals, 
some nuts, etc. See article on Food Values. 

PRO VOLE: an imported Italian cheese. See general article on Cheese. 

PRUNES : are dried plums of certain cultivated varieties. Until as recently as 1890 
almost the entire supply was imported from Europe, the principal sources being 
France, Spain, Austria-Hungary (including Bosnia, Servia, etc.) and Germany, but 
to-day the general market is fully supplied by California and the other Pacific States, 
and large quantities of California prunes are exported to every part of the world — 
among the best customers being Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Holland, Bel- 
gium, Denmark and Australia. There is still, however, a steady sale of a limited quantity 
of fine prunes imported from France and also shipments in lesser volume from Ger- 
many and Austria-Hungary, the last-named principally of cheap grades and decreasing 
in importance. 

The California industry started with a single tree which a Frenchman by the name 
of Peller planted there in 1870. At that time the French product led the world. It 
was soon found that the prune throve on the Pacific coast, and that the hot, dry 
summer brought out its full saccharose qualities. The first orchard, planted in the 
Santa Clara valley, just south of San Francisco, now the prune producing center of 
the state, was laid out by a Mr. Bradley. It commenced to yield in 1875 and, tliongli 
only ten acres in extent, the trees in four years gave fruit to the value of .$14,000. 

The present California production reaches from 140 to 160 million pounds. An 
acre generally averages about one hundred trees, and it is not unusual for a tree to 
bear 800 pounds of fruit in one season. An interesting point is that the fruit is never 
grown on its own stocks, but from grafts on wild-plum, peach and apricot stocks in 
this country and on plum stock in Europe. The best French product is generally 
gathered from trees grafted on wild-plum stock. 

By the French method of treatment, the plums for the finest grades are picked 
by hand, spread in shallow baskets and sel in a cool, dry place until they become soft. 
They are then placed on sieves and shut in spent ovens. At the end of twenty-four 
hours they are taken out, but only to be replaced after the ovens liave been slightly 



512 THE GEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

reheated. This process is repeated once more, the fruit during the interim being 
turned by slightly shaking the sieves, and then they are removed and allowed to 
become cold. Finally comes the packing in cans, tin boxes and glass jars, which are 
hermetically sealed and labeled. 

The drying process requires a considerable degree of skill, the aim being to 
develop the saccharose of the prune without changing its flavor or detracting from 
its fruity character. 

Some packers follow the drying by various supplementary treatments, giving the 
fruit a dark color by means of a harmless pigment, coating it with glycerine to 
retain its moisture, etc. 

The largest fruit of the highest grade of French prunes, number about 30 to the 
pound. From this, they run up in number and down in grade to 130 to the pound. 
The figures 50 to 55, 80 to 85, etc., which occur in price-lists, refer to the number of 
prunes to the pound. 

It takes an average of 2^4 to 3 pounds of the fresh fruit to make one pound of 
prunes, the difference representing the evaporation of the water content. 

By the California method, the fruit is generally allowed to fall from the tree in 
order to secure the fullest ripeness and consequently the greatest possible sugar con- 
tent. Drying in the sun is also substituted for the oven-drying of the French pro- 
cess, being preceded by hot and cold immersions. The prunes are finally graded into 
ten chief sizes— 20 to 30 to a pound, 30 to 40, 40 to 50, 50 to 60, 60 to 70, 70 to 80, 
and so on, the bulk of the product being marketed in boxes of five pounds and upward. 
The smaller "fancy" packings include a number of glace types, stuffed with apricots, 
nuts, ginger, etc. The canned product ranges from small "individual" cans holding 
only 8 or 9 prunes, up to the gallon size. 

California prunes, in addition to their fine fiavor, are rendered very desirable by 
the use of sterilizing machines, which clean the fruit at a high temperature and 
destroy all bacterial life. 

No fruit can boast higher food value than prunes, for they contain large amounts 
of both protein and easily digestible sugar. They are also valuable as a laxative and 
the water in which they are stewed is for this reason frequently employed as a vehi- 
cle for purgative medicines. 

It seems a pity that cheap humor and poor jokes should be laid so heavily on 
such excellent, serviceable fruit, which is always good, always in season and capable 
of use in a great diversity of ways — stewed alone, or with tart plums, orange, lemon, 
spices, etc. ; in pies, puddings and cakes— but the reason for slandering them is, per- 
haps, to be found in the wide ignorance concerning their proper preparation. The 
public is not so much to blame for this as would-be cooking teachers and writers. 
Nearly every writer tells you to "soak the prunes over night." This is wrong. Prunes 
that are soaked over night and then stewed, become soft, mushy and water-soaked — 
the flesli disintegrates and the fruit loses both flavor and shape. 

Instead of ruining the fruit by soaking it, rinse it in scalding water and wash 
thoroughly in cold water ; then strain through a colander and place it in a cooking ves- 
sel (porcelain preferred), add as much water as fruit and set on the back of the stove or 
range to simmer until tender. Do not hoil. You will thus obtain stewed prunes that 
are tender but firm in fiesh, palatable and in every way delicious. 

No sugar is needed for good California prunes, but Oregon prunes are more tart 
and are generally improved by about a tablespoonful for each pound of fruit. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 513 



BrignoUes Prunes, or Prunelles, or Praiiellos: are trade names for a small acid 
variety of French prunes, peeled before drying and with stones removed before being 
offered for sale. Their flavor suggests apricots. The French Prunelle is the Sloe. 

Ruby Prunes, are fruit plucked and processed just before ripening. They are ruby- 
red and more tart in flavor than those fully ripened. 

Silver Prunes undergo a special process which leaves them a light yellowish color, 
looking somewhat like mammoth "Sultanas." 

PRUNE COGNAC: a liqueur similar to Slivovitz (which see). 

PTARMIGAN : a game bird of the Arctic regions. See Grouse. 

PUFF-BALL (see page illustration of Edible Fungi in article on Mushrooms) : a 
large species of fungus with properties and flavor resembling the mushroom, which 
could easily be developed into an important source of food supply. It is found in 
several parts of the United. States, both in prairie and woodland, but generally 
favoring the vicinity of old and decaying timber. It is of various shapes, but generally 
round or nearly so, with white or cream-colored exterior and of various sizes — from 
the small puff-balls on tree-stumps to the Giant Puff-ball {Galvatia Maxima), 
which grows from ten inches to sometimes nearly three feet in diameter. The last- 
named is the most desirable for edible purposes. It is eaten before ripening, the flesh 
being then white, elastic and fragrant — generally cut in slices of an inch or so in 
thickness and then fried, preferably in butter. It is especially pleasing if dipped in 
egg yolk before frying, and lends itself readily to divers other forms of preparation. 
Many of those accustomed to its flavor consider it superior to the mushroom. 

The smaller types {Genus Lycoperdoii) include a cup-shape puff-ball, some vari- 
eties white, others light buff, with white or reddish network on top. 

The puff-ball takes its name from the fact that after drying, when squeezed, it 
emits its spores in puffs like smoke. A great advantage which it has over many edible 
fungi is that there is no poisonous variety that in any way resembles it. When you 
find a puff-ball, no matter what the size, it is always something safe to eat- — though 
if it is ripe it becomes streaked with yellow or olive and loses its delicacy. If left 
undisturbed, the puff-ball is eventually transformed into powdery "spores" or seeds. 

PUFFED RICE. See sub-head at end of article on Rice. 

PUFFED WHEAT: is made in the same way as Puffed Rice (see Rice). 

PULQUE, ov Pulque Maguey: the common beverage of the central tableland of 
Mexico, corresponding in some respects to. our beer, but generally containing a higher 
alcoholic percentage. It is obtained by the fermentation of the sweet liquid known 
as "Manso," produced by the Maguey, a plant belonging to the Amaryllis family (which 
includes the Century Plant, etc.), which grows wild throughout all Mexico and Cen- 
\ tral America. The best is that produced in the Mexican states of Hidalgo, Tlaxcala, 
Puebla and Mexico. 

Just before the plant begins to flower, the upper leaves are cut off, the operation 
being called "capazon." This induces the sap to accumulate in the denuded stems. The 



514 



THE GEOCEK-'S ENCYCLOi'EDIA 



secretion is further stimulated by the removal of the mucilaginous coating which 
forms in the hollow, the operation being called "raspa," and the hollow itself "cajete." 
The "cajete" is covered by a stone to preserve the liquid — which thus in its fresh 
state is called "Agua-miel," or honey-water. At the proper time the Agua-miel is 
pumped or sucked through a tube called "acocote," by men called "tlachiqueros," and 
passed into skins, generally pig-skins, as will be noted in the accompanying illustra- 
tion. It goes next to large fermenting tanks, and is allowed to ferment until it 
becomes white and viscous and gives out a characteristic alcoholic odor, when it is 
known as Pulque. In that condition it contains from 4% to 8% alcohol. 

Pulque must be drunk within a feT\' days of making or the natural continuation 
of the ferment process spoils it. As a consequence, supplies for Mexico City, for 
example, are sent in daily by special trains, much as milk into American cities. 

The unfermented liquor, Aqua-miel — a cool-looking yellowish beverage — is also 
consumed to a certain extent. 

Mescal (or Mescal) cle Pulque, or Pulque Brandy, Tequila and Huila are distilled 
alcoholic liquors, from the sap or the fleshy bases of several varieties of the Maguey. 

Some effort has been made to intro- 
duce Pulque in this country, in various 
forms for both medicinal and table use, 
but it has met with only a small degree 
of public favor. 

To produce intoxication by drinking 
Pulque implies copious consumption 
because of its comparatively low percen- 
tage of alcohol, but its abuse in Mexico 
has been increasing for many years, and 
public opinion is crystallizing against it. 
Those who defend its moderate use as- 
sert that, in addition to its stimulating 
properties, it possesses highly valuable 
nutrients in its heavA' azotic elements. 

The first use of Pulque is lost in his- 
torical mists — it was a popular beverage 
long before the first European set foot in 
Mexico. The ancient Toltec race had for 
generations made and consumed it. 

The Maguey, left to its natural course, spends ten to fourteen years in obtaining 
mature growth, consisting then of from twenty to fifty huge succulent leaves surround- 
ing a large fleshy base, a plant of good size weighing a ton or more. When fully devel- 
oped, it sends up an enormous central flower stalk, often a foot in diameter and rang- 
ing from twenty to fifty feet in height, crowned with a candelabra of greenish white 
blossoms. After the ripening of the seeds, the plant withers and dies, its first blossoms 
being also its last. 

The fieshy bases of some varieties are a valued food in many parts of Mexico, and 
the big flower heads or buds, taken just before flowering, are enjoyed as a sweet pre- 
serve after slow roasting and baking in furnaces or pits, changing during the process 
to a rich dark bros^m and becoming sticky with sugar. The buds often weigh from 100 
to 200 pounds each and are retailed either entire or by separate leaves. 




ERWoon, N. 



Extracting Pulque from the Maguey Plant. Mexico 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



515 



PULSE: the fruit of leguminous plants. See Legumes. 

PUMICE: is coarsely cellular lava, so porous that it floats until saturated with 
water. It is extensively employed as polishing material, chiefly in pulverized form. 

PUMPERNICKEL. See sub-head in general article on Bread. 

PUMPKIN : the most highly prized of the squash family, grown in many varieties and 
varying in size from that of a large orange to 
a weight of fifty or more pounds. It is occa- 
sionally cooked as a vegetable, but its principal 
use is in the form of "pumpkin pies." The sea- 
son begins in this country in November, con- 
tinuing to February or March. 

Pumpkins may be kept fresh until spring 
if fully ripe when gathered and the storage place 
is dry, cool and protected from frost. The best 
method is to place them on shelves, seeing that 
they do not touch each other and occasionally 
wiping them off with a dry cloth. Peeled, cut 
up, sun-dried and properly stored, they can be 
used all the year. 

PUNCH: a beverage variously composed of 

wine or spirits, sweetened, flavored and, gen- pumpkins in a Pemisyhania comfleici 

erally, diluted with water. It takes its title 

from the distinguishing ingredient, as Milk Punch and Brandy Punch. 



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PURSLANE: a garden weed with thick, fleshy stalks and leaves, which is some- 
times eaten cooked, both fried and boiled. 

PUTTY: a pasty cement preparation made chiefly of whiting and linseed oil. It 
is employed for fixing window-glass in the frames, filling crevices in woodwork, etc., 
as it dries to remarkable hardness. 

A cheap and effective substitute for putty to stop cracks in woodwork, is obtained 
by soaking newspapers in a paste made by boiling a pound of flour in three quarts 
of water and adding a teaspoonful of alum. The mixture should be of about the same 
consistence as putty, and should be forced into the cracks with a blunt knife. It will 
harden like papier-mache, and when dry may be painted or stained to match the 
boards, when it will be almost imperceptible. 

PYROLIGNEOUS ACID: a crude form of Acetic Acid (which see). 

QUAHAUG, or Quahog: the Indian name for the hard clam (see Clams). 

QUAIL. The bird which is most generally accepted in the United States under this 
title, is really the Bob-White — which differs from the quail proper in several respects 
and is in many points its superior. It is exported to England and elsewhere under 



516 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



the name of Virginia Quail. Its upper plumage is reddish-brown, flecked with black 
and white, and its under- parts are white or buff with black markings {see Color Page 
opposite 260 ) . The average market weight is about five pounds to the dozen, but some 
specimens are considerably larger. 

The quail proper is a European bird, smaller than the Bob-White, of variegated 
plumage, the most noteworthj^ markings being the buff or whitish stripes over the 
upper-part. The tail is short and thin, and the bill weak and undeveloped. 

History tells us that in ancient times the Israelites, wandering througli the des- 
erts, fed on quail — and still to this day they are so plentiful in Egypt that the people 
cannot consume fresh the numbers captured during the season for hunting them, and 
large quantities are salted down or dried in the sun for future use. At migration time, 
sections of the southern shores of the Mediterranean are almost covered with the 
birds and they are shipped alive, by the steamer-load, from Algiers and Alexandria 
to Marseilles, to be thence conveyed to all parts of the Continent. The coveys that make 
the flight across, reach the European side so fatigued that they are easily caught 
with nets, and not infrequently by hand, being too wearied to move when approached. 
The Greek and Italian peasant-women dress them as for market, flatten them between 
boards loaded with stones and then pack them in jars with layers of salt. This salt 
quail-meat forms an important article of commerce and is exported in small casks 
to London, Paris, Berlin, Vienna and Amsterdam. 



now cultivated in every temperate climate. 



QUASS, Kyass, Rye Beer, Barley Beer: a Russian beer made from rye or barley, 
frequently flavored with apples and other fruits. 

QUINCE: a fruit of the apple and pear family, native to Southern Europe and Asia, 

It was an article of popular consump- 
tion among the ancient Greeks and 
Komans and is credited with being the 
original marmalade fruit (see Marma- 
lade ) . It is in season here from October 
to December, Western New York supply- 
ing the greater part of the American crop. 

The tree grows to a height of fif- 
teen or twenty feet, with branches nu- 
merous, crooked and distorted; leaves 
dusky green above and downy on the un- 
der side, and flowers similar in shape to 
apple blossoms, but larger and more open 
and white or of pale pink tint. The 
fruit varies in form from round to pear- 
shape and when ripe is of a rich yellow 
color and of strong odor. 

The best varieties are the "Apple," 
"Pear," and "Portugal." The Apple, or 
"orange" quince as some know it, is gen- 
erally rated as the finest, because of the 
exceptional tenderness of its flesh and the 
excellence of its flavor. 

Quinces 




THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



517 



Large smooth fruits are geuerallj^ considered tlie elioicest. They require very care- 
ful handling, as bruises rapidly develop into dark brown discoloi^ations. If kept stored 
in a cool, dry place and occasionally wiped off with a dry cloth, they can be kept fresh 
and good for a considerable length of time. 

Quinces are not eaten raAv, but they are delicious in the form of jam, jelly and 
sauce, plain-boiled to eat with sugar, etc. They share with the apple and guava the 
distinction of being the best "jelly" fruits. 

The seeds or pips abound in gummy matter which forms, on dilution with water, 
a mucilage possessing the advantage of not being affected by alcohol or salts of iron. 

QUINOA, or Goosefoot: a plant cultivated in the elevated regions of Chile and 
Peru for its seeds, which are made into cakes, soup, beer, etc. It has the unusual 
merit of flourishing at a height of 13,000 feet above sea-level. It is grown to a limited 
extent in England, where the young leaves are consumed as "greens" and the ripe 
seeds are valued as food for poultry and swine. 

QUINTAL. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

RABBITS: a family of small rodents of the Leporidae genus. In some sections of 
the United States the name is applied also to members of the hare family (see 
Hare). In the Central Western States, the hare is distinguished by the appellation 
"jack-rabbit," the rabbit being colloquially known as the "cotton-tail." The animal 
multiplies very rapidly — its increase to the proportions of a pest in Australia is a 
matter of common knowledge. 




OOD *■ UMDEBWOOD, N. T. 



Two loads of Rabbits, to be frozen for export. The wagron on tbe left contains 600; tliat on the right. UiO 
Photo taken near Tarana. New Zealand 



518 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



The flesh makes good eating, both fresh and canned, if the animal is young and 
plump. The age of the fresh carcass may be ascertained by the ears — if they teai' 
easily it will be found acceptable on that score. If they don't, no argument should 
induce one to purchase, for an old or soft, limp rabbit will never give satisfaction. 

Babbit meat is subject to somewhat curious prejudices. In England and France, 
it is eaten and enjoyed in enormous quantities, but in this country it is not popular 
and the sale is comparatively small — and, curiously enough, this dislike is shared by 
West Indian negroes, though they greedily devour snakes, toads and centipedes ! 

Great numbers of rabbits are raised in Belgium for export alive to England, but 
the business of canning the meat is centered principally in South Australia and New 
Zealand. 

The rabbits are caught at night, dressed with the skins on and taken by the cart- 
load to the factories. There the heads are removed — to be afterwards boiled down 
for jelly — the legs cut off, and the pelts laid aside. The bodies are slightly salted 
to remove the' blood, then washed, chopped up in suitable sized pieces and canned in 
the usual method, except that the first boiling of the cans is exceptionally long. 

Domestic rabbits should not be eaten unless they have had wide, free range. 

The Belgian Hare is a large variety of rabbit, which resembles the Common Hare 
in appearance but has no real relation to it. The flesh has the same flavor and charac- 
teristics as that of the common rabbit. 

RACAHOUT, Bacahout cles arabes : originally an Arabian beverage, made from 
roasted acorn meal, sweetened with sugar and flavored with aromatic herbs. The 
title is noiw generally applied to a food prepared from potato flour, tapioca and cocoa 
flour, flavored usually with vanilla. It resembles arrowroot and is intended princi- 
pally for children and invalids, either as a beverage or cooked to thicker consistence. 

RACCOON, or Coon : a small nocturnal animal of the American bear family, which 
generally averages about the size of a large cat. It is common in varous parts of 
North America and is considered good game by many people. It is marked by very 
short legs, a furry coat of brown or gray-brown and bushy tail, generally ringed in 
black and white. 



RADISHES: have practically no nutritive value, as they consist principally 

water and wood fibre with a little acid for fiavor, but they are 

so popular as a relish that they constitute an important item 

of the market gardener's crop. The season of the fresh-pulled 

radish extends from early spring, when forced varieties appear, 

to late fall, successive plantings giving a continuous supply of 

young roots. 

There are almost innumerable varieties, in all sizes, shapes 
and colors. Early radishes are generally the smallest and win- 
ter types the largest. The three chief divisions by shape are into 
the Bound, Olive-shaped and Long. The principal colors are red, 
white, yellow, purplish and black. Under proper cultivation 
there is little variation in quality among standard varieties, but 
the Bed, and Bed and White, are usually preferred, because of 

, 1 - 1 ". 1 , -I . Round Olive-Shaped 

tneir bright, pleasing appearance. radishks 



of 




Long 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 519 




Winter radishes are generally of slower growth than the spring and summer types 
and some attain very large size, a few kinds reaching a length of 15 to 20 inches without 
liecoming woody or woolly. They are generally pulled in the late fall and kept 
through the winter by storing in dry cellars or similar places. 

The radish is believed to be a native of Asia but is now cultivated in all temperate 
climates, being brought to its highest perfection by the gardeners surrounding Paris. 
The young seed pods are occasionally eaten as string beans and the small young leaves 
of the spring and summer varieties make an excellent salad. 

RAIL: a name applied to a- class of birds which contains many different varieties, 
distributed over many countries and ranging in size from the 
small 8ora to the big Clapper Bail. The Marsh rails, numeri- 
cally the most important, are marked by the peculiar formation 
of their bodies — which are broad and blunt behind and very nar- 
row in front, this shape enabling them the more readily to 
make their way in, through and around the tall reeds of their 
marshy homes. 

The best known market type is the Virginia Rail, or Sora, 
also called "Carolina Rail," which has upper plumage of greenish 
or golden brown with black and white markings, the front of 
the head and throat black and the under-parts brownish or slate 
colored with black and white bars. Plucked and ready for sora Raii 

market, the birds average in weight from two and a half to three pounds a dozen. 

The King Rail, also marketed but to lesser extent, is about twice as large as the 
Virginia Rail. 

RAISINS: are special varieties of grapes prepared by drying. The term "dried 
grapes" is only applied to tvine grapes dried in the sun and their only commercial 
use is for wine makers — they are not sold or used as "raisins." 

The first market division is into Imported and Domestic, or California. 

Imported Raisins. The principal types are Malagas, or Muscatels, Valencias and 
Sultanas. 

Malagas, or Muscatels, the finest grade, are prepared by partly cutting through 
the stalks of the grape bunches and allowing them to dry as far as possible on the 
vine. Valencias are dried after being taken from the vine, either in the sun or in 
o\ens. In both cases the fruit is next dipped in an alkali solution, which slightly 
cracks the skins, and then washed, laid on benches to drain and dried in the sun 
(when possible) for two weeks. The raisins are then ready for packing — in casks, 
boxes, cartons, etc. They vary in quality from the best "'cluster" and "layer" to the 
cheapest "loose" raisins. "Layer raisins" are those of fine quality, packed in bunches 
between sheets of paper. "Cluster" signifies "bunch." 

Lexias is a term sometimes applied to raisins more suitable for cooking than 
dessert use. 

Sultana Raisins, or "Sultanas" as they are generally styled, are small, oval, 
naturally entirely seedless, and, in the best grades, of a pale yellow transparent tint. 
They come from Smyrna, but there seems to be no essential difference between the vine 
which yields them and the ordinary grapevine — the special cluiracteristie of seedless- 



520 



THE GEOCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ness may have been produced by exceptional circumstances of soil and climate, leading 
to partly abortive floAvers. 

Gorintliian Raisins is another name for Cuerants (whicb see). 

California Raisins: are divided into Layer, Seeded and Seedless. 

Both the Layer and Seeded are made from Muscatel grapes. The clusters are cut 
from the vines when thoroughly ripe and placed on wooden trays in the vineyard, as 
shown in the accompanying illustration. When they have wilted sufficiently, an 
empty tray is placed over the full tray and by a quick movement their positions are 
reversed, so that when the top tray is removed the "raw" under-sides of the clusters 
are exposed to the sun. After the completion of the drying process, the raisins are 
dumped into "sweat boxes," holding about 150 pounds each, and are thus delivered 
to the packing house. 



B''!'ttP^' I 




Dryinp: raisin.s in Southern California 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 521 



One of the next steps is the sorting. The finest "clusters" are paclced in 5, 10 and 
20-pound boxes, but the greater part of the crop is stemmed, seeded and packed in 
1-pound cai'tons. 

The first "stemmer," which resembles an old-fashioned threshing machine, re- 
moves the large stems. Then the "cap-stemmer" removes the small cap-stems still 
adhering. The fruit is next graded in sizes known to the trade as 2, 3 and 4 "crown" 
and goes to the "seeder," in which rubber or similar surfaced, rollers flatten it and 
press the seeds to the surface, where they are caught and removed by the teeth or 
needles of the impaling rollers. The seeds are removed from the rollers by a "flick- 
ing" or "whispering" device, and are passed to a receptacle to be sold as a by-product 
which is increasingly important. 

California Seedless Raisins are of two kinds — Seedless Muscatels, a small percent- 
age of the muscatel crop, and Thompson Seedless, corresponding to the imported Sul- 
tanas. Thompson seedless raisins are prepared by dipping the grapes before drying 
in an alkali solution to which is added saponified olive oil, and by sulphuring. The 
result is an attractive product of light color and fine flavor. 

The domestic raisin product amounts to about 65,000 tons annually. 

RAISIN SUGAR: a moist syrupy brown article, retaining the raisin flavor in the 
finer grades, obtained in the Levant by expression and filtration. Small quantities 
are imported to fill the demands of resident Orientals, generally in cans containing 
from one to five pounds. 

RAISIN WINE: is extensively made in Europe by the fermentation of an infusion 
of raisins, with or without the addition of fresh grape juice. 

RAISINEE: a French jam of thin, almost syrupy, consistence, made by simmering 
fruit in sweet wine or cider and condensed by boiling for eight to ten hours. The 
original and best product is prepared from pears, together with a small proportion 
of quinces. Apples, squashes, beet-roots, etc., are substituted for inferior grades. 

RAMPION: a garden herb, of which the young leaves and sue- ^ 
culent white roots are used for salads. , 

RAPE OIL: is obtained from the seeds of the IJape plant, a mem- 
ber of the turnip family, cultivated in both Europe and Asia. It 
is employed chiefly in soap manufacture, for di'essing wool, as an 
illuminant, etc. The crude fresh product, if cold pressed, is almost 
neutral in smell and taste, but age gives it a rank flavor and 
reflning spoils it for table purposes. Commercially, the term "rape 
oil" covers in addition that expressed from several other seeds, as 
those of the turnip proper, radish, etc. The seeds are also known 
as "Cole Seeds." 

Th^ leaves of the plant are locally consumed as "greens" and in salads. 

Rape Seed is imported for sale as bird food. 

RASPBERRIES: grow wild, but only the cultivated types are generally marketed. 
In addition to the great quantities eaten fresh, they are widely used as jam, jelly, 




Rnmpinii 



522 THE GKOCEE'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

syrup, etc., and mixed with brandy, wine or vinegar. An agreeable "wine" is also 
obtained by their fermentation, either alone or with currants or cherries. 

Raspberries are generally in season from the middle of June to the middle of 
August. It is essential that they be sold quickly, as they deteriorate very rapidly 
after ripening and their delicate flavor is often entirely lost after holding for a few 
days. Care should be taken that moisture does not reach them and that they are 
kept in a cool, well ventilated place. 

The red berry is the type most generally familiar as a fresh fruit, but the black 
raspberry, or "Black Cap," has practically the same qualities and flavor and is exten- 
sively employed for both canning and evaporating. Some sections produce the yel- 
low raspberry also to a limited extent. 

The business of evaporating raspberries has attained important dimensions, but the 
product is consumed principally in mining camps and other remote sections where 
fresh fruit is not generally obtainable. For sauces, pies, etc., it answers the purpose 
nearly as well as the fresh berries. 

RASPBERRY VINEGAR: is a preparation of raspberry juice, vinegar and sugar. 
It is best made by filling jars with carefully gathered, very ripe berries, adding all the 
vinegar they will hold, setting to stand for eight or ten days, and then carefully pour- 
ing off the liquid. This process is sometimes repeated three times — the same liquid, 
but fresh fruit being employed. Finally comes a gentle boiling for five minutes with 
an equal weight of refined sugar, and then bottling. As a flavoring for either plain 
or carbonated water, used in the same way as any other fruit syrup, it makes a 
refreshing sumzner beverage. 

RAT: a most destructive pest and one which should be vigorously exterminated. If 
a grocer finds his store over-run with them, he should get rid of them at once, for 
their destructiveness to property is astounding. A good cat is the best remedy. Good 
traps will also often answer the purpose. If poison is used and any of them die aboui 
the premises, chloride of lime or other disinfectants will neutralize the odor. 

RATAFIA: a common name in France for many light liqueurs, especially those 
which owe part of their flavor to the addition of Oil of Bitter Almonds (see Almond 
Oil). It is also employed as a title for an essence based on almond oil and in the 
South is applied to herb or fruit-juice beverages strengthened with brandy, variously 
spiced and matured in bottles for six months or a year before drinking. 

"Eatafia cakes" is a class name for small cakes flavored with almonds, etc. 

REAM. See tables of Weights and Measures in Appendix. 

RECTIFICATION. (1) The re-distillation, etc., of a fluid, for the purpose of ren- 
dering it purer. (2) The re-distillation of spirits other than as provided for on dis- 
tillery premises. (3) The blending of spirits, wines, etc. 

REDSNAPPER: a red-scaled Southern flsh, plentiful 
along the Gulf Coast. It ranges in weight from three to 
twenty pounds and is in season from October to the mid- 
dle of July. The flesh is very white and resembles bass. 

Redsnapper 




THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 523 

REED BIRDS: a name given to many kinds of small birds which frequent reeds. 
In this country the bob-o-link or "rice-bird" is most generally so named and served. 
When prime for market after feeding in the rice fields, they are very plump— they 
have been described as "little balls of fat." i 

REFRIGERATORS, it is poor economy to try to get along with an old or inferior 
refrigerator. Inadequate or inferior cooling equipment is very expensive — for it means 
both loss by the spoiling of foods and damage to the reputation of a store. Nothing 
renders customers more suspicious of a grocery store and its stock than butter which 
smells "queer" — and many other items are equally susceptible. The butter may be 
perfectly wholesome and the foreign odor merely a taint borrowed from some other 
article in the refrigerator, but the storekeeper gets the worst of the doubt every time. 
And, again, the suspicion may be justified, for a poor refrigerator is liable to damage 
more than it saves. 

The main points to be looked for in choosing a refrigerator are: 

(1) The most complete general insulation possible — so that the ice is not wasted. 

(2) Thorough internal circulation of dry air — which is essential to the proper 
keeping of foods. 

(3) Correct inside arrangement and insulation — so that the odor of one thing 
does not permeate the other. 

(4) Convenience of arrangement — compartments, shelves, etc., to suit the business. 

(5) Sufficient space — for it is expensive parsimony to purchase a refrigerator so 
small that a little extra stock will over-crowd it. 

(6) Neatness of appearance — to make a good impression on your customer. 
See also Ice and Refrigeration. 

RENNET: is a digestive ferment extracted from the stomachs of young calves by 
soaking them in salt water for several weeks. Large quantities are used commer- 
cially, especially to coagulate milk and particularly in the manufacture of cheese. It 
is also employed in the household to make ma ny desserts of which milk is the founda- 
tion, being for that purpose retailed both in tablet and liquid extract form. 

RELISHES: a trade term variously applied to pickles, sauces, etc. 

RESTAURANT. The restaurant, as we know it, is an institution of comparatively 
recent origin. There have been inns and hotels from time immemorial, but they were 
chiefly for the entertainment of travelers — -though we find evidence that even as early 
as the 16th century a "goodly number of the residents of Paris had discovered the ease 
and convenience of dining in hotels, for a pamphlet of that period, entitled "A Trea- 
tise on the cause of high prices," bitterly assailed certain popular establishments 
for their example of luxurious living and its effect on the habits of the community! 
This condition was, however, apparently peculiar to Paris and even there the estab- 
lishments so favored were exceptional and their customers drawn from a limited 
class. The tavern and, in France, the cabaret, also gave some degree of service, but 
they were essentially places of liquid refreshment and generally of ill repute — if one 
wished to eat a substantial meal, it was in most cases necessary to order it in advance 
or to bring one's own supplies. There were also rotisseries in the larger cities of 
France at a very early date, and traiteurs from about the 16th century, but the 

26 



524 



THEGUOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



rotisseries were forbidden hj law to sell anything except roast meats, and the traiteilrs 
anything but ragouts or stews, and their business was consequently conhned chiefly to 
selling roast and stewed meats to be carried away by their customers. 

The word "restaurant" originally signified only "strengthening," or "restorative," 
and it is still employed in that sense also in France— just as a "restaurateur" may be 
either a "restorer" of paintings, or the keeper of a "restaurant." It first attained 
culinary significance in the 16th century, being applied then to a nourishing beverage, 
introduced by a Dr. Palissy, prepared from meat and poultry, minced fine, mixed 
with barley water, spices, etc., and carefully strained. Later, it was applied to various 
other "strengthening" or "restorative" foods, especially to gravy soups, bouillons and 
similar preparations. 

The first public eating-place which ressmbled the modern "restaurant" and was 
so designated, was that opened by a M. Boulanger, in Paris in 1765. Boulanger 
equipped the interior with a number of little marble-top tables similar to those found 
in many modern cafes and there he served his customers with bouillon, poiUet au gros 
set (plain boiled chicken sprinkled with coarse salt), and eggs. He met with success 
from the start and soon added roast meats, stews and various other dishes. His 
example was speedily copied, and the centurj^ and a half since the establishment of 
his initial venture has seen a steady increase in the number of restaurants in every part 
of the civilized world. 



RHINE WINES, Rhine and Moselle Wines. 

German wines are in this country commonly 
known as "Rhine Wines" or "Rhine and Moselle 
wines," the reason being easily found in the fact 
that a majority of .the most famous varieties 
come from the vineyards in the vicinity of tlie 
Rhine and its tributaries, the longest of whicli 
is the Moselle. They are also frequently styled 
Hocks, following an English custom which had 
its origin in the initial popularity in Great 
Britain of German wines under the general or 
specific title of Hochheimer; and Rieslings, be- 
cause many of the finest types are made chiefiy 
from the Riesling grape — a small, round, yellow- 
green berry, with soft skin and tender, sweet, 
aromatic fiesh. That the best vintages are gen- 
erally acknowledged as the choicest of all white 
wines is due to the great care exercised in the cultivation of the vines, the selection of 
the grapes and the treatment and maturing of the fermented product, for the Rhine 
valley offers no great natural advantages for viticulture. For the finer wines, the 
gathering is generally deferred until the late autumn to allow the grapes to ripen to 
the fullest point — or a little beyond — and the "ripely rotten" berries are sorted out for 
use in the choicest varieties, the Auslese or Anslese Beej'en — "selected berries." 

The most noted producing district is the Rheingau, a stretch five miles wide and 
about twelve miles long, on the right bank, between Rudesheini and Biebrich. Next 
in trade importance are the districts of Rhein-Hessen, on the left bank, opposite the 
Rheingau; Moselle. Palatinate and Franconia. The output covers a wide range of 




COPTEIGHT, KETSTONS VIHW CO. 



Terraoed.vine-clad hills along the Rhine 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



525 



quality, cliaracter aud streugtli. The most celebrated wines are "white" aud "still," 
but there are numerous sparkling types of high reputation and some red wines of 
international fame. There is a steadily increasing consumption of white varieties of 
moderate price prepared in "champagne" or "sparkling" style. 

Among the best red wines are Anfnininns- 
hauser, from the Eheingau; Affenthaler, from 
the Baden district; Ingelheimer and Oher-liigel- 
liauser, from the Eheingau; Affenthuler, from 
and Walporzheimer, from the Ahr Valley. They 
are generally of light claret colov, sometimes 
approaching Burgundy style. 

Though matured German wines of good vin- 
tages are among the most desirable of the pro- 
ducts of the grape, the new or "raw" wine of the 
many minor, less carefully managed vineyards 
is generally most disappointing to the American 
consumer, and it is advisable to confine pur- 
chases to firms of known reliability, as a great 
deal of deception is practiced by unscrupulous 
manufacturers and dealers. 




COPTRtOUT, KETSTOSK VIEW CO. 



Gathering Grapes. Rurle.slieim. Geniiain' 

Rheingau Wines. Johannisberger is probably 

entitled to first place among the many elegant Rheingau wines. Some vintages, such 

as that of Schloss Johannisberger Cabinet 1S93, are extremely expensive. The finest 

are those known as Schloss Johannisberger. The cheai^er grades are called Dorf. 

Other excellent varieties are: Steinberger. from vineyards near Wiesbaden, the 



most famous being 



'Steinberger Cabinet"; Lauhenlieimer, Marcohrunner, Riides- 



heimer, Geisenlieimer, Hochheimer, Hattenheimer, Rauenthaler, Bodenlieimcr, etc. 
Hochheimer is produced in a district bordering on the JMain, some miles above its 
junction with the Rhine, but it is usually classed with the Rheingau products. 

[Mention is here made only of wines 
which are generally exported. Some are un- 
obtainable commercially, being reserved for 
private consumption and held at practically 
prohibitive figui'es. As an example may be 
mentioned the Hattenheimer Mannberg 
Beeren Auslese, 1893, usually unobtain- 
able but of which private sales have occa- 
sionalh' been made at the rate of flO.OO to 
$20.00 a bottle. Such wines represent the 
carefully matured product of hand-assorted 
grapes of good years of selected vines, grown 
in vineyards of favored locations. 

White Rhine Wines improve with age, 
some private vintages being a hundred, or 
more, years old. They are, however, usually 
recorked every ten years, as otherwise the 
cork is liable to rot and spoil the wine. 




Klienisli jrirls carrying 



COPTBlCnT, KtlSTC!'!: view CO.. 

grapes 



526 



THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Rhein-Hessen. The most noteworthy of the wines from the province of "Rhenish 
Hesse," are the soft, pleasing varieties of which Niersteiner, Oppenheimer, Liebfrau- 
milch. Binger and Scharlachberger are representative examples. 

Palatinate Wines. The Palatinate, the largest wine district, includes the territory 
which under that name was a separate state of the old German Empire, but has since 
been absorbed by Bavaria and adjacent states. It produces a number of light agree- 
able wines, including some of high quality which equal many of the finer Rheingau. 
Among the best known are Deidesheimer, Buppertsherger, Forster and Koenig shadier. 

Moselle Wines have, in most cases, less body and sweetness than Rhine Wines, but 
the best types offer fine flavor and are very popular. With a few exceptions, they are 
of a pale amber or yellow tint, and are generally drunk younger than Rhine Wines, 
being at their best when seven or eight years old. Among varieties of excellent char- 
acter are Zeltinger. Piesporter, Graacher. Erdener, Berncasteler, Moselhluemchen 
and Trahener. 

The wines of the Saar and Ruwer valleys are usually classed with Moselles, as 
they are closely allied in characteristics. Ockfen. Feilsen. ScJiarsberg and Wiltengen 
belong to the Saar Valley. MaaDimim-Grilnhaus and Gaseler are Ruwer wines. 

Franconian (Bavarian) wines are full-bodied and rather heavy. They resemble 
Rhine Wines in flavor and color. The most noted are Leistenwein and Steinwein, 
exported in flacon-shaped bottles known as Bockstaeutels. Steinwein is also known as 
HeUigengeisticein, "Holy Ghost" wine, after the vineyards belonging to the Hospital 
of the Holy Ghost at Wurzburg. 

RHUBARB: a plant grown exclusively for its stalks, which serve as an excellent 

.>rv rS^K???- "fruit" for use as sauce, in pies, etc. A pleasing wine can also 

be prepared from them. The first supplies of many cities are 

1^ obtained by forcing in cold frames and greenhouses. The earliest 

^ _^^., reaches the New York market in December, coming principally 

from Quebec and Montreal, where it is raised in large cellars. 

If the stalks are dried in the sun, they maj' be kept a long time, and, when soaked 

over-night, are almost as good as the fresh product. 

It is an interesting fact that it is only in English-speaking countries that the 
rhubarb has attained general favor. 

Turkish Rhubarb, sold by druggists and used extensively as a medicine, is a root 
grown chiefly in China and Chinese Tartary. 
Its name is from its introduction via Turkey. 

RICE (see Color Page opposite) : is the most 
extensively cultivated of grains and sup- 
plies the principal food of nearly half of the 
entire population of the world. It grows most 
freely on lowlands, especially on lands that 
can be flooded, but by irrigation it can be 
raised anywhere — in Japan, satisfactory crops 
are obtained even on the terraces of hills and 
mountainsides by periodic flooding from reser- 





COPTBICHT, TTNT^FRWOOD A TJVDESWIV)!), ff. ». 

Preparing the ground for rice, mar Lui. 
—note that the bullock is up to the knees i 



, P. 1. 
s in mud 




BARLEY 



BUCKWHEAT 



RICE 



THE GIIOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



529 



voirs above. It was first introduced into tliis 
country in 1694 from Madagascar by Captain 
Sniitli, wlio presented a bag of "paddy" or rough 
rice to a Charleston merchant, and from that 
start has developed a crop which now amounts 
annually to many millions of dollars. 

The fact that rice has not, in the past, occu- 
pied the position in the American dietary to 
which it seems entitled, is attributed to the fact 
that, until recently, reliance was placed to a 
great extent on importations. To-day, however, 
the United States is fast developing into one of 
the world's great rice-growing countries — im- 
proved machinery, greater fertility of soil and 
the elimination of the expense of ocean transpor- 
tation tending to offset the cheaper labor of 
Eastern countries. Texas, Louisiana and Arkan- 
sas are the chief producing states. 





Sf5 




%^%''^ '■'...,.■ 




m 


mSMimmu' 


^HH 




ft 


i^*^.'] 


k- 


r/^ 


'% 


mm 







Rice planters at work, Japan 




COPVBICUT, KETSTON-i: VIEW CO. 



Japanese girls at work in the rice fields 



There is every reason why rice should be an 
every-day article of diet in American homes — 
even more so than potatoes, for it is more nutri- 
tious, very easily digested and, when properly 
cooked, very palatable. Polished rice contains 
an average of nearly 88% of nutrients — a little 
more than wheat. The components include S% 
protein, 79% carbohydrates and a small amount 
of fat. Unpolished rice includes 7% of fat, or six 
times as much as wheat (see Food Values). In 
countries where it is the principal article of 
food, the nitrogenous material (the protein) 
required to complete the human diet is supplied 
by the use generally of beans, peas, etc., and fre- 
quently also of fish and other kinds of flesh. 

Rice is graded by size and condition — the 
latter according to the greater or less damage in 



hulling and cleaning. The chief commercial 
classifications are, in a descending scale of quality, "fancy head rice," choice, prime, 
good, fair, ordinary, common, inferior and 
screenings. 

Patna rice, of small, slender, well-rounded 
pearl-white grains, is the most esteemed of East- 
ern products. Other important types are the 
Japan, Java, Siani, Bassein and Rangoon. The 
bulk of imported whole rice comes from Japan, 
with China next, but a long distance behind. 

The Japan, Carolina and Honduras rices 
are the best known of American growth. 
Ca/-oZi?ia is large, sweet and of good color. Japan- „, ... ^, „ ,. , 

^ ■ o r Baling Ilice in the fields, Japan 




530 



THE GKOCEK^'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



style, which also ranks very high, is a thicker- 
bodied, soft-grained variety. Hondwras-stjle is 
a more slender grain. 

The preparation of rice for the market in- 
volves (1) thrashing, which gives "paddy" or 
rough rice, (2) milling, or hulling, to remove the 
husks, and (3) polishing, to produce the pearly 
gloss considered so desirable. 

The polishing process, though improving its 
appearance, is a blunder from the standpoint of 
food values, as it robs it of nearly all its fatty 
properties — lessening its nutritive qualities and 
depriving it of the richer taste which makes the 
rice served in oriental countries seem so much 
superior to the same grain eaten here. Better 
acquaintance with high grade unpolished rice 
would result in wider appreciation of the grain. 
It requires, however, greater care in storing and handling, as it is more subject to the 
depredations of weevils. 

Large quantities of rice flour, rice meal, etc., are also imported for both commer- 
cial and edible purposes from Europe, occasionally to twice the quantity of imported 
whole rice. Germany, England and Holland are the principal sources. In purchasing 
ground rice, avoid the dead, chalky-white kind — the brighter, less white product is 




COPrBIGBT, HETSTONE rrEVi 

'Harvesting Rice under Palm-Leaf Sun Shades. 
Luzon, P. I. 



superior. 




Pounding and cleaning rice, Japan 



THE GROCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



531 




(jOPYRIGBT, SBTBTONX VTBW 00. 



Threshing Rice, Luzon, P. I. 



Grocers in the South need no advice on 

the rice question, for they sell a lot of it — 

even moderate-sized stores carry large 

stocks of various grades and feature it just 

as any other leading article — but it will pay 

grocers in the North to give much more 

attention to it than they have in the past. 

It is easily carried and can be made to pay 

good profit. 

Rice should never be stored in a damp 

place — nor the bags on a stone floor — as 

either procedure will cause it to deteriorate 

in appearance. That sold in packages or 

cotton "pockets" or bags is, for sanitary 

reasons, generally preferable to the product 

sold in bulk. 

The housewife who will direct part of her attention to the many possibilities in 

cooking rice, will be rewarded by an improvement of her table at a decreased expense. 

There is practically no limit to the ways in 
\^hich it can be used — separately or with other 
articles. 

In boiling rice, see that the water is boiling 
hard before the rice is added; then, as the addi- 
tion of the rice will stop the boiling, stir until 
the boiling point is again reached. After that, 
do not stir at all but see that the fire keeps the 
water boiling and add boiling water if too much 
evaporates. The action of the boiling water will 
prevent the rice from burning, but it will not 
break the grains as stirring does. The result of 
the observance of these simple directions will 
be rice that is thoroughlv cooked vet which has 




Hullin 



every grain clean and separate. 

Puffed Rice: is made by putting the 
grain into sealed "guns" which are re- 
volved for sixty minutes in a heat of 550° 
Fahr. The heat turns the moisture in the 
grain to steam, and when the "gun" is 
suddenly unsealed, the steam contained in 
each individual grain "explodes," pulver- 
izing the starch granules and "puffing" 
it to several times its original size. 

RICE PAPER: is not made from rice 
but from the white pith of a small tree 
native to Formosa, of the same genus as 
our Sarsaparilla and Spikenard. 




COPTRIGBT, 1 



& OtlDSKffOOD, 9. t. 



A Rice raft. South Carolina 



532 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



RIESLING: a aeneral name for white wine from the 



Eiesling 



grape. The most 



noted are the German types (see Ehinb and Moselle Wines), but Austria and other 
countries also produce it in considerable quantities, and domestic Riesling of excellent 
character is made in California. 



RIVESALTES WINES : a general title, from the name of the city of Eivesaltes, for 
the output of the Pyrenees-Orientales department of Southern France. They are simi- 
lar in character, and in some cases identical in title, Avith the Spanish wines produced 
on the other side of the Pyrenees. The types best known in this country are the 
liqueur, or dessert, wines, the choicer grades being highly esteemed. The principal 
varieties are Muscat, Maccabeo, Malvoisie and Rancio. 

Muscat is made from very sweet grapes which have been ripened almost to the 
raisin point, either on the vines or by exposure after cutting. During the first twelve 
months it has the appearance of syrup rather than wine, but the second and third 
years produce a delightful bouquet and flavor. It should be consumed before the 
tenth year, as after that time it generally loses much of its characteristic perfume. 

Maccabeo, Malvoisie (Malmsey) and Rancio are sweet wines of port style. 

ROCAMBOLE, or "Band Leek": a kind of Garlic (which see). 

ROCK CANDY, or Sugar Candy: a pure sugar product made by pouring sugar, 
cooked to 40° Beaume, into deep pans that have previously been laced with heavy 
thread on which the crystals deposit while being formed. 

ROCKET: a rather coarse garden-plant whose young leaves are occasionally used 
as a pot-herb or for salads. 



The flowers resemble orange blossoms in odor. 



ROE: the eggs of fish, those chiefly used being from the sturgeon, shad, cod, carp 
and mullet. The salted roe of the sturgeon is known as Caviar- (which see). 

ROGNONS de Coq: an euphemistic name for fowls' testicles, sold in bottles in fancy 
grocery stores, both separate and mixed with Gretes de Coq (cockscombs). 

ROLLED OATS: the most popular form of Oatmeal (which see). 

ROLLED WHEAT: the grain milled like Rolled Oats. 

ROLLS: a variety of fancy bread, generally in the form of 
small, pointed-oval, round or semi-cylindrical cakes, intended 



to be eaten hot for breakfast, etc. 



French rolls, Vienna rolls 
mixed with milk and 



and "Milk rolls" are made from dough 
water. 

ROMAINE, Cos Lettuce, Leaf Lettuce: one of the three 
principal divisions of the Lettuce family and a popular sum- 
mer salad-plant. It is distinguished by its long straight up- 
right leaves, generally inclined to spoon-shape and with thick 
crisp midribs. The inner leaves are usually blanched by tying 
the plant together during growth. 




THE GKOOER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



533 



ROOT BEER: a refreshing beverage made by the fermentation of an infusion of 
roots, barks and herbs, such as sarsaparilla, spikenard, wintergreen, ginger, etc., with 
sugar and yeast. The flavoring or "extract," which dealers find very salable, is 
retailed in convenient packages, each sufficient for about five gallons of "beer." The 
effervescence is caused by the fermentative action of the yeast on the sugar. Many 
retailers brew and bottle the beer themselves. 



ROPE: a general name for all kinds of cordage formed by twisting together vege- 
table or animal fibres or metallic wires. That of ordinary commercial use is made 
of vegetable fibres. The title "rope" is correctly applied only to cordage which is more 
than an inch in circumference, smaller kinds being preferably designated as lines, 
cords, twines, etc. 

The fibre is obtained from a great variety of plants and "grasses." Among the 
most important are Hemp proper or Cultivated Hemp, Manila Hemp, Sisal, Flax, 
Jute and Cotton. Hemp is used for all sizes of cordage. Flax only for small lines and 
cords, and Cotton for thin twine. See Flax, Hemp and Jute. 

In manufacture, the fibres are first twisted together to form a "thread" or "yarn." 
The yarns are then combined by twisting them into a "strand," and three strands com- 
bined in like manner form "rope." All the work in a modern plant is done by machin- 
ery, numerous special processes, twists, etc., being required for cordage for special 
industries and purposes. 

The list following gives the approximate weight and strength of cordage of the 
sizes named : 



6 
9 

12 
15 
18 

Circumference 
In inches 
1% 
2 

2% 
2% 
2% 
3 
3% 

3y2 

3% 

4 
414 

4% 
5 

BVa 
6 

eyo 
7 

W2 

8 

8% 

9 



Thread 











Number of 




Weight of 100 


Weight of 100 


Strength of 


feet in 


Diameter 


fathoms* 


fathoms, tarred 


new ropes 


4 pounds 


(in inches) 


(in pounds) 


(in pounds) 


( in pounds) 


(feetXinches) 


Vi 


14 


17 


450 


43. 


ik 


20 


24 


750 


33. 


% 


28 


34 


900 


21. 


A 


34 


41 


1.250 


17. 


% 


45 


56 


1,700 


13. 


^ 


61 


78 


2,500 


10. 


% 


80 


100 


3.000 


7. 


% 


101 


126 


3.900 


6. 


• if 


125 


156 


5,700 


5. 


Vs 


151 


189 


5,600 


4. 


1 


180 


225 


6.750 


3.4 


1-rfe 


211 


264 


7,850 


2.9 


IVs 


245 


306 


9,150 


2.4 


1% 


281 


351 


10,600 


2.1 


lA 


325 


400 


11,950 


1.10 


1% 


361 


451 


13,450 


1.7 


IVa 


405 


506 


15,150 


1.5 


1-fk 


451 


564 


16,800 


1.4 


1% 


500 


625 


18.700 


1.2 


1% 


605 


756 


22,600 


1. 


2 


720 


900 


26,900 


.10 


2y4 


845 


1.05G 


31,500 


■8V2 


2% 


885 


1,125 


36.600 


.1V2 


2y2 


1,125 


1,406 


42,000 


.6% 


2% 


1,280 


1,600 


47,800 


•SVa 


278 


1,445 


1.806 


54.000 


.5 


3 


1,620 


2.025 


60,500 


■iV2 



*A fathom equals six feet. 

Although of an antiquity reaching back toward the earliest ages of man — the art 
of twisting animal hair, tough grass and vegetable fibres having apparently existed 



534 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



among the rudest people — it is only within the last two centuries that rope-making 
has received the successful attention of mechanical inventors. The primitive wheel, 
the workman with a bundle of hemp strung around Ms waist and the slow, laborious 
operation of laying and twisting the strands by manual labor may still be seen in 
remote places. 

ROQUEFORT: a famous cheese made from ewe's milk. See Cheese. 

ROSE EXTRACT: is a solution containing attar, or essential oil, of roses (see 
Perfumery). By U. S. Standards, it should contain not less than 4%. 

ROSE-LEAF JAM, or Candied Rose Leaves : consists of rose leaves or petals 
heavily sugared. The product has generally the consistence of semi-candied honey. 



ROSELLE: a kind of sorrel, whose large, red, fleshy calyces 
(the parts surrounding the seed-pods) make an excellent jelly, 
resembling cranberry both in flavor and appearance. It is cul- 
tivated to a considerable extent in Australia and has recently 
been introduced here. The calyces to the right of the illustra- 
tion (one-third or one-fourth average size) are shown as pre- 
pared for cooking by the removal of the seed pods. 

ROSEMARY: a plant or shrub of the mint family, native to 
the Soutli of Europe and Asia Minor, now widely cultivated. Its 
leaves, greyish in color and curled at the edges, are very fra- 
grant and slightly stimulant. They are employed for season- 
ing and in the manufacture of liqueurs and preserves. 




RosELLE — and Calyces prepared 
for cookinff 



ROSOLIO : an Italian liqueur flavored with orange blossoms, roses and numerous 
spices. Also a term applied to choice types of some other liqueurs and the name of a 
red Malta wine. 



ROTTEN STONE: is a soft powdery stone found- in New York State. It is used 
for cleaning knives, polishing metals, etc. 

ROYAN: a local French name for the Sardine (which see). Also a trade term for 
a packing of (1) especially small sardines and (2) small fillets of mackerel. 

RUE: a plant whose bitter, pungent leaves are sometimes used for seasoning, chiefly 
in the South. Their odor is objectionable to many people, but they were formerly very 
popular as a seasoning. 

RUFFED GROUSE: one of the most important members of the Grouse family — 
known generally as the American Partridge. See Grouse. 

RUM: a spirit made by fermenting and distilling the juice of the sugar-cane or the 
sweet residue that accrues in making sugar — the skimmings from the sugar-pan, the 
spent water from the stills, molasses, etc. When first distilled it looks like water, but 



THK GUOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 535 

it is usually colored with burnt sugar (caramel). Its quality is greatly improved by 
age, and as much as sixteen dollars has been paid for a pint bottle of fine old stock. 

Kum is produced in all sugar-producing countries and also to a considerable extent 
in the United States and England, but that from Jamaica, Cuba, Santa Cruz (St. 
Croix) and Porto Rico is generally considered the choicest. Its flavor depends mainly 
upon the soil and climate, and is not good when canes grow rankly. Its strong odor and 
frequent adulteration for a long time checked its consumption in this country, but of 
late more attention has been given to importing and advertising high-class brands, 
with the result that there has been an increase in demand. 

The term "pineapple rum" is derived from a custom in the West Indies of putting 
sliced pineapples in some of the casks to flavor the spirit. Guavas are also occasion- 
ally added with a similar object. 

In the United States the rum industry is almost exclusively confined to New Eng- 
land — and has been so for generations, New England rum having been well known as 
far back as 16S7. It is of somewhat curious interest that during the year 1687 it sold 
for 1 shilling 6 pence a gallon, which is practically to-day's wholesale price for new 
rum (exclusive of the internal revenue tax). 

It is also worthy of note that the merit of the finer grades of New England rum 
is better appreciated in other countries than in the United States. In spite of the 
competition of that manufactured in many other parts of the world. New England rum 
averages about two-thirds of the entire exportation from the United States of all 
kinds of distilled spirits. On the other hand, though in the past thirty years there has 
been an increase of more than 125% in the total production of distilled spirits in the 
United States, there has been practically no increase in the production of rum. 

The largest distilleries now in operation are located -wdthin the Boston metropol- 
itan district, and one of them has a capacity of more than a million and a half gallons 
a year. 

A large percentage of the molasses from which New England rum is made is 
brought here in tank steamers from Cuba, Porto Rico and others of the West Indies. 

Rum Shrub. See Shrub. 

RUSK: a title applied to various styles of light biscuits, small light cakes and small 
shapes of slightly sweetened, twice-baked bread. Also, dried bread or plain cake, 
browned in the oven and crushed or pounded into crumbs, to be eaten with milk, etc. 

RUSSET: a reddish-brown apple, ripening in the fall. See Apples. 

RUST: consumes faster than labor wears. All goods which are exposed to its attacks 
should be kept dry and perfectly clean, whether for sale or not. Oil, being a preven- 
tive, should be frequently used where suitable. Articles already rusted can be cleaned 
with emery and oil — if badly coated, they should be- soaked in oil for several days 
before attempting to polish them. 

RUTA-BAGA: a common name for yellow-fleshed Swedish Turnips (which see). 

RYE (see Color Page opposite 676) : a species of grain much resembling wheat. It 
is very hardy and will grow in a soil too poor for the majority of other food grains. 
It thrives best, and is most productive, under conditions favorable to wheat. There 



536 THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



are few clearly defined varieties, the principal division being into "winter" and 
"spring" rye. Of all the grains brought directly under cultivation it has been the 
least altered, the present product resembling closely the wild stock. 

Eye furnishes an excellent malt for the distillation of spirit. It is much used in 
Europe in the making of gin, and in this country in the manufacture of whisky. The 
Eussian rye crop exceeds in quantity even the large figures of American wheat. 

Rye Flour is consumed in increasing quantities in the United States, chiefly by the 
foreign-born population, but also to a growing extent among other classes. 

Rye Bread. See sub head in general article on Beead. 

SACCHARIMETER: a form of PoLAEiscoPE (which see) used in classifying sugar. 

SACCHARIN: a coal-tar product which is several hundred times sweeter than 

sugar. It is not considered wholesome for general consumption, as it does not assimilate 
with other foods, passing through the system unchanged, and its use is closely 
restricted in Germany and in some sections of the United States. It is often employed 
by the medical profession to disguise the unpleasant taste of some prescriptions. 

SACK: a bag of the kind ordinarily used for potatoes, etc., generally large in size 
and of coarse, heavy material. The term is said to be common to all the languages of 
Europe, and even to some of the Asiatic tongues. 

SACK — Wine: a title derived from the Italian 8ecco (dry), first applied to wines of 
Madeira style produced in the Canary Islands, but extended during the 17th century 
to all strong white Southern wines, distinguishing them as a class both from Ehenish 
and red wines. It was for a time employed specifically to designate sherry. Its use is 
now generally confined to a light-colored dry Spanish wine. 

SAFFLOWER SEED OIL: the product of a thistle-like herb, one to two feet in 
height, with orange-red head, grown in the United States, Southern Europe, Egypt, 
India and China. Commercially, it is employed as a dye, frequently as a substitute 
for Saffkon (see following). In India, it is used as an illuminating and culinary oil. 

SAFFRON. Genuine saffron is a coloring material obtained from the dried flower- 
pistils of a species of crocus, but that chiefly marketed is adulterated with turmeric 
or is made from safflower seed. The imitation is decidedly inferior but is cheaper and 
more plentiful. 

Safl:ron was formerly employed medicinally but is now principally used in per- 
fumes and for coloring confectionery, etc. Its agreeable flavor, good color and absence 
of anything injurious, make it an important article. 

SAGE : a shrub whose tops and wrinkled whitish-green leaves 
are extensively used, both fresh and dried, for flavoring soups, 
sauces, dressing, etc., because of its characteristic aromatic, 
bitter and slightly astringent flavor. Dried sage is retailed in 
packages, cans and bottles. 

Sage grows wild in many parts of Southern Europe and 
has been long under cultivation in all temperate climates. 

Sage 




THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



537 



SAGE CHEESE. 



See sub-head in general article on Cheese. 



ties of 
uently 




SAGO: is the starch found in large quantities in the trunks of several varie 
tropical palms, from six hundred to eight hundred pounds being not infreq 
obtained from a single tree. The palm is cut down 
just after it reaches maturity — when from ten to 
fifteen years old, according to the climate and 
other circumstances — and the pith is put 
through crushing and washing processes; the 
sago thus freed being then dried by evaporation, 
passed through colanders and rubbed or granu- 
lated into the little pellets familiar to commerce. 
Sago is valuable as a food item, being both 
cheap and nutritious. It is especially pleasing 
prepared in the same way as rice pudding. 

SAKI : Japanese rice spirit. See Areack. 

SAL SODA : a commercial name for carbonate 

of soda. See Soda (Washing). 

SALADS : were formerly confined to a few raw xiie iicait of a sago Paim 

green herbs, but to-day they cover a wide 

range, practically all kinds of food being so served. They deserve much wider recog- 
nition than is popularly accorded them, for, properly made, they offer a variety of food 
combinations that are particularly wholesome and very appetizing — especially during 
hot weather. 

For their enjoyment, the best materials are, however, absolutely necessary. If 
a grocer desires to make free sales of olive and similar oils, mustard and vinegar, he 
must keep choice grades of these articles during the salad season! If rancid butter 
were as common a commodity as rancid oil, most people would put up with dry bread 
in preference to using it. 

Lettuce is generally accorded the first place as a salad plant, but among the 
numerous other possibilities offered to us by nature and horticulturists are many which 
excel it in flavor and adaptability. 

Prominent among a great diversity suitable for use separately, or in innumerable 
combinations, are rata items such as endive, chicory, cresses of all kinds, tomatoes, 
celery, cucumbers, fine-chopped mint, minced young onion tops, capers, parsley, dande- 
lion, nasturtiums and nearly all kinds of fruits, and cooked items such as artichokes, 
asparagus, sliced beetroot, carrots, celeriac, oyster plant, sea kale, chicken, veal, sal- 
mon, shrimps, etc. 

It is not necessary to confine oneself to any special plant or other food or any set 
formula — almost any young crisp leaves of herbs or vegetables, aromatic or otherwise, 
can be made into a tasty salad if properly mixed with oil and vinegar and seasoned with 
salt and pepper — and the addition of a little fruit or left-over cooked vegetables or 
meat, cut in small pieces, will render it worthy of anyone's appetite ! 

Meats, such as lobster, crab, chicken, etc., should be picked or cut into pieces 
about the size of small dice. Thev should never be minced. 



538 



THE GROCER ^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



SALAD DRESSING. See article on Sauces. 

SALAD OIL: a general title for any edible oil used for salad dressing. Cold- 
drawn olive, peanut, cottonseed, corn, walnut and many other vegetable oils, are suit- 
able for the purpose, either separately or blended, if of good quality, properly refined 
and in sweet, fresh condition. 



SALAMI: 



a famous Italian and Hungarian sausage. 



See Sausages. 



SALEP: a starchy meal obtained from an Asiatic herb root. Before grinding, it is 
generally seen in the form of small, oval pieces of a rather dirty, whitish-yellow color, 
tough in texture and with a slightly salt, gummy taste. When pulverized and mixed 
with boiling milk, it swells to a semi-transparent pudding jelly, which is considered an 
excellent food for children and convalescents. In diluted form, it was formerly sold 
from salep-stalls as an early morning beverage for London workmen. The "salep- 
stalls," however, long ago made way for "Coffee Stalls." 

SALERATUS: the monopotamic or monosodic carbonate. The potassium salt was 
formerly used in baking, but it has been generally displaced by bi-carbonate of sodium, 
which is preferable as a culinary ingredient and more easily assimilated by the system. 
See also article on Soda. 



SALMAGUNDI: a mixture of chopped meat, fish (such as anchovies), onions and 
various other articles, dressed with oil, vinegar, pepper, etc. The word is also used in 
other senses to indicate a medley or miscellany. 

SALMI: a stew in which any kind of game, or domestic duck or gosling, is the prin- 
cipal ingredient. Its preparation generally includes the use of mushrooms, truffles, etc. 

SALMON. The two principal families of 
salmon are the Salmo Salar of the North At- 
lantic {see Color Page opposite 540), rang- 
ing on the American side upwards from New 
York and generally known as the Kennebec 
Salmon, and the Oncorhynchus, which in- 
cludes the chief Pacific Coast varieties. The 
Kennebec Salmon is sold in the Eastern 
markets from the middle of April to the 
end of September, but the total crop is 
limited in amount — the bulk of the fresh 
salmon supply, and all the canned salmon 
product, is of the Pacific Coast fish. 

The annual harvest does not compare 
in quantity with that of the herring, mack- 
erel and cod tribe, nor in value with that of 
smaller fancy fish such as the sardine, but 
it occupies an important position financially 
and the richness and fine color of the 







*^ 


^ 


)t 




/ 




i£2p^ 


%'\ 


i 


A 


W^^^^ 




'IS ' 


S^IISW 




^ 


-**^»Tfr 


r't;^| 


a 


w Jftj 




ff 


^ 


m 


-•--/w., 1 







coPYBionT, KEi.sTONB vrEw co. 

Fish Wheels, Columbia River, .Oregon 



THE GROCER -"S ENCl'CL OTEDIA 



539 



salmon flesb have always held it high in popular estimation. Canned salmon, tlie form 
wliicli is best known to the general public, leads all other American canned products in 
the total marketed. 

The life story of the Pacific salmon is of dramatic interest, containing all the ele- 
ments of romance — from its first fight for existence against almost over^^•helming odds, 
to its magnificent struggle to perpetuate its race at the expense of its own existence. 

The fish is an anadrom, living all but the beginning and end of its existence in 
the depths of the ocean. During his sojourn in the salt waters of the sea, we must pre- 
sume he enjoys life, even though in a somewhat strenuous fashion. He is often found 
mutilated, probably from combats with his kind and other denizens of the deep, but 
he evidently finds feeding good and life generally worth while, for by the time he is 
four years old he has developed into a magnificent fish weighing from thirty to even 
a hundred pounds, and as handsome a creature as the water ever produced. The 
tragedy of his life comes when nature calls him to the spawning grounds, for that 
journey is one of the world's most remarkable examples of the instinct of procreation. 




copisiGirr, cNDEiinooD 4- tJiroEawooD, (i. x. 



Tons of Salmon on their way to the cannery 



540 



THE GROG ER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Salmon Fishing on the Columbia River 
—dragging in the nets 



Every sj)r'ingtide the mature salmon — both 
male and female — begin in great "schools" 
the return journey. The date and distance of 
the runs and the rate of progress, are regulated 
by the condition of the spawn. The earliest 
occur in February and March. The fish then 
travel to the headwaters of the rivers, many hun- 
dreds of miles up; in the later runs, nearer 
spawning grounds are chosen. The run of some 
species continues until fall. 

No natural obstacle can stop the pilgrims 
— they leap obstructing boulders and charge the 
rapids with indomitable energy, renewing and 
redoubling their efforts if repulsed until they 
have won their progress onward, or die in the 
struggle. They take no food after entering 
fresh water. 

When they finally reach the spawning 
grounds — weak from fasting and fatigue and often wounded by the rocks and other 
obstacles encountered — they rest for two or three weeks. Then each female fish scoops 
a hole in the gravel in the shallow water and deposits her eggs there. The male fer- 
tilizes them, and then they are left to their fate — the fish have completed the duty to 
nature which they undertook when they left their ocean homes. And then? By this 
time the fish have lost the strength and beauty which distinguished them when they 
started on their journey — their glistening scales have disappeared, their flesh is flabby 
and dull, their skin disfigured with blotches. They linger around for a while and then 
they die — the last stage of the life of the great salmon is closed. 

What of the spawn provided for at such sacrifice? The "fry" — tiny little crea- 
tures of queer aspect — emerge from the eggs in from 100 to 200 days after fertilization, 

the period depending largely upon the tem- 
perature of the water. Then in great quan- 
tities they fall prey to other fish and many 
birds. The female salmon contains about 
3,500 eggs, otherwise the species would long 
ago have been extinct, so fierce is the on- 
slaught. The "fry" which survive develop 
into little salmon which travel down the 
river again into the ocean — a long journey, 
slowly made, with many stops, and again 
with heavy toll to other enemies along the 
route — thence into the ocean, there to live 
and fight and grow until, in their turn, as 
they reach maturity, they make the final up- 
river journey. 

Nature had provided for all these ene- 
mies by the great fecundity of the female 
salmon, but when to them was added the 
catching by human beings, year after year, 




EtHTONR VIEW CO. 



Dam and Fish Ladder on Ropue River, Alaska 




(I) Salmon 
(3) Weakflsh 



(2) Brook Trout 
(4) Shad 



FISH 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



543 



of tens of thousands of mature salmon before they had spawned, she was unable to 
cope with the situatiou, and a few years ago it seemed certain that before long the 
salmon would become as nearly extinct as the buffalo. That danger has, fortunately, 
been removed by restrictions on the catch and artificial hatchings of great quantities 
of the eggs to guard against their destruction by predatory fishes and birds ( see article 
on Fish Culture). Another important and very interesting government work has 
been the construction of "Fish Ladders" to assist the fish in climbing the falls or dams 
which obstruct their up-river journey. A Fish Ladder is a series of very broad steps 
built up the side of a fall or dam. The salmon travel up them at their ease, as the 
height of each step is only a few inches, and the protection of the step ahead slacks 
the rapidity of the current and gives them many rests in the ascent. Before these 
ladders were constructed, the fish were compelled to climb the falls at one dash, and 
thousands upon thousands of them were thrown back killed or maimed. 

Canned Salmon. The fish for canning 
purposes are caught in gill nets, seines or 
traps. The principal sources in the order 
of the average annual output are (1) 
Alaska, now supplying about two- thirds 
of the total, (2) British Columbia, (3) 
Puget Sound and (4) Columbia River. 
About half of the "pack" is consumed in 
the United States and three-fourths of 
the remainder in the United Kingdom, 
Canada and Australia. 

The fish, as caught, are with the least 
possible loss of time carried to the can- 
neries in steamers, boats, etc., and imme- 
diately started through the various pro- 
cesses. Nearly all the work is performed 
by machinery. First comes a preliminary 
external washing, trimming and dressing, 
then they go to cutting machines where adjustable revolving circular knives cut tliem 
into pieces of any desired size for "tall," "flat" and "half-flat" cans, etc. Flat and oval 
cans of pound and half-pound size are filled by hand, tall cans by machinery. Then 
follow a general inspection, weighing, topping, 
testing, cooking and sterilizing, etc. 

A "case" contains 48 one-pound or 96 half- 
pound cans. 

The principal recognized varieties of Ameri- 
can canned salmon are the five grades following 
— the first being the choicest and the fifth the 
lowest in quality. The "scientific" name of each 
grade is given, because the popular titles vary in 
different localities. The "Sockeye" salmon of 
Puget Sound, for example, corresponds very 
closely to the "Red" salmon of Alaska, and the 
"Tyee" or "Red Spring" of Puget Sound, to the 

27 




Taking Salmon from the Trap, Columbia K 




COPTBIGHT, KET8T0:«« TTEW 00. 



Butchering Salmon 



544 



THE GROCEE-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




'VaiGBT, 

A Salmon-CanninK Establishment 



"Chinook" or "Koyal Chinook" of the Columbia River and the "King" of Alaska. 

(1) Oncorliynchus nerka: known as the sockeye or sockey salmon (British Colum- 
bia and Puget Sound), blue-back salmon (Columbia River), red salmon or redfish 
( Alaska ) and nerka salmon — fish ranging from five to eleven pounds. The fiesh should 
be blood-red in color and closely knitted, and the oil heavy and red. 

(2) Oncorhynchus tschawytscha : known as 
the Chinook salmon ( Columbia River and outside 
rivers), king salmon (Alaska), quinnat salmon 
(outside rivers), tyee salmon (Puget Sound) 
and spring salmon (British Columbia) — very 
large fish, from thirty pounds up. The flesh 
should be deep pink in color — a cross between 
red and pink, in large flakes and with rich oil. 

(3) Oncorhynchus kitsutch: known as the 
coho or cohoe salmon (Alaska, British Columbia 
and Puget Sound), silver salmon or silver-sides 
(Columbia River and outside rivers) and Me- 
dium Red (Alaska) — fish averaging a little 
larger than Class 1. The flesh is firm and vary- 
ing in color from pale to deep pink, with oil 
fairly plentiful but generally of little color. 

(4) Oncorhynchus gorbuscha : known as the 
humpback salmon (British Columbia and Puget Sound), pink salmon (Alaska) and 
gorbuscha salmon — very small, averaging about four pounds. The flesh is of sweet 
flavor, but soft and of pale pink color. 

( 5 ) Oncorhynchus keta : known as the calico salmon, keta salmon, dog salmon, 
and chum salmon — averaging about eleven pounds. The flesh is white and the liquid 
contains very little oil. 

The fifth grade is the cheapest generally packed. Although it does not possess 
the fine appearance or richness of the higher varieties, it is frequently of very fair 
flavor. Caution must, however, be exercised in buying as, on account of its low price, 
some packers are careless in putting it up. 

The greater part of the Alaska pack is of the "Red Salmon" ; of British Columbia 
and Puget Sound, the "Sockeye," and of the Columbia River, the "Chinook." 

There are several other varieties of salmon— among them the Sahno-gairdneri 
(or steelhead, hardhead, winter-salmon, salmon-trout or square- tailed trout), and two 
landlocked species in some New England and Canadian lakes, which are consumed as 
fresh fish but they are seldom, if ever, canned. 

SALOOP: a tea made of sassafras chips or 
aromatic herbs, drunk with milk and sugar. It 
was formerly considered a valuable remedy for 
many ailments and was sold in London in the 
same manner as "salep" used to be and coffee is 
now. 



SALSIFY. See article on Oyster Plant. 




Shipping Department of a Salmon Cannery 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



545 




A Mountain of Salt in Spain 



SALT. Common salt is simply chloride of sodium — a compound 
containing about 35 parts of chlorine and 23 of sodium. It is 
obtained principally in three ways — by evaporation of the brine 
from brine wells or springs, from salt mines and by evaporation 
of sea water. 

The greater part of the salt used in the United States to- 
day is obtained from domestic brine wells or springs. The chief 
producing states are New York, Michigan, Ohio and Kansas. 

There is still some salt imported, but it consists almost en- 
tirely of a few fancy table varieties. 

Brine wells are of two kinds — the natural brine springs 
(natural springs flowing through salt deposits) and the springs 
or wells made by man to change the salt deposits to brine, to be 
pumped out, instead of digging out the salt itself. The latter 
are the more numerous and the more important commercially. The method is more 
economical than mining when the deposits lie at a considerable depth below the surface 
of the ground. 

In operation, the well is dug to the necessary depth and water is forced through 
pipes into the salt beds. In deep beds, the general method is to use a 3-inch pipe 
inside a 6-inch pipe, the 3-inch pipe going to the bottom of the salt layer and the 6-inch 
pipe stopping at its upper surface. The fresh water is pumped down the small pipe 
and dissolves the salt with which it comes in contact, being pumped back as brine 
through the large pipe. 

The brine, in the up-to-date plant, passes through a succession of heaters, each 
with higher temperature, the last at about 280° Fahr. In this process, the lime, 
found in all brines, and other impurities are precipitated. It is next filtered and 
finally passes into the evaporator, where the water passes off and the salt forms. The 
first quick evaporation produces the fine Table Salt. The second, slower evaporation, 
produces the thin salt fiakes known as Dairy Salt, for butter, cheese, meat curing, etc. 

The product is finally dried, sifted and separated into various grades and packed 
in boxes, bags and barrels. 

Solar Salt is produced by sun-evaporation. In manufacture from the Onondaga 
salines of New York State, the brine is placed in vats to which lime is added to precipi- 
tate the magnesia, and thence it fiows into wooden trays, where it is slowly evaporated 
by the sun's rays, forming into large cubic-shaped crystals. There is always a demand 
for this salt at good prices for large packers. 

Rock Salt is ground in crushers and sifted and refined to the numerous grades 
found on the market. 

The water of the ocean contains on an average nearly B% of salt by weight. The 
Mediterranean Sea contains a higher percentage, and the Dead Sea is famous for its 
still larger proportion, the water being so dense as to render it impossible for a person 
to sink in its depth. 

Salt is the one item of food which every nation and every race demands — and has 
apparently always demanded. Savage races have lived without it, but wherever it has 
been obtainable, even at great expense and much trouble, human beings have sought 
and fought for it. The New York Indians obtained salt at Onondaga long before the 
settlers commenced its manufacture, and the Indians of the West from the vicinity of 
the Arkansas Tviver. 



546 



THE GROCER^S BNCYGIiOPEDIA 




COPTHIGHT, TTS'OERWOOB Si ONDEBWOOD, K. T. 

The great Salt-flelds of Solikamsk, Asiatic Russia 



There is good scientific reason for its 
popularity — the sodium it contains forms 
part of the soda which is needed in the 
bile to digest food, and the chlorine fur- 
nishes a necessary acid gastric fluid. It 
is less important where raw meat is an 
article of diet, as raw meat itself contains 
salt, but it is essential where vegetables 
and vegetable products constitute a con- 
siderable proportion of the food con- 
sumed. 

Salt is frequently mentioned in the 
Bible — the expression "Ye are the salt of 
the earth" is familiar to all readers. Its history is indeed practically that of civili- 
zation. It was the chief commodity of the early caravans, at that time being a very 
valuable article, and a street in Rome was named the Salarian Way because the salt 
dealers dwelt there. 

The first recorded legislation is probably that enacted in the early days of ancient 
Home. Soon after the foundation of the city, the salt works of Ostia were established 
at the mouth of the Tiber, but the price demanded was so extortionately high that 
about a hundred years later the right of vending was transferred to the government, 
and private individuals were forbidden to engage in its preparation. The revenue 
derived was very great and contributed materially to the support of Rome. 

Venice also was noted for her salt works, and to them is traced much of her mari- 
time power. 

The first American factory was that started in Virginia in 1633. Eight years 
later, Massachusetts gave the exclusive right to manufacture salt in that state to 
Samuel Winslow — though, despite this grant, works were set up all along the coast, 
the product being in great demand to supply the fisheries then beginning to assume 
considerable magnitude. ' 

Many attempts were made to obtain salt from springs — in Pennsylvania in 1784, 
in New York in 1788, in Louisiana in 1791, in what is now West Virginia in 1797, and 
in Ohio in 1798, but the first efforts met with only small success and up to 1812 most 
of our domestic salt was drawn from ocean water. Since that date, conditions have 
been entirely revolutionized. 

The Onondaga salines in New York State, situated near the towns of Syracuse, 
Salina and Geddes, were first worked in 1790, but were discovered as early as 1654 by 
French Jesuits who were prosecuting their perilous mission in the countries of the 
Onondagas and Iroquois. During the 19th century, they constituted an important 
source of supply, a total of about 430 million bushels being extracted. They belonged 
to the state up to 1909, manufacturers paying a royalty of one cent per bushel. The 
competition of other centers has rendered them commercially unprofitable for general 
production, but a considerable quantity of Solar Salt is still manufactured there. 

California began her harvest in 1852 with sea water, and Utah in 1847 on the 
shores of Great Salt Lake. Kansas made its first salt from the marshes, but in 1887 a 
body of rock salt was found by prospectors for petroleum and extensive mines were 
developed. On Avery Island, La., a similar rock vein has been known and worked 
for more than a hundred years — the Confederates got twenty-two million pounds 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



547 



of salt from it in eleven months during 
the war. Michigan bored her first well 
in 1859, at East Saginaw. 

There is no danger of the race ever 
having to do without salt. Even if the 
ocean were not on every side, various 
parts of the world — including this conti- 
nent — offer practically inexhaustible 
land deposits and supplies of it. 

Salt has always been the synonym 
for wit and piquancy, hence the term 
"Attic Salt." Shakespeare says : "Though 
we are justices and doctors and church- 
men, we have some salt of our youth in 
us." It was formerly considered a very 
unlucky omen to upset the salt-cellar at 
the table, and to sit at the table "above 
the salt" was a position of honor, the old 
custom being to place a salt-cellar in the 
middle of the table, the places above 
which were assigned to the guests of dis- 
tinction, while those "below the salt" were dependents and servants. Hence the 
expression of Ben Jonson, "His fashion is not to take knowledge of him that is beneath 
him in clothes. He never drinks below the salt." 

Salt should always be kept in a cool dry place. 




COPTHIGirr, TTNDEBWOOD * TrtTDEBWOOD, W. T. 

French children gathering Salt from evaporating 
basins at a seaside village on the Bay of Biscay 




cOPitBiGirT, DNDcanooD Si okdirwood, n. T. 



Stacking Salt in the Salt-fields at Solikamsk 



548 THEGEOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

SALTPETRE, or Niter : is a Nitrate of Potassium. It is the principal ingredient in 
gunpowder and has various other industrial as well as medicinal uses. It is valuable 
in meat preserving, as the use of small quantities in the curing of hams, bacon, corned 
beef, sausages, etc., imparts or retains an attractive red color. The principal impor- 
tations are from India, where the crude product is secured, as in other Eastern coun- 
tries, by lixiviation of the earth containing it. It is also made artificially by treat- 
ment of the nitrates resulting from the mixture of animal refuse, etc., with quicklime. 

SALTSTANGEN: a German cake or roll covered with poppy seeds. 

SAMOVAR: a Russian urn, of copper or other metal, for serving boiling water — 
especially one employed in making tea. In Russia, it is generally heated by charcoal. 

SAMP: hulled Indian corn, either whole or in large size — as "whole-kernel" and 
"half -kernel" samp. The term is also used for Hominy (which see), especially the 
larger sizes. 



^s"- 



SAMPLES BY MAIL. Samples of general merchandise, other than those mentioned 
later as exceptions, packed in such a way that the contents can be easily determined 
and which in form and nature are not liable to destroy, deface or otherwise damage 
the contents of the mailbag, can be mailed at the rate of one cent for each ounce or 
fraction of an ounce. On seeds, cuttings, bulbs, plants, roots, etc., the rate is only one 
cent for each two ounces. 

Fruits, vegetables or other matter liable to decomposition; poisons, explosives 
and inflammable articles; live or dead animals (unless stuffed) ; insects (except queen- 
bees when safely secured), reptiles and substances of bad odor, are unmailable. 

Flour, sugar, etc., must be first wrapped in a bag, box or similar receptacle and 
then secured in another outside tube or box, without sharp corners, of hard wood or 
metal, with a sliding or screw top. 

Liquids, excepting wines, spirits and drugs and those of inflammable or explosive 
character, can be mailed in quantities not exceeding four ounces if packed according 
to the postal regulations, obtainable at any post office, which must be followed in the 
most minute particular. 

The limit of dry merchandise mailable, excepting single books, is four pounds. 

SAND DAB: a variety of flounder. See Dab. 

SAND LEEK, or Rocamhole: a kind of Gaelic (which see). 

SAND-PAPER: is made by dusting white sand, or similar material, on paper coated 

with hot glue. 

SANDWICHES. That most useful article, the sandwich, which offers its advan- 
tages in hundreds of forms and in all grades and conditions of life — from the news- 
boy's lunch counter up to the most splendid "spread"^ — and which until the invention 
of the dining car was the chief, and often the only, mainstay and support of the trav- 
eler, was invented, though without premeditation, about the middle of the eighteenth 
century by the fourth Earl of Sandwich, an inveterate card player, who, in order that 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



549 



he might not lose a minute from the game, told a servant to bring in a slice of meat 
between two pieces of bread, so that he could eat it without either knife, fork or plate 
while he continued to play. The pleasing flavor and convenience of the combination 
resulted in his repeating the order both for himself and his friends. The idea spread 
from house to house, dubbed a "sandwich" from the name of its inventor, and as such 
it is still enjoyed in all countries and climes. 

SANDWICH MEATS: are canned or potted meats specially prepared for making 
sandwiches. They are generally composed of cannery trimmings of ham, tongue and 
other meats, minced, seasoned, etc. See Potted Meats. 

SANGAREE: a drink composed of wine and water with sugar, lemon, etc. 

SAPODILLA, Sapota, Zapote : the best known type of a noteworthy group of fruits 
of tropical America, which also includes the Mammee Sapota and the Star Apple^ 
described elsewhere in this volume. The Sapodilla Tree, which furnishes the chicle 
converted into Chewing Gum (which 
see), is of the same genus, and the main 
order embraces the "Miraculous Berry" 
of Western Africa, which takes its name 
from the extraordinary persistence of its 
sugary sweetness on the palate, and an 
Indian tree whose evaporated sap is es- 
teemed as an edible jelly of raisin flavor. 

The Sapodilla, or "Dilly," seen quite 
frequently in high class stores even in 
Northern States, looks from the outside 
like a cross between a potato and a russet 
apple — but the soft rough-grained pulp 
has a delicious flavor, either raw or 
cooked. Average-sized fruits generally 
contain two large seeds, but they vary in 
number from one to several. In the 
market, they are usually graded by size 
and shape, as large, medium and small; sapoduias 

round, flat and long. They stand transportation well. 

The "Wild Dilly" is much smaller and more on the berry style, but is also excel- 
lent in flavor. 

The White Sapota (which see) is a fruit of an entirely different order. 

SAPONIFIER. (1) Any compound used in soap-making to convert fatty acids into 
soap. (2) A compound used for softening water and cleansing generally. 

SAP-SAGO: a Swiss cheese flavored with clover. See Cheese. 

SARATOGA CHIPS. See item under heading of Potato Chips. 

SARDELLE: a corruption of the German name, Sardellen, for Anchovies. 




550 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



SARDINES : are popularly supposed to be little fish that are found only on the coast 
of France, other products so labeled being merely imitations ! This impression is not 
accurate, as the title — taken from the Mediterranean island of Sardinia — is by com- 
mercial usage applied to the young of divers clupeoid fish caught also in several other 
countries, including the United States, and exported in especially large quantities 
from Norway and Portugal. The high favor in which the best qualities of the real 
French product are held by connoisseurs, is entirely deserved — but it is not owing to 
exclusive possession of all the fish! 

French Sardines, called also celerans, celans, royans, cradeaux and galices on 
various parts of the French coast, are the young of the pilchard, a fish nearly allied to 
the herring, common in the Mediterranean and along part of the West coast of Europe. 
The fishing season varies in different sections. In the Mediterranean, it extends 
over the entire year. On the shores of Brittany, the center of the French industry, 
it is confined chiefiy to the months of September and October. The fish frequent the 
Brittany waters throughout the entire summer — remaining until late in the fall — but 
when they first arrive they are thin and poor and unsuitable for canning. As the sea- 
son advances they improve in quality and are fat and in good condition from September 
on. Those caught earlier are generally salted or consumed fresh. 

To attract the little fish to the vicinity of the nets, large quantities of bait are 
scattered on the water — that chiefly used being the salted eggs of cod, haddock,, 
mackerel, etc., mixed ordinarily with peanut meal or flour to decrease the expense. 
As many as a hundred thousand have beeu taken in a single net. 

The French flsherman's great aim is to land the catch as speedily as possible to 

insure their absolute freshness — and as 
a consequence they are often at the can- 
neries within one or two hours after cap- 
ture. Should the failure, or unfavorable 
direction, of the wind threaten to delay 
the arrival of the sailing boats and hence- 
impair the quality of the flsh, the crew 
row back to port. 

As soon as the fish reach the fac- 
tories, their heads and viscera are re- 
moved and the dressed bodies are sorted 
by size into large tubs of strong brine, 
where they remain for about an hour. 
They are next placed in small wicker 
baskets and washed in either fresh or salt 
water for a few seconds, to remove loose 
scales, dirt and undissolved salt. Then 
comes the drying — preferably in the open. 
For open-air drying, the fish are ar- 
ranged by hand, one by one, in wire 
baskets or trays, each holding about one 
liundred and fifty of medium size, placed' 
on wooden frames or racks. The distinc- 
tive feature of the trays is their division^ 



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Drying Sardines at Camaret, France 



THE GBOCEE'S encyclopedia 



551 




COPTBICnT, KETBTOVT! T 



Drying Sardines on the beach, Beppu, Japan 



into about seven V-shaped crosswise compartments, 
in which the fish are placed in regular rows with 
their tails upward, so as to promote the escape of 
water from the abdominal cavity. They remain 
thus for a variable time, depending on their size, 
the state of the atmosphere, etc., the usual period 
in favorable weather being one hour. 

In damp, foggy or rainy weather, they are 
dried indoors by artificial heat, less time being then 
required. 

After drying, they are taken in the same wire 
baskets to the cooking room and immersed in boil- 
ing oil, in open vats of various sizes and construc- 
tion. As much of the oil is taken up in cooking, 
the vats require close attention and frequent 
replenishing. 

The oil immersion usually lasts about two min- 
utes, but varies Avith the size of the fish. 

The baskets are next removed to a table or platform with an inclined metal top, 
where the surplus oil is allowed to drain off, and are then taken to the packing room, 
where they are packed in the tin cans so well known to the consumer. 

After the cans are sealed, they are immersed in boiling water for several hours, 
the object being to complete the cooking of the fish and soften the bones, in addition 
to the customary canning purpose of sterilization. 

The kind and quality of oil used depend upon the commercial grade of the pack- 
ing. For the finest qualities, native olive oil, from fairly good to the very best, is 
employed, either plain or blended with or into various sauces, except for a limited 
quantity prepared in melted butter for special French trade. The methods of. putting 
up the lesser grades vary in different canneries. In some, arachide or peanut oil is 
used in both cooking and canning; in others, the cooking may be done in peanut oil 
and the cans filled with olive oil — or vice versa. It is stated that cottonseed oil is ■ 
largely used in some establishments for the cheapest grades. In many cases, the flavor 
is enhanced by adding special ingredients to the oil or by packing in various sauces — in 
Tomato sauce, Bordelaise, Bouillon, etc. — cut trulHes and pickles, and spices and herbs 
such as cloves, laurel leaves, thyme, fresh tarragon leaves, etc., being frequently added. 

Some of the finer qualities are canned without bones, the extraction being 
usually made after semi-cooking so as to avoid tearing the flesh. Boneless sardines 
are further marked by the fact that they lose their tails in the operation. 

In the south of France, part of the product is put up in red wine, being there 
known as Sardines anchoisees or "Anchovied Sardines." 

The French sardine is a handsome little fish, and its beauty is not entirely lost in 
canning. In the water, the back is of a greenish color, but out of it the upper parts 
are rich dark-bluish, contrasting strongly with the silver and Avhite of the sides and 
abdomen. The scales are very easily detached, but their loss does not detract 
seriously from the appearance of the fish, as the skin is thick and has a uniformly bril- 
liant silvery color. 

French sardines, as a rule, improve with age after packing, and are at their best at 
from four to six years in the can. Many particular establishments will not sell stock less 



552 THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

than a year old, as that time is considered necessary for the proper blending of the fish, 
oil, flavoring, etc. 

American Sardines. The canning of domestic sardines, in oil, mustard, etc., is an 
important industry and large quantities are consumed. On the Atlantic coast the 
small herring is used, and on the Pacific, young fish which closely resemble the Mediter- 
ranean sardine in character and flavor. In some canneries, special machinery does 
much of the work performed in Europe by hand. 

The fact that domestic sardines fail to obtain the high prices and favor of the 
French sardine is not due so much to any differences in the fish themselves, for they 
are in many cases equally delicate, but to the extraordinary care exercised by the lead- 
ing French canneries to produce the finest possible result. Only those caught at the 
season when they are plumpest and best are used ; they are removed from the meshes 
of the nets by hand, special pains being taken to avoid crowding or bruising on the 
boats; counted by hand into small baskets, taken direct to the factories, and imme- 
diately put through the processes described^processes in which each tiny fish has 
individual attention ! With similar care, there seems no reason why the American sar- 
dine should not be rated just as highly as the French. 

Smoked Sardines, both of American catch and imported from Norway and else- 
where, put up in oil or other manner, are gaining in favor. 

The West Indies, Chile, India, Japan and New Zealand and other parts of the 
world, also engage to some extent in the industry, using small fish of various kinds. 

SARSAPARILLA. Sarsaparilla extract is made from the long, thin, dark-brown 
and bitter-flavored roots of a Central and South American shrub. It is largely used 
medicinally as well as in the manufacture of "soft" drinks. In the beverage which 
bears its name, its natural bitterness is modified by the addition of Oil of Winter- 
green or other flavors. 

SASSAFRAS: the spicy bark of both the trunk and root, 
especially the latter, of a tree of the laurel family. It is em- 
ployed medicinally, as "sassafras tea" and in other forms, in 
dj'e-manufacture, etc. 

Sassafras leaves and twigs contain much mucilaginous mat- 
ter and are used for flavoring and thickening soups (see Gumbo). 
Tliey formerly served in brewing Saloop (which see). 



SATSUMA: a small Tangerine-type orange (see Oranges). 

Sassafras 

SAUCES AND RELISHES: as they concern the grocer, are bottled mixtures of 
extracts of condiments, vegetables, fruits, etc., for use with meats, fish, soups and 
various other foods. They have been employed for culinary and table purposes since 
the time of the ancient Romans. Many of them are based on wine, but vinegar is 
the most common liquid component. 

Commercial sauces of the Worcestershire kind, if of good quality, generally have 
Soy (which see) as their chief character ingredient. A typical formula of Worcester- 
shire-style includes, in addition to Vinegar and Soy, a considerable percentage of lime 
juice, onions and tamarinds and small quantities of garlic, fish (as anchovies or 




THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 553 

pickled herrings), red chilies and spices. The product, after cooking, is strained 
through fine hair sieves. Leicester Sauce resembles Worcestershire in general charac- 
teristics but is less pungent. 

Other examples of commercial sauces are Anchovy Essence and similar types, 
Catsup, Chili Sauce, Tabasco, etc., listed elsewhere under their respective headings. 

Professional cookery includes a great variety of sauces. The two chief fundamen- 
tal types are Espagnole, which serves as the stock or basis for a great many brown 
sauces, and Yeloute, the chief white sauce. Both of these are described in their 
alphabetical positions. B^arnaise, Bechamel, HoUandaise and a number of other exam- 
ples, are listed in the Dictionary of Culinary Terms in the Appendix. 

Salad Dressings: are ready-made preparations for dressing salads, conveniently 
put up in bottles. They are sometimes named according to the character of the for- 
mulas used, as Mayonnaise, etc., but are more often known by trade titles. Good 
brands find a ready sale. 

SAUERKRAUT: a German preparation of pickled cabbage. Close heads of white 
cabbage are cut into fine shreds, placed in layers in a tub with salt, pepper and other 
spices, and allowed to ferment after considerable pressing and pounding. Strong 
brine is then poured over and it is packed away for use. It is eaten in various ways, 
generally boiled or fried with meats. Previous to cooking, it is partly freshened by 
washing in cold water. 

When receiving barrels of kraut, put them in the cellar or some other cool place 
where the temperature is not above 50° Pahr. End up the barrels with the plug-end 
on top — never put kraut on its side. If to be held for some time, pull out the plug 
and fill weekly with clear water in which one handful of salt to a bucket of water has 
been dissolved. The great danger of loss in handling kraut is in the possibility of its 
being left dry — care should be taken that it is moist all the way through at all times. 
When the barrel is opened, take the kraut from the sides, not from the center, thus 
avoiding a hole, which would turn black on exposure to the air. Cover the open kraut 
with clean muslin or cheese cloth and continue to observe the injunction to keep it 
always moist. Weights are not necessary on open kraut if the above instructions are 
followed. 

SAUMUR (Sparkling) : a French wine resembling champagne in both quality and 
appearance, though generally a little "lighter," made in the Saumur district, in the 
former province of Anjou. It is very delicate and wholesome. 

SAUSAGES: of the best quality, consist essentially of minced prime fresh meat, 
either beef or pork, or both, cured, spiced, stuffed into casings and, usually, smoked. 

With few exceptions, all sausages, other than tliose for immediate disposal, 
should be kept, preferably hung, in a cool dry dark place. To be enjoyed at their 
best, they sliould, ordinarily, be sold and consumed as soon as possible after their full 
preparation is completed. 

In general manufacture, the coarsely chopped meat is first mixed with sugar, salt 
and a little saltpetre and allowed to rest or "cure" for a few days. Then comes, in 
most varieties, a second finer mincing, next the addition of, spices or herbs, or both, 
and finally filling into beef, sheep or hog casings and smoking — the last-named being 



554 THE GKOCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

identical in process with that for Ham (which see) except that the time required i& 
shorter. 

Cheaper grades contain a considerable percentage of potato flour, rice, bread or 
cracker meal, or other similar fillers, and the meat consists largely of "trimmings" — 
cheek meat, etc. — coloring matter being frequently employed to obtain the red hue 
desired. 

The casings are generally the thoroughly cleaned intestines of steers, sheep and 
hogs. The domestic supply is supplemented by importations from England, Australia, 
New Zealand, Germany, Holland and Turkey. 

Some yarieties of sausage are eaten as purchased, without additional cooking — 
often nearly raw; others are cooked for varying periods before serving. It is gen- 
erally better to err on the side of over than under cooking, as there is always 
the danger of trichinae in pork that has not been thoroughly permeated by strong 
heat (see article on Tkichinae), unless the salting is especially heavy. 

As sausages, like mincemeat and other similar articles, are always open to suspi- 
cion on the part of inquiring-minded housewives, it is wisest to handle only those 
made by concerns with thoroughly established reputations for cleanliness and whole- 
someness of preparation. 

The following list of the most popular varieties names the principal ingredients, 
etc., of their general manufacture in high class establishments, but customs and for- 
mulas vary widely. The accompanying Color Page shows, in reduced size, Bologna, 
Gervelat, Frankfurters, Head Cheese, Mortadelli and Salami. 

Beef Sausage : chiefly lean beef, seasoning, etc. Stuffed in sheep or narrow hog 
casings, or retailed as "Beef Sausage Meat." 

Blood Sausage or Blood Wurst : principally fat pork cut into small dice, together 
with some finely minced lean pork, beef or hog blood and spices, stuffed into beef mid- 
dle casings, with three or four pieces of hog tongue added to each sausage, and boiled. 
The dark color is due to the blood content. 

Bologna Sausage : named from the town of Bologna, Italy, though the imported 
variety now comes principally from Germany. It usually consists of equal parts of 
lean beef and pork, minced fine, spiced, stuffed into beef middle casings, twelve to four- 
teen inches long — straight or in rings — and smoked red. The best native Bologna is^ 
made of bacon, veal and pork fat, chopped fine and flavored with garlic and herbs. 

BouDiN Blanc or White Sausage : finely minced lean and fat pork, roasted onions, 
bread crumbs ( soaked in cream ) , spices and egg yolks, stuffed into narrow hog casings. 
They should be kept in salt water until sold to preserve their white color. The brine 
must be renewed every two or three days. 

BovIjOG'ne Savsage or Saucisse de Boulogne: finely minced lean beef and clear 
salt bacon, spiced, stuffed into medium-wide beef casings about twelve to fourteen 
inches long, dried and smoked. 

Brussels "Mosaic" Sausage : a very showy item. Its basis is sausage meat of 
about two-thirds fat pork and one-third beef, chopped medium small, spiced and filled 
into hog or beef bladders, five or six inches in diameter and six or seven inches long, 
until about three-quarters full. Square strips of red boiled ox-tongue, coated with 
pork fat, and good colored Frankfurters, Liver Sausages, etc., are then pushed into the 
mixture, all parallel to each other. The whole is carefully strung, smoked lightly,. 
boiled and again smoked, preferably with juniper brush added to the fire. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 555 

Cervelat : principally equal quantities of minced beef and pork with some addi- 
tional dices of fat, and spices. Filled into beef casings and smoked. 

Chitterling: a French sausage from pig intestines. They are thoroughly 
cleaned, pickled for several hours in herb-flavored brine, cut into very small pieces, 
stuffed into larger intestines and cooked. They are then placed in brine again for 
three weeks or so and finally smoked or placed in vinegar. 

Frankfort Sausages or "Frankfurters" : if of fine quality, consist of about one- 
quarter lean beef and three-quarters lean pork shoulder, spiced, stuffed into sheep or 
narrow hog casings and well smoked. They should not be kept long, as they readily 
become dry and unpalatable. In Frankfort, Germany, the original place of manufac- 
ture, only pork is used, the general formula resembling that for Frankfort Pork Sau- 
sage, following. 

Frankfort Pork Sausage : coarse-chopped lean and fat pork and ham, flavored 
with spices, garlic and shallots, stuffed into salted hog casings, about fifteen inches 
long, and smoked to a reddish yellow. 

Frankfurters. See Frankfort Sausages. 

Fricadbllen : trimmings of lean pork or other meat, chopped moderately fine, 
mixed with flour paste, spiced, shaped into cakes of two to three ounces each, and 
wrapped in hog caul. They are intended for frying in butter. 

Goose Liver Sausage : principally finely minced parboiled calf's liver and pork, 
roasted in butter and spiced, containing pieces of goose liver about one inch square. 
Filled into very wide hog casings. 

Truffle and Goose Liver Sausage is made in a similar manner, with the addi- 
tion of small dice of truffles and red salt tongue. 

Ham, Chicken and Tongue Sausage: principally pork, with the addition of 
varying quantities of veal, ox-tongue and chicken, all minced very fine. The casings 
are generally smoked or colored red. 

Head Cheese: boiled calf's or pig's feet, cut either into moderate-sized dice or 
into long thin strips, tongues (whole or cut), and a variety of other items— salted 
hearts, cheek meat, ham trimmings, pig's snouts or ears, etc. — all cooked, skinned and 
cut into pieces of about three-quarters-inch square, flavored with spices, onions and 
herbs. Stuffed into hog's stomachs and pressed under boards after cooking. A cut 
head cheese, if well made, is a good ornament for show windows. 

Liver Sausage: if of good quality, consists of liver and lean pork, etc., with 
spices, onions and herbs. 

Lyonnaise Sausage : principally pork — four parts of flnely minced lean and one 
or two parts of fat, in small dice — some flnely minced beef, spices, as ginger and mace, 
and leeks. Stuffed into well salted beef casings, about eighteen inches long, and smoked 
to a rich red. 

Mett Sausage or Dutch Mett: minced lean beef and moderately fat pork, filled 
into beef casings, dried and smoked. It is generally made from the remnants after 
preparing Cervelat or Salami. A finer variety is known as Brimsioick or Thuringian 
Mett. 

MoRTADELLi (Italian) : principally minced pork and beef, some raw and some 
boiled or pickled, together with dice of raw pork fat, strips of boiled pickled pig's 
tongue, chopped sardines and pistachio nuts, spices and a little rum or other spirits, 



556 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

filled into beef casings twelve to sixteen inches long or into large narrow calf blad- 
ders, tied around with strings, dried and smoked until red — using, preferably, beech 
or oak shavings mixed with juniper brush. 

Parisian Sausages or 8aucisses Parisiennes : fat shoulder pork, chopped moderately 
fine, stuffed into medium sized hog casings, twisted into pairs about four inches long 
and smoked. 

Pork Sausages: finely minced lean fresh pork trimmings, with spices such as 
nutmeg, ginger, cloves, mace, etc., and herbs as sage or thyme. For fancy trade, they 
are generally stuffed into sheep casings in very small links ; for regular trade, small hog 
casings are employed. The mixture is also retailed in muslin bags as "sausage meat." 

Smoked Pork Sausage is made in the same way but frequently contains a cer- 
tain proportion of beef and a considerable percentage of salt pork. The links, after 
drying, are smoked for one and one-half to two hours. 

Kollepohse or George Sausage : finely minced rather fat beef and bacon, spiced, 
filled into bags of beef caul about four inches wide and six inches long and cooked. 
After cooking they are packed in earthenware jars and steeped for several days in a 
mixture of vinegar and broth, flavored with bay leaves, sliced lemons, etc. 

Salami (Italian) : about two-thirds fat pork, in small dice, and one- third finely 
minced lean beef, moistened with red wine, flavored with garlic, shallots, cloves, etc., 
stuffed into beef casings, previously soaked in vinegar, and made into a chain of 
small, nearly round sausages. The sausages are later put in brine for several hours, 
then hung for about two weeks and finally washed and dipped in lukewarm mutton 
tallow- — the last-named process to prevent drying out. Hung in proper temperature, 
they will keep for years. 

Salami de Verona is similar to Italian Salami, but generally contains a larger 
proportion of beef, chopped to the same size as the pork, and with brandy in place of 
wine. 

Salami (Hungarian) : four-fifths moderately lean pork and one-fifth fat bacon, 
coarsely chopped, flavored with paprika, etc., stuffed into narrow beef casings, steeped 
in brine for ten days to two weeks, dried and smoked. 

Sardelle Sausages : principally lean pork, together with some bacon and ancho- 
vies (Sardelles), spiced, stuffed into narrow hog or wide sheep casings and twisted off 
in pairs into small sausages, weighing about two ounces each, and smoked to a deep 
yellow. They should be handled in small quantities only, as they do not keep in good 
condition for longer than three or four days. 

Summer Sausage : equal parts of finely minced lean beef, lean pork and fat pork, 
flavored with spices and sometimes with garlic, etc., shaped into large balls and 
allowed to cure for three or four days, stuffed into beef middle casings and hung up to 
dry for one or two weeks, then smoked red and hung for two to three months to 
harden. If this sausage becomes white in keeping, it should be rubbed with a cloth 
saturated with fat or olive oil. 

A good deal of Summer Sausage, chopped coarser, is sold as "Salami." 

Thuringian Red Sausage: principally, moderately fat pork; also scraped pig- 
skin, salted tongue or heart, liver and lungs, etc., and fresh blood, flavored with spices. 
Filled into wide hog casings, cooked and smoked, with a considerable proportion of 
juniper brush added to the smokehouse fire. 




1, 1 1 frankfurters 
(2) Salami 



(3) BoloSna 

(4) Cervelat 



(5) Head Cheese 

(6) MortadelU 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



559 



Tongue Sausage : chiefly tongue in small pieces^ with the addition of some pork, 
chopped to a paste. 

Vienna Sausages or Wienertmirsts : finely minced lean beef and fat pork, flavored 
with coriander, mace, lemon peel, etc., and sometimes garlic and shallots, stuffed into 
sheep casings and twisted off into sausages about three and a half to five ounces each, 
dried and smoked. They should be of a chestnut brown color. A hot Vienna sau- 
sage should break open when bent and show plenty of juice. 

Westphalian Sausage : generally equal quantities of lean beef and fat pork in 
very small dice, stuffed into narrow hog casings and smoked. If hung in a dry, airy 
place, they will keep good for a long time. 

Wienerwursts. See Vienna Sausages. 

S AUTER : a form of frying. See general article on Cookery. 

SAUTERNES: one of the best known types of white Bordeaux Wines (which see). 

SAVORY, or Summer Savory : an annual herb of the mint family, with strong, agree- 
ably aromatic smell and flavor. Its leaves are in common use, both fresh and dried, 
for flavoring soups, etc.. Dried Savory being retailed both loose and in cans and 
bottles. The blossoms and branches are also sometimes similarly employed. 



SAVOY CABBAGE: 

curly or crimpled leaves, 
ally suitable for winter use. 



a variety of cabbage with rough, green 
As it is a very hardy type it is especi- 



SCAD, or Horse Mackerel: a fish of mackerel type and flavor, 
seldom eaten fresh but a popular article when salted. 




Savoy Cabbage 



SCALES. The wise grocer will see that his fixtures include the very best balances 
obtainable. Every extra dollar judiciously spent on a good scale will repay itself a 
hundred per cent, the first year. Care should always be taken not to strain scales by 
weighing heavy goods on small ones unfitted for such use. 

SCALLOP, or Scollop: a variety of 
shellfish, somewhat resembling the oyster, 
very plentiful on the New England coast 
and found on sandy bottoms along the en- 
tire Atlantic shore-line of the United 
States. They are in season from the mid- 
dle of September to the end of March. 
Only the muscle, or "hard part," used for 
opening and closing the shell, is eaten, the 
remainder, called "the rim" by fisher- 
men, being very soft and considered unfit 
for food. 

SCHIEDAM SCHNAPPS : fine gin of 

Schiedam distillation. See Gin. Emptying the Scallops on the CuUing Board 




560 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

SCHNAPPS: a German word signifying "dram," a small drink, etc., which has come 
to mean Holland gin (see Gin). 

SCHWEITZER KASE. See general article on Cheese. 

SCOLYMUS, or Golden Thistle : a vegetable with roots resembling those of the Oys- 
ter Plant in flesh-character and flavor and similarly prepared. 

SCONE: originally a Scotch "cake," generally of oatmeal but also sometimes of 
barley or wheat. The title is now applied to a round or three-cornered home-made 
"biscuit" of dough or batter mixed with sour milk or buttermilk and bicarbon- 
ate of sodium, cooked either in the oven or on a griddle. 

SCOOPS. It is economy to buy only good, strong scoops capable of standing plenty 
of use. Steel and three-ply wooden types are among the best. 

SCRAPPLE: a Pennsylvania dish which originated among the Germans. The gen- 
uine old-fashioned formula calls for a young pig's head, boiled until the meat is 
readily separated from the bones. The meat is then minced very fine and put back 
into the soup, which is afterwards thickened with buckwheat or cornmeal and sea- 
soned with spices and herbs. When of the consistence of mush, it is run into pans to 
cool, to be later sliced and fried for the table. 

The scrapple of general consumption is made from all waste portions of fresh 
pork, including the liver and kidneys, and a product of this inferior quality is widely 
retailed in butcher and delicatessen stores, etc. 

SCROD. See sub-bead in matter on Cod. 

SCRUB CLOTHS. A modern commercial development is the manufacture of cheap 
towels of specially absorbent texture for scrubbing purposes, to take the place of the 
former unsanitary method of using old rags. They are offered at such low prices that 
they are commendable both for store purposes and for sale to customers. 

SCUPPERNONG: a grape of the Muscadin family and one of the most famous of 
the several varieties native to the Southern States. It takes its name from the Esca- 
pernong tribe of Indians. It is mentioned in the records of the first explorers, and 
the wine from it has been in great favor since the earliest settlement of the country. 

The Scuppernong grows singly or in small groups, instead of in large clusters or 
bunches. It does not bear profitably in the Northern States, but it grows freely and 
bears lavishly, both wild and cultivated, in the South. The berries ripen individually 
and are in some vineyards gathered from the ground as they fall from the vines. In 
others, they are picked from the vines as they mature. They are the biggest of all cul- 
tivated grapes, being frequently double the size of the largest Concord. The several 
varieties may be grouped into "white," or green, and "purple," the former being the 
more noteworthy. The "white" berry is dull green, frequently spotted with brown. 

The Scuppernong is not a particularly good table grape — its flesh is sweet, but 
marked by a musky odor and taste which is displeasing to some palates, and it is more 
perishable and consequently more difficult of transportation than other varieties — 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



561 



but it makes excellent wiues, classed as "Scuppernongs," white and red, dry and sweet, 
still and sparkling— the best known being a sweet, aromatic, still, white wine of 
golden hue. 

The Scuppernong, unlike other wine grapes, is generally allowed to spread as 
widely as it wishes, a single vine frequently covering one or more acres, being sup- 
ported and trained over arbors. 




Sea Grapes 



SEA GRAPE, or Shore Grape: the pleasing pur- 
plish-red fruit of a broad-leafed bushy plant found in 
Florida, the West Indies and elsewhere. It has no rela- 
tion to the true grape, taking its title only from its 
clustered growth on long pendulous stems. 

SEA-KALE: a vegetable found wild along the West- 
ern coasts of Europe, and cultivated to an increasing 
extent in England and the United States. The young 
shoots, if properly blanched, are tender and of a delicate 
nutty flavor. They are prepared for table in the same 
way as asparagus. 

SEALING WAX: is composed of shellac, resin and 
turpentine, together with some pigment (generally red 



or black). It was originally used for sealing public 
documents, and later for sealing fruit jars ! It has more 
recently been supplanted in the latter use by paraffin 
wax and similar devices. 

SEA MOSS. See articles on Seaweed and Moss. 

SEA ROBIN: a fish found on the North Atlantic 
•coast, which deserves greater favor than it has hitherto 
received. It is repulsive in appearance, but the flesh 
is good. 

SEAWEED. In popular American belief, fish is the 
only form of food that the ocean offers us, but it is also 
rich with a great number of edible Algae or seaweeds 
and the future will in all probability see a vastly in- 
creased use of the yet immeasurable food supply of deep 
salt waters. The most prominent of the varieties of 
present commercial importance are Carragheen, Dulse, 
Kanten, Kelp and Laver, which are described elsewhere 
in their alphabetical positions. 



Wim 

limmM 



SEEDS. All grocers should handle seeds, as they are profitable and of ready sale. 
Care should be taken not to lay in too large a supply, commencing instead with only 
the most popular varieties in small quantities and gradually building up a regular 
■demand. 



562 



THK grocer's encyclopedia 



SELF-RAISING FLOUR: Avheat or buckwkeat flour prepared by the addition of 
substances which, when moistened, have the same effect as yeast or baking powder. It 
is largely sold for pancake and biscuit purposes to save time in cooking by avoiding 
the process of setting to rise, as with yeast, or mixing, as when ordinary flour and bak- 
ing powder are used. 

SELTERS, SELTZER. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

SEMOLINA, or "Semola." See matter under heading of Farina. 

SERVICE BERRY. See under title of June-Berry. 

SESAME OIL: obtained from the seeds of the Sesame Plant, cultivated in Oriental 
countries, is a pale, sweet, straw-colored product, which is extensively used in per- 
fumery manufacture, for blending with olive and other edible oils, etc. 

SEVILLE ORANGE: the "bitter" or Bigarade type. See Oranges. 

SHAD {see Color Page opposite 540) : a fish resembling the herring, but much larger, 
often eighteen inches and more in length, and sometimes weighing as much as ten 
pounds. The average market weight is about four pounds. The body is of compressed 
shape, the back rounded and the scales silvery with a reddish tinge. It is in season 
from January to the beginning of June and is a very popular food, both fresh and 
salted. 

Shad Roe is in season from January to June, but is not in fine condition until 
about March, and sometimes a little later, according to locality and other circumstances. 

SHAD BERRY. See under title of June-Berry. 



SHADDOCK. See article on Grape Fruit. 



SHALLOT, or Scallion: 



tribe, of stronger but more mellow 



a vegetable of the onion 
flavor than the Com- 
mon Onion, used for flavoring sauces, stews, etc. 

The true shallot ranges in size from a walnut to a 
small fig, is inclined to pear-shape and has a thick outer 
skin shading from reddish to grey, the bulb underneath 
being greenish at the base and violet on the upper por- 
tion. It grows in "clove" form, several cloves attached 
to a common disc. 

The Jersey or False Shallot is of various shapes, 
frequently larger than the True Shallot, with thin red 
skin and bulb sometimes white but generally all violet. 

New shallots reach the market about midsummer, but the chief sale is of the 
dried, which may be kept all the year. The young leaves are also used for seasoning 

A common practice is the sale of small red onions as shallots. 




Shallot 



SHAMMY. See item under heading of Chamois Skin. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



563 



SHEEP. See matter under heading of Mutton. 

SHEEPSHEAD: a Southern sea- fish, so named because its 
head and teeth resemble those of a sheep. It is in season from 
the middle of June to the middle of November. Large speci- 
mens attain a. weight of fifteen pounds. 

Slieepshead 

SHELLBARK: a variety of hickory, so titled because the old trees "shell off" 
their bark in long strings. The use of the term as a name for the nut itself is con- 
fusing, as two varieties of the hickory tree are "shellbarks," yet the nuts differ, one 
being thin-shelled and the other thick-shelled. 




SHELLFISH: may be divided into two classes — Crustaceans, those which have an 
articulate body, such as lobsters, crabs, prawns, crayfish and shrimps, and Mollusks, 
the invertebrate varieties, as oysters, clams, scallops and mussels. 

The above examples of mollusks may be further styled "bivalves," to distinguish 
them from "univalve" mollusks, such as abalones, cockles, etc. 

Following is a list of the principal American shellfish and the months during 
which they are, generally, in season : 



Clams, hard — all the year. 

" soft — October 1 to June 30. 
Crabs, hard — all the year. 

soft— May 1 to October 15. 
Crayfish — September 1 to April 30. 
Lobsters — all the year. 
Mussels — all the year. 



Oysters — September 1 to April 30. 
Oyster Crabs — October 1 to April 30. 
Prawns — September 1 to March 30. 
Scallops — September 15 to March 30. 
Shrimps — March 15 to May 15; and Sep- 
tember 15 to October 15. 



The edible fiesh of several of the crustaceans is rich in protein compounds, the 
most noteworthy in that respect being, in the order named, shrimps, lobsters and 
crabs. 

Of the mollusks, the richest is the abalone, which ranks between the shrimp and 
the lobster in protein values — then, with much smaller percentages, come, in the 
order named, scallops, clams and oysters. AVith the exception of the abalone, the mol- 
lusks show a larger percentage of carbohydrates than the crustaceans, but the princi- 
pal difference is that they contain a greater percentage of water. 

The composition of the oyster solid is quite similar to that of milk — occupyincr 
a position between full and skim milk, as will be noted bv the analvses followino- • 

Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates Ash 

Oysters 88% 6 I14 3y, -,~ 

Whole Milk 87 3+ 4 5 " 1/ 

Skim Milk 90-f 31/2 V2— 5+ :^' 

See also special articles on each variety of shellfish. 

SHERBET: a term which, in this country, is generally used to designate ices in 
which liquors or fruit juices are used for flavoring. Also, though not so frequently, 
a fruit beverage similar to lemonade. The name comes from the east and applies 
there to various kinds of fruit beverages, frequently scented with rose water or some 
other odor and flavored with spices, much consumed by Mohammedans, who are for- 
bidden by the Koran to drink intoxicating liquors. In other countries the name is 
loosely applied to many beverages, several of them containing rum, currant wine, etc. 



564 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




SHERRY: a "white" wine made from 
grapes grown in and around Xeres, Anda- 
lusia, Spain, its name being an English 
attempt to say Xeres — "Sherries." 

The process of manufacture is ex- 
ceedingly simple and one in which scien- 
tific principles, as now understood, have 
never entered. After the grapes are 
pressed in the Lagar, or Wine Press, the 
resultant Mosto (Must) ferments in the 
open air and is subsequently transferred 
to Bodegas (Cellars) for storage. There 
it is again. allowed free contact with the 
atmosphere in the process of its devel- 
opment, older wine being added from time 
to time to take the place of that lost by 
evaporation. New crude wine ranges be- 
tween 12% and 14% in alcoholic content. 
Blending and fortification result in the 
strength of the sherry sent to the Ameri- 
can market averaging about 19%. 

The product of the various vineyards 
varies little in essential characteristics 
when first fermented, but within twelve 
months most marked differences arise, 

developing eventually into types widely distinct, such as Raya, Fino, Palma, Palo 
Cortado, Oloroso, etc. 

Raya signifies a fairly full and slightly coarse wine; Fino, a light-colored, pale, 
delicate wine of fine aroma; Palma, a wine approximating to Fino but with a higher 
degree of delicacy and bouquet; Oloroso, a full bodied, highly-developed, darker-col- 
ored wine. Palo Cortado is more difficult to describe, but may be classed as in st^de 
between Fino and Oloroso. Oloroso — a highly-prized product of the vineyards of 
Xeres — is found in less quantity than the other types and is ordinarily subjected to a 
separate subdivision by experts. 

Classified as Kaya, Fino,, etc., each "Anada," or vintage, is held until the time 
comes for its being passed through "Soleras." The word Solera, literally translated, 
signifies "Base" or "Plinth." In sherry-making, "soleras" are the stored mature 
"Mother Wines" added to the younger product and gradually imparting their special 
characteristics to it — the distinctive merit of a Solera being thus, as it were, handed 
down through many vinous generations. 

The bulk of the sherry marketed is blended from various Soleras in proportions 
that differ according to the desired style and quality, but some are shipped in their 
natural state, Fino, Oloroso, etc., and as such appeal to many connoisseurs. Sweeten- 
ing, color and fiavoring are frequently added. 

Although Xeres is the seat of Sherry production, other districts not far distant 
contribute wines of similar character which are ordinarily known by the same title. 
Among these, the most prominent is the vicinity of San Lucar, where is made the 
renowned Mansanilla, a very pale, delicate product of the Fino type but with less 



Exterior of a typical Bodega, Xeres, Spain 



T H K G R O C i: R S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



565 



body, and possessing the slight Guniomile 
flavor from which its name is derived. 
Montilla is another outlying district 
which has produced several vintages of 
the very highest merit and commanding 
high prices. Its value may be judged by 
the fact that the word "Amontillado,'' 
Avhich stands for one of the best qualities 
of Xeres wines, signifies "of Montilla 
style." 

Among the best known of the num- 
erous titles associated with high class 
sherries in the American market are 
Amontillado, Oloroso, Fino, Manzan'illa, 
Yino de Pasta, Solera, Palina, etc. 

Invalid Sherry signifies an especially carefully selected high grade variety. 

SHERRY COBBLER: a mixture of sherry, lemon, sugar, water and ice. 




Huge Solera Casks and various styles of paek 
in a Sherry Bodega 



SHOE POLISH. See item under the heading of Blacking. 

SHOT. One of the secrets of the manufacture of shot and the part of the process 
requiring the most skill, is the mixing of the lead with a certain proportion of an 
alloy called "temper." The temper is melted with the lead and gives it a peculiar 
quality _ which causes it to drop from the sieve in globules. Without it, the metal 
would leave the sieve in strings or little "pencils," instead of the round form desired. 

The melted lead is poured into a pan perforated with holes corresponding to 
the size of the shot to be made. This pan, or sieve, is located at the top of the shot 
tower and the little pellets come pouring down in a continuous shower, falling into a 
tank filled with water. In their descent the pellets become cold enough to solidify, 
and when they strike the water, it bubbles as if boiling furiously. The water tank is 
a necessity, for if the pellets should strike any solid substance they would be flat- 
tened out of shape. An elevator with small buckets, perforated to allow the water 
to drain out, carries the shot up as fast as it reaches the bottom of the well and 
delivers it to cylindrical steam-heated "dryers." 

After drying, the next step is the separation of the perfect from the imperfect 
shot. This is very important, as accurate shooting requires that the pellets be uniform 
in size and all of them perfectly round. In the more modern towers, the separation is 
accomplished by the use of inclined glass tables. At the lower end of the tables, and 
extending entirely across them, are two iron gutters, one just bej^ond the other. The 
shot is spouted onto the tables at the upper end and the perfectly round pellets travel 
very rapidly down the incline, acquiring sufficient momentum to carry them over the 
first gutter into the second one. The imperfect pellets, not being perfectly round, 
travel more slowly and drop ofP into the first gutter. The device is most efficient, and 
it is very interesting to watch the little pellets chase one another down the incline. 

After the imperfect pellets have been removed, the perfect shot is ready for polish- 
ing, accomplished by revolving with a little plumbago. Nothing then remains but to 
pack in bags for shipment. 



566 THE GKOOER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

SHOWCASES. Evei^y progressive grocer should have one or more showcases and 
keep them in first-class order. The truth that goods properly displayed are half sold, 
is the strongest argument in favor of well-polished plate glass, both in the grocer's 
window and his counter cases. Fine goods can be opened and displayed in such a 
way as to tempt any customer, and yet be removed from dust and fingering. 

SHRIMPS {see Color Page opposite 346) : small shellfish slightly allied to the lob- 
ster, found along the coasts of the United States, England and some parts of Europe. 
They are in season here from the middle of March to the middle of May and from 
September 15 to October 15. As caught, they are about two inches long, of a green- 
ish-grey, freely dotted with brown, but very few people ever see them except as they 
are after cooking, then of a pretty pink tint. In England, great quantities are sold 
in bulk, but in this country the trade is supjjlied principally with the canned variety 
and their chief use is in salads. See also Prawns. 

SHRUB: a West Indian drink, made of lime or lemon juice, the rinds of the fruits, 
sugar, water and, generally, spirits of some kind. Rum is the spirit most often used, 
the beverage then being known as "Eum Shrub." Other fruit juices or extracts are 
sometimes substituted for the lemon juice. 

SILLIBUB, or Sillahuh : is made by whipping a mixture of wine, cider or spirits and 
cream, or milk, to a froth and flavoring. The wine turns the cream into a soft curd. 

SILVER HAKE: another name for the Whiting (which see). 

SILVER POLISH. There are a great many silver polishes on the market — pastes, 
powders, soaps and liquids, variously composed — and, unlike some other lines, most 
of them do their work more or less satisfactorily, but it is best to avoid laying in a 
large stock of any new brand, no matter how good it may be, unless it is manufactured 
by a firm financially strong. The reason for this advice is, that it is possible to enter 
the polish-making business with a minimum capital, and, as a result, new concerns 
are continually starting up, only to fail after a short period for want of enough money 
to work with — leaving the merchant with a lot of "dead" stock. It may be excellent 
polish, but the makers are out of business and no one is pushing or advertising it and 
consequently no one asks for it. Even those customers who have used and liked it, 
will probably order something newer which another house has commenced to adver- 
tise — and there is not much satisfaction in talking up a defunct brand with no future 
sales in it and with no special reward for the special effort required to get it off the 
shelves. These remarks may be adapted to quite a number of other items and 
circumstances! See also Jev^elers-' Rouge. 

SIMNEL CAKE: a sweet farina cake, originally served in many communities on 
Simnel Sunday (also known as Mothering Sunday, Refreshment Sunday, etc.), the 
fourth Sunday in Lent, but now equally popular for Christmas and Easter. 

SIPHON BOTTLE: a bottle especially manufactured to contain carbonated liquids. 
It is fitted with a tube reaching from the bottom to the discharge nozzle, the valve clos- 
ing the tube being operated by a lever at the handle. The liquid is discharged by 



THE GKOCBR-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 5GT 

the pressure of the gas. Care should be exercised in handling siphon bottles, as sudden 
jars or sudden changes of temperature may cause them to explode. 

SIRLOIN. See general article on Beef and illustrations of Beef Cuts. 

SIRUP. See Syrup. 

SKATE, or Ray-Fish: a light-colored, rather large flatfish; found along the North 
Atlantic coast. It is so extremely ugly that it is seldom shown in its natural condi- 
tion and the body is so full of bones that, as a rule, only the saddles are sold, but the 
flesh is delicate and pleasing in flavor and is consumed both fresh and salted. It is in 
season all the year except during July and August. 

SKIRRET: a European herb of the parsley family, with small white fleshy roots 
resembling those of the Oyster Plant. They are usually boiled and served with butter. 

SLAW, or Cold Slaw: the raw heart of the cabbage head, cut into long shreds and 
served with vinegar, or other seasoning or dressing, as French dressing, cream, etc. 

SLIVOVITZ: is a liqueur prepared in Austria-Hungary, Germany, Poland and 
other European countries, from Damson plums. It takes its title from SUva or Sljiva, 
the Servian name for the fruit. In manufacture, the plums and a liberal proportion 
of the ground kernels are first crushed and pressed, then starch-sugar is added to the 
juice and the mixture is allowed to ferment. Distillation gives the crude j)roduct, and 
clarifying processes complete the liqueur, bat aging is required to develop its finer 
qualities. Its pleasing flavor is due largely to the plum kernels, which contain a con- 
siderable percentage of Amygdalin, the characteristic component of bitter almonds. 
The most highly esteemed product is that made in Syrmia, a county of East Slavonia 
( Austria-Hungary ) . 

German "Slivovitz" is best known under the local title of Ztoetschenwasser. The 
French Prune Cognac is of similar manufacture, but sweet plums are frequently 
employed in its preparation. 

Imitation Slivovitz is made by flavoring spirits with prune juice and artificial oil 
of bitter almonds. 

SLOE, or BlacJctJiorn : a shrub of the plum family, common in many parts of Europe 
and in some sections of America, which is credited with being the parent of the culti- 
vated plum. The fruit is nearly round, about the size of a very large pea and pale 
blue with blackish bloom. When raw, it is sour and astringent, but large quantities 
are utilized in Europe in preserved form and as fiavoring for various liquors and 
liqueurs (see sub-head of Sloe Gin in article on Gin.) The juice is also sometimes 
employed in the manufacture of imitation port wine, and the dried leaves have fre- 
quently served as an adulterant of tea. The "suckers" of the bush are the well known 
blackthorn walking-canes. 

SMELT (see Color Page opposite 504) : a delicate little silvery-colored fish of the 
salmon or trout family, in season from the middle of August to the middle of April. 
Its weight averages from tAvo to fifteen to a pound. The Elaine variety has, when 



568 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

fresh, an odor like cucumbers. Lake Champlain "smelt" or Ice Fish, caught in the 
Great Lakes during the winter months through holes in the ice, average from I/2 to 
1.1/4 pounds each. 

SMIER-KASE. See Cottage Cheese in general article on Cheese. 

SMOKED MEATS: need especially careful attention during the summer months. 

For a discriminating class of trade, "canvassed" are preferable to "naked" hams 
and bacon. Under present methods of government and state inspection, the consumer 
is reasonably sure that the ham that he purchases came from an animal in sound health, 
and that it was cured under cleanly surroundings, but unless it is wrapped or can- 
vassed, much of this precaution may be offset by carelessness and uncleanliness in 
the handling of it afterwards. The canvas serves as a protection both during the 
delivery of the meat to the retailer and while it remains in his possession — right up 
to the moment of delivery to the consumer. 

Canvassed hams and bacons received in quantities, should not be allowed to lie 
packed any longer than necessary. 

Mold on hams and bacons is not a sign of poor quality or deterioration. If it 
appears on "naked" or unwrapped hams, it may be easily removed by rubbing with a 
cloth slightly moistened with sweet oil or lard. This application is sometimes desir- 
able even when no mold appears, as it tends to prevent its formation and gives the 
meat a bright, fresh appearance. 

A simple and inexpensive method of keeping "naked" smoked meats in hot 
weather, is to put them into paper flour sacks, tying the tops with strong twine and 
then hanging them from the ceiling, where the air can pass between them. 

Smoked or dried sliced meat put up iu tin should be removed immediately after 
opening, as atmospheric contact sets up oxidation and the contents are rendered unfit 
for use. 

With the exception of a few special varieties, such as Virginia, Westphalia, etc., 
which are credited with improving with one or two years' keeping, the best ham and 
bacon, other things being equal, is that which is the freshest cured. Formerly, the 
smoking was practically suspended during hot weather, but modern mechanical refrig- 
eration makes it possible to cure hams and bacon of the finest quality every day of 
the year. 

See also Bacon and Ham. 

SNAILS. The edible land snails consumed in large quantities in France and several 
other European countries, present a considerable diversity in size and appearance. 
The most highly esteemed are the Helix Poniatia, locally known as the Burgundy, 
Large White, Eoman, Vineyard, etc., with shells varying from greyish-yellow to grey- 
ish-red and with irregular black markings, the latter in some cases completely covering 
the shell. They are gathered in vineyards and also raised in Snaileries or Snail Farms 
— patches of moist clayey ground, suitably fenced or separated by little water canals, 
and provided with bushes or high plants for protection against the sun, shaded pools 
of water and, frequently, low sloping wooden "shelters." They are fed principally 
on lettuce and other green stuff, but fruit and aromatic herbs, such as thyme, may 
also be included in the diet to give a special savor to their fiesh. The creatures are 
prolific, each giving in the spring from 50 to 60 eggs. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA. 



569 



Next in importance to the Large White, is the "Black Mouth," much smaller but 
also of very good flavor. 

The common snail of the garden, woods, etc., consumed chiefly by the poorer 
classes, is commercially classed as the Small Grey. It is generally grey, with faint 
markings, but is also sometimes a full yellow. 

The Snail Market plays an important part in the food supply of Vienna during 
the Lenten season, large quantities of "Swabian Snails" being imported from Wur- 
temberg and other parts of S. W. Germany, but Paris is the best customer of the 
collector and breeder — an average of 80 millions a year being sold in its principal 
markets, the Halles Centrales, alone. 

Snails are for market purposes graded according to variety, size, etc., and packed 
in baskets, bags and casks. The two principal seasons are the spi'ing and winter. 
The former is supplied largely by itinerant gatherers of the "wild" snails which show 
themselves freely after spring showers. The fall and winter supply, the last-named 
generally bringing the highest prices in Paris, is of snails (from snaileries and else- 
where) which have sealed themselves up for the winter — which explains the appar- 
ently "dried" condition of the fresh imported snails received here. 

The American consumption has noticeably increased during the last few years. 
In some parts, native snails are caught and marketed, but preference is generally 
given to the European product, imported both fresh and canned, to a yearly total of 
$50,000 and upward. They are prepared in numerous ways — generally with liberal 
additions of herbs, spices and wine — and are considered a delicacy by many people. 

SNIPE: a small game bird somewhat resembling the 
woodcock. Its plumage is of variegated appearance, be- 
ing most elaborate in the female. The best known varie- 
ties are the Jack Snipe, the smallest ; the Common, and 
the "Great Snipe," the largest. 




Snipe 



SNUFF: is made from various grades of leaf tobacco 
and in many styles, from fine-powdered to coarse, and 
from plain to highly perfumed. 

There are three main classes: Scotch, dry, yellow 
or light-colored and finely powdered, its distinctive odor 
due to the extent to which the "toasting" is carried; 
Maccoiboy, which is semi-moist, and usually not so finely powdered as Scotch, and 
Rappee, which is quite moist, the grain varying from very fine to very coarse. Scotch 
snuff is usually divided into : Plain or Strong Scotch^ Sweet Scotch, Salt Scotch, High 
Toast Scotch and Irish or Lundyfoot Scotch. 

The habit of snuff-taking is much less general than formerly, but "snuff-rubbing" 
— rubbing the teeth and gums with it, generally \>y means of a tooth brush or similar 
small brush — has extended widely through the South and Southwest, and large quan- 
tities are manufactured expressly for that trade. 

The oils used in perfuming are expensive and form one of the most important 
items in the cost of manufacture. They vary in price from two or three dollars, to 
more than a hundred dollars, per pound. Attar or oil of roses, employed in scenting 
many varieties and a great favorite among snuff-takers, costs from five to eight dol- 
lars an ounce. Great quantities of oil of lemon, bergamot, etc., are also consumed 



570 THE GEOCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

annually. The olfactories of customers are very sensitive to perfumes, and many 
manufacturers find it difficult to cater successfully to their tastes. 

After the snuff has been scented, it is packed in jars, bladders or foil, and 
stamped with the government international revenue, stamp. Scotch, also known as 
"yellow" snuff, is always put up in carefully prepared bladders. 

SOAKAGE: an allowance made on articles packed in brine, in the shape of an 
extra "tare" to cover the weight of water soaked up by the wood. It is calculated 
according to the size of the package and other general conditions. 

SOAP : is supposed to be of Celtic origin. Its first introduction to civilization took 
place after the invasion of Gaul by the Romans. During the 8th century, Italy 
and Spain were the centers of the industry. Five hundred years later, pre-eminence 
had been won by the soap-makers of Marseilles, France. To-day, the honors are evenly 
shared by the United States and several European countries. It is interesting to note 
that the first patent granted by the United States was in the interest of soap manu- 
facture, protecting a method of making potash and pearl-ash devised by a Samuel 
Hopkins. 

Soap manufacture on an extensive scale was greatly stimulated by Le Blanc's 
discovery in 1791 of the method of obtaining Caustic Soda from crude common salt, 
and by Chevreul's enlightening exposition of the true chemistry of soapmaking, half 
a century later. The Le Blanc method is still employed, though it has recently been 
largely superseded by the Solvay ammonia and Electrolytic processes. 

The soaps of ordinary domestic use consist of fats or other oily substances, 
saponified by mixing with water and alkalies. The finest varieties are made from 
vegetable oils — olive, palm, cocoanut, peanut, cottonseed, etc. ; the cheapest from ani- 
mal fats, principally tallow. Common soap generally consists of tallow, blended 
with a varying proportion of vegetable oil — cocoanut for quick lather, oleo or cotton- 
seed oil for mildness, etc. — as tallow alone discolors and hardens with age. Its cleans- 
ing properties are attributable chiefly to the fatty acids into which the bulk of the fat 
is converted during manufacture. 

For ordinary, or "hard," soap, caustic soda or soda-ash is the alkali employed. 
For Soft Soap, caustic potash is the chief alkali, only enough soda being used to give 
the product fairly stable consistence, the result being the retention of the glycerine 
and a large proportion of water. 

By the most widely used method for the production of common soap — which is 
also the basis of the finer toilet and special soaps — the melted fat or oil is first boiled 
in caustic soda lye. As soon as it commences to emulsify, stronger lye is added — this 
being repeated from time to time as long as the lye is absorbed and until the soap is 
smooth and dry when pressed and has a slight persistent caustic taste. Boiling, with- 
out further additions, is then continued until the mixture is nearly neutral again, 
then dry salt, brine, or, in some cases, caustic soda lye, is added to the paste and boil- 
ing continued until "separation" begins to shoAv. It is then allowed to cool, the crude 
soap forming on top and the spent lye— a mixture of crude glycerine, salt, alkali, 
etc., — settling at the bottom and being run off. Next comes, in many cases, a fur- 
ther strengthening — the soap, together with a certain quantity of water, undergoing 
a prolonged boiling, caustic soda lye being added from time to time in the first stages. 
Another settling follows and the lye is again drawn off. The soap is then boiled, water 



thegrooer'sencyclopedia 571 



being added to produce the right consistence, and is left to settle and rest for several 
days. The pans will then show four layers — the top is a thin soap which is taken 
off and sent back for further treatment; second, is the good "settled" soap, constitut- 
ing about 65% of the contents of the pan; third, is a dark weak soap Avhich is also 
worked over in various ways; and at the bottom is a weak lye solution. The good 
settled-soap is ladled or pumped out, melted, cleaned, "crutched" or mixed, etc. — 
rosin, sodium of silicate, soda-ash, etc., being added in many cases — finally going into 
large frames, which consist of iron plates clamped together and set on wooden bot- 
toms, fitted with wheels so that they can be easily taken to the cooling room. In four 
or five days, when the soap is cool enough to strip, the sides of the frames are 
undamped and the soap stands on the wooden bottoms in solid masses of half a ton or 
more. They are later cut, first into bars and then into squares, by machines with 
regulated wires. 

Toilet Soaps. 

Toilet Soaps of the better grades are generally known in the trade as 
Milled Soa2)s. Common soap of the best quality is chipped, dried by hot air and 
passed through rollers w'hich blend and flatten the chips into thin sheets which are 
automatically cut into ribbons. The desired color is added, and the milling and cut- 
ting are repeated two or three times. The perfume is then added and a final milling 
takes place. The product goes next to pressing machines and is later stamped or 
shaped in molds. A mixing machine which blends the "ribbons" together with the 
color or perfume, is frequently substituted for the second and subsequent milling 
processes. Milled soap contains less water and therefore lasts longer than other soap. 

The perfumes employed in scenting soaps vary with the market grade of the 
product — from expensive natural oils to the cheapest of imitation and artificial 
essences (see Pekfumeey). Compound odors are, in all grades, more frequently 
employed than single odors. 

Re-melted Soap is toilet soap produced by one of the older methods. The settled 
soap or soap basis is remelted, agitated, treated with a pearlash solution to make the 
product finer and smoother, and variously colored and perfumed. 

Broavn Windsor Soap is an old-fashioned variety which owes its color, when 
made by the original process, to the frequent reboiling of the stock and the long 
aging of the finished product. The effect is frequently obtained more expeditiously by 
the use of coloring matter. 

Castile Soap or Olive Oil Soap, Marseilles Soap, Spanish Soap^ Venetian Soap, 
if genuine and of the first quality, is made entirely of olive oil. The name "Castile" 
records its Spanish origin, but Marseilles, France, is the chief modern place of 
manufactui'e — in Europe it is indeed generally known as "Marseilles Soap." As great 
care is taken to avoid an excess of alkali, only just enough being employed to neu- 
tralize the oil, it is very mild and may be used on wounds and other surfaces where a 
common soap would result in irritation. 

The color of genuine Green Castile Soap is due to the natural chlorophyll 
extracted from the olive pulp while obtaining the "foots" or industrial oil after the 
first pressings of the fruit for the finer grades. When other oils are substituted, the 
green hue is artificially supplied. 

On account of the high price of olive oil, the bulk of the Castile Soap of mod- 
ern manufacture contains a considerable percentage of peanut, rape seed and other 



572 THE GROOEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

similar vegetable oils. The genuine imported article is nevertheless an excellent soap 
— but caution is advisable in purchasing, as a number of American, English and other 
"Castiles" are very inferior. 

CocoANUT Oil Soap contains no other ingredients than the oil expressed from 
coc'oanut flesh, and alkali. It is widely known as Marine Soap and is generally used 
at sea as it lathers better in salt water than other kinds. Cocoanut oil is also exten- 
sively employed in many other soaps — to blend with tallow or other fats — because of 
its free lathering properties. 

Floating Soap owes its low specific gravity to the air beaten into the hot soap 
during manufacture. Its composition usually includes a large proportion of cocoa- 
nut oil. The white color ordinarily characteristic of this type may generally be 
accepted as an indication of the purity of its ingredients, and its lightness guaran- 
tees the absence of any heavy adulterants, but it is more rapidly consumed than heavier 
soaps. 

Glycekine Soap is a form of Transparent Soap (see below). 

Olive Oil Soap is generally known as Castile Soap (which see). 

Shaving Soap of the best grade, consists generally of a mixture of neutral soda 
and potash soda soaps, glycerine being added to some varieties during the milling. 

Transparent Soap is still produced by some concerns by the old-fashioned pro- 
cess of dissolving dried soap of good quality in alcohol. All insoluble impurities being 
thus deposited and removed, the alcohol is distilled out and the soap, after coloring 
and perfuming, is run into frames and stored for a considerable time before market- 
ing. Later and less expensive methods have substituted the use of glycerine or sugar 
solutions during manufacture. 

Laundry Soap. 

Yellow Soap, Eosin Soap or Bar Soap owes its color to the large quantity of 
rosin incorporated. Most laundry soaps contain this ingredient, as it supplies the 
lather lacking in the tallow, their chief component. It also possesses detergent prop- 
erties and is at the same time a cheap filling material. Another characteristic ingre- 
dient is Sodium Silicate, but an excessive percentage of this offers no advantage except 
the reduction of cost to the manufacturer. 

It is helpful advice to suggest to a housewife the purchase of laundry soap by 
the box, as it will be found less wasteful if allowed to harden for a moderate length 
of time. It is best cut in square pieces and stored on an upper shelf, with spaces of 
an inch or so separating the blocks. 

Among other special types are Ammoniated Soap, used both for the laundry and 
bath; Borax Soap, a hard white variety possessing remarkable detergent qualities; 
Naphtha Soap, and Cold Water Soaps — the last-named so prepared as to lather freely 
in cold water and therefore popular in many households for laundry purposes during 
hot weather. 

Mottled Soap : owes its appearance to the addition of a silicate of soda solution and 
coloring matter (ultramarine blue, copperas, etc.,) employed to imitate the mottled 
effect of many soaps of former days — due then to the impurities left in by poor manu- 
facturing methods. When copperas, or sulphate of iron, is used, a bluish oxide of iron 
marks the soap, changing to red oxide on exposure to the air. 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 573 



Scouring Soaps: are made by adding some natural silicious material to a soap mix- 
ture composed generally of tallow and cocoanut oil. Sapolio, manufactured by the 
Enoch Morgan's Sons' Company, is the best of the class. 

Sand Soaps,, quite generally used in Philadelphia and Baltimore, form a separate 
type. They are made by the addition of fine or "Silver" sand to an ordinary soap basis. 

Soap Powder, or Dry Soap : is a mixture of soap, soda-ash, sodium silicate, etc. 

Medicated Soap. This title includes a great variety of types, various drugs being 
added during the final mixing, as carbolic acid, creosote, sulphur, etc. 

Tak Soap contains from 5% to 10% tar, the unpleasant odor being usually dis- 
guised by the addition of cinnamon, lavender or similar perfumes. 

Retailing Soap. Soap is a money-making line for a merchant if properly handled. 
Good laundry soaps — the kinds that lather and wash well and are free from injurious 
chemicals — are always salable. The trade in toilet soaps depends upon the judgment 
exercised. Cheap soaps, no matter how showy their wi'appers, will only confirm cus- 
tomers in the idea that "they can't get good toilet soap in a grocer's." Premium goods 
often entail more trouble than is warranted by the profit. "Cut-price" goods generally 
mean a lot of work for nothing. The best plan is to sell only first-class brands that give 
a good profit. Other things being equal, give attention to the wrappers — a pretty pack- 
age is a distinct advantage. A showcase that will afford both display and protection 
from dust, is absolutely essential. 

SOAP BARK, or Quillai Bark: the inner bark of an evergreen tree growing in the 
mountainous parts of Chile, which, when bruised and agitated in water, makes a lather 
as soap does. It is believed to take its name from the native word quillay, which sig- 
nifies "to wash." Commercially, it is employed for removing grease from silks, as it 
does not change the color of the fabric, and also in the form of a hair wash. 

SODA: in the form in which it is chiefly used for food purposes, is variously known 
as Bicarbonate of Soda or Sodium, Supercarhonate of Soda, Saleratus and Baking 
Soda. The prefix "Bi" in the first-named title stands for "two," meaning two equiva- 
lents of carhon-dioxide to one of the base, which is soda. It is one of the chief ingre- 
dients of all Baking Po\5^ders (which see). 

When employed in baking biscuits, etc., Baking Soda produces the carbon-dioxide, 
which is the active "raising" principle, by reaction in contact with the acid contained 
in the sour milk or buttermilk which accompanies its use. Its action as an ingredient 
of baking powder is identical, for it then reacts under similar conditions with similar 
result in contact with the acid which is a complementary component. 

Baking Soda is a valuable ally to the housekeeper. A pinch of it stirred into milk 
that is to be boiled will keep it from curdling. A bit, the size of a pea, added to the 
tomato for Tomato Cream Soup will prevent the milk breaking when it goes in — and 
is a safeguard with all cream soups. Another piece, cooked with green vegetables, 
will keep them a fresh color. A pinch in the water in which dry beans are soaked, 
will expedite the process wonderfully. Many other similar uses might be cited. 

Baking Soda is generally obtained as a side product in the manufacture of Soda 
proper or Sal Soda, known in the average household as Washing Soda. 



574 THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Washing Soda. Among the various uses of Washing Soda — in sinks, etc. — is the 
service it renders in cleaning tin cooking vessels and utensils. They should be put in 
a wash boiler with plenty of water and a good supply of soda and allowed to boil for 
a few minutes — then remove the boiler from the stove, but permit the tins to remain 
in the solution for an hour or two. When rinsed and wiped, they will be bright and 
new looking. It is well to avoid as much as possible putting one's hands in the water, 
as it will quickly roughen the skin and nails. 

SODA CRACKER: a "cracker" or light thin biscuit, made from a plain dough of 
flour and slightly salted water, leavened with soda and cream of tartar. See article on 
Biscuits. 

SODA-FOUNTAINS. Within the last few years a number of large groceries have 
added soda-fountains and have found them very profitable in various ways in addi- 
tion to the margin on the ice ci^eam and soda sales — ^by gaining new store customers 
among people who at first merely dropped in for a "soda" ; making the store a popular 
meeting-place among friends (all prospective customers), in the increased case and 
bottle sales of summer beverages, such as root-beer, etc. 

But it is not good policy to install one unless you also furnish both the help and 
attention necessary to run it in proper style, for a soda-fountain proves an eye-sore 
and a general detriment unless so conducted as to present the appearance of absolute 
cleanliness. A sloppy fountain has the knack of immediately making a place look cheap 
and messy — it will attract flies to damage the exposed stock and mark up the canned 
and package goods, but it won't attract customers to purchase them! The counter 
should always be clean, polished and dry, and the syrup jars and all appurtenances 
invitingly bright to the eye — a general effect of dampness, stickiness, sourness or 
foustiness is disgusting to particular customers. This general spick-and-span condi- 
tion must be supplemented by good syrups and cream if full success is to be attained. 

As the purchase of a fountain represents frequently an investment of consider- 
able amount, caution should be exercised in selection. The essential points are — (1) 
first-class mechanical construction; (2) thorough drainage; (3) attractive appear- 
ance; (4) good insulation to avoid waste of ice; (5) correct cooling plan so as 
to insure a plentiful supply of cold soda; (6) convenient arrangement for service; (7) 
jars, pumps, etc., that can be cleaned with minimum labor, and (8) heavy plating on 
plated parts — or the "new appearance" will speedily be lost. 

SODA-WATER: water rendered effervescent by charging it with carbon-dioxide. 
It is so called because the gas originally employed was produced from bicarbonate of 
sodium (see Carbonated Waters). 

SOFT FRUITS: a trade term including strawberries, raspberries, fresh currants, 
blackberries, rhubarb, etc. 

SOJA BEAN. See article on Soy Bean. 

SOLE: an English fish, highly prized for the delicacy of its flesh, which obtains its 
name from its resemblance in shape to the sole of a human foot. There are two prin- 
cipal varieties — the upper skin of one dark and rough, and of the other a pale dull 



THE GEOCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 575 



red. The former is considered the better. Both types are nearly white on the under- 
bodies. The principal season is from November to February, but they are on sale to 
a limited extent all the year. 

The onlj genuine sole is the imported, but other domestic fish, notably flounder, 
are retailed and eaten in its name. The Lemon Sole is a kind of flounder especially 
suitable for the purpose — its flesh is not as "woolly" as that of the common variety. 
The skin of the English sole can easily be torn from the flesh — a test that the Ameri- 
can fish cannot pass. 

SORGHUM: a grain which grows very much like broom-corn. It contains a high 
percentage of sucrose, and a few years ago it was hoped that it would prove an impor- 
tant commercial source of sugar. It was, however, found to offer many difficulties in 
crystallization and refining, and the project has since been almost abandoned. Dur- 
ing 1889, 415,691 acres were planted to sorghum for sugar and syrup manufacture. 
Ten years later, the figures had fallen to 293,152 acres, and five years after that, to 
only 14,000 acres. 

It has, though, proved an excellent stock-feed and is now largely so used. 



SORREL: a vegetable used both for salads and as "greens." 
For the latter, it is especially good mixed with spinach. The 
leaves contain an important percentage of binoxolate of potash 
and have a pleasant acid taste. A decoction of them is some- 
times employed as a febrifuge. The best known type is the Broad- 
leafed French, or Belleville. See also Roselle. 




Broad-leafed French Sorrel 



SOUJEE, or Sujee: an Anglo-Indian name for a kind of semolina or Farina (which 
see) used in bread making. 

SOUPS: of many kinds are now canned and they have proved a great convenience 
to both the housewife and the cook, offering an agreeable diversity with no trouble 
of preparation and capable of being served at a few minutes' notice. There are also 
many extracts which require only the addition of water to serve as a good basis for 
soup. Serviceable, too, but in small demand, are the "dry" soups — -packages of 
desiccated ingredients. 

Soups may generally be classified under the headings of Clear — Bouillons and 
Consommes, and Thick — Creams or Purees, Bisques and Unstrained. 

Bouillon is an ordinary clear broth. The title is generally reserved for Beef 
Broth, unless otherwise stated, as Clam Bouillon, Tomato Bouillon, etc. 

CoNSOMMfi signifies a clear soup made by boiling together a knuckle of veal, a 
shin of beef and a fowl — or their equivalents. It is now generally applied to the entire 
class of finer clear soups or very strong clarified broths of various kinds of meats — 
specialized according to the chief meat flavor, as Beef Consomme, Chicken Con- 
somme, etc., or by special character additions, such as Consomme Vermicelli, Con- 
somme Julienne, etc. 

Cream, or Cr^me, soup, is thick strained soup. Puree is a French culinary term 
with the same significance. Cream or Puree soups are made in great variety — as 
Cream, or Puree, of Celery — of Carrots — of Tomatoes, etc. Almost any canned meat 



576 



THE GROCEU^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



or vegetable, as Asparagus, Green Peas, etc., can be used for the purpose by the addi- 
tion of cream. 

Bisque is a Cream Soup conventionally made or finished with fish or shellfish, 
chiefly the latter — as Bisque of Crayfish, Bisque of Grab, etc. The word was originally 
applied only to a form of Pigeon Soup, of which crayfish was one of the chai'acteristic 
ingredients or additions. In course of time, Pigeon Soup was relegated to the list of old- 
fashioned dishes, but the word "Bisque" survived and was continued in use, associated 
with crayfish cream soup as "Bisque of Crayfish." Later, it was applied to other shell- 
fish cream soups and the tendency is to still further enlarge its scope, not only to include 
fish but also other cream soups for which it would seem to have no particular affinity. 

Unstrained soups are thick soups such as Mutton Broth, Oxtail Soup, Vegetable 
Soup, etc. 

Among the most popular examples of Canned Soups are : Asparagus, Beef, Bouil- 
lon, Celery, Chicken, Chicken Gumbo (Okra), Clam Broth or Bouillon, Clam Chowder, 
Consommes (Chicken, Vegetable, etc.). Mock Turtle, Mulligatawny, Mutton Broth, Ox- 
tail, Pea, Petite Marmite, Pepper Pot, Printanier, Tomato, Green Turtle and Vegetable. 
The titles of the majority of these are self-explanatory. Of the others. Bouillon and 
Consomme are described in the preceding paragraphs of this article, and Chowder, 
Gumbo, Julienne, Mock Turtle, Mulligatawny , Pepper Pot, Petite Marmite and Prin- 
tanier in their alphabetical positions. 



SOUR SOP, or Gtianabana: a fruit nearly akin to the Sweet Sop but larger — 
good examples weighing four or five 
pounds — and with a thick greenish skin, 
marked at regular intervals with occa- 
sional blunt spines, taking the place of 
the "pineapple" effect. The cottony white 
flesh is aromatic in flavor but rather tart. 
The most pleasing way of service is as a 
frozen dessert resembling ice cream — the 
flesh is passed through a colander, beaten 
well, strained, sweetened to taste and 
frozen. It is also variously preserved, 
one of its commercial forms of West In- 
dian preparation consisting of the flesh 
canned in a thin syrup — being thus pleas- 
ing to the taste, but still retaining the 
objectionable cottony texture. 




SOY: a brown sauce, valuable to the commercial sauce manufacturer, made from 
the Soy Bean, a native of Southeastern Asia and widely grown in China and Japan. 
The beans are boiled, mixed with ground wheat or other grain, salt, etc., and allowed 
to ferment for a month or six weeks. The liquid is then strained off and clarified. 
Molasses is frequently added. In appearance, it resembles Worcestershire Sauce, of 
which it is an important ingredient. It should not be too salt nor too sweet, and, 
although thick and syrupy, should be clear. When shaken in a bottle or glass it should, 
if it is genuine, leave a bright yellow film. on the glass. Being a very desirable article, 
it is often counterfeited. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



i)i I 




Soy Bean 



SOY BEAN. 



Commei'cial and government circles both in Europe and this country 
are devoting increasing attention to the cultivation of the Soy 
Bean as a food product, as it contains a large percentage of pro- 
tein and a fair amount of fat, thus resembling meat in general 
nutritive value. The cell-walls of the vay\' beau are very tough, 
but thorough cooking makes it readily digestible. Boiled with 
bacon and other fatty broths until soft and then seasoned, the re- 
sult is a vegetable dish very pleasing to the average palate. If 
the beans are dry, a preliminary soaking to remove the skins is 
necessary. 

The Soy Bean is largely consumed in Japan, China and other 
I>arts of Asia as an adjunct to rice and other foods, taking the place of meat in the 
popular dietary. It is most popular in those countries in fermented form, the best 
known types being SJioiju or Soy Sauce; Tofu, a kind of cheese; il/iso. Soy Beau "Milk" ; 
Tiilia. the evaporated product of "Miso," and Matto, a product obtained by simple fer- 
mentation of the boiled beans. The various degrees and styles of fermentation serve 
the double purpose of rendering the beans more easily digestible and producing new 
flavors, just as by the fermentation of milk and cream we produce the different flavors 
of cheese. 

The plant is an annual, growing chiefly in bush form to varying heights of from 
tAVo to four feet, with branching hairy stems, marked by stiff reddish hairs, slightly 
hairy leaves, pale lilac or violet flowers and hairy pods containing from two to flve 
beans, from round to oval in shape and more or less flattened. There are a number 
of different varieties under the principal classifications of Black, Yellow, White and 
Brown, accordiiig to the color of the beans. Types of all these four classes are grown 
to some extent in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and the first three also in this 
country, in North Carolina and other Southern States. Under favorable conditions a 
single plant may bear a hundred or more pods. 

Because of the fact that the beans contain little if any starch, they have been recom- 
mended as a desirable food for diabetics, and Soy Bean Bread and Soy Bean Meal are 
prepared for that purpose in Paris. The dried beans are also used in Switzerland and 
elsewhere as a coffee substitute. 



SPAGHETTI. See article on Macaroni. 

SPANISH BAYONET: a southern plant belonging to 
the Yucca family. The fruit ripens in a cluster, fol- 
lowing a beautiful flower stalk rising from the center 
of the plant. It has a thick, tender rind and seeds, and 
may be cooked in almost any way suitable for apples. 

SPANISH MACKEREL: a fish allied to the Com- 
mon Mackerel, but finer in flavor and retailing at a much 
higher price. It ranges from the West Indies to Maine 
and is, in consequence, in season all the year. It appears 
in the eaTly spring in the south and off New York in 
July. The general weight is from one to three pounds, 
up to a maximum of nine pounds. The upper part of 




Spiinisli Bnyiinet 



578 THE GROCER S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

the body is silvery dark-bluish and the under-part light colored or whitish. See Color 
Page opposite 504. 

"SPANISH REDS" : a general trade title for red Spanish wines, especially those of 
port style, as Tarragona Port. 

SPANISH WINES. The Spanish wines most largely consumed in this country are 
Sherries (which see), but there is also a slight demand for Malaga^ made from the 
Malaga grape, a soft spirituous wine with fine bouquet, varying in color from "white" 
to deep amber-red and both dry and sweet — generally the latter; Alicante and other 
types of Malmsey and Muscat (which see) ; Rancio, red, both dry and sweet styles; Tar- 
ragona Port (see Port), and Sacra Tent, a ruby wine Avhich, because of its purity and 
sweetness, is used for sacramental purposes in Episcopal and Koman Catholic churches. 

SPARKLING WINES. See articles on Wine, Champagne, etc. 

SPEARMINT. See general article on Mint. 

SPECIALTIES. Under this head may be included any lines, whether or not capable 
of classification under Groceries proper, that are not carried by the majority of retail 
grocers. Fancy canned goods, choice fruits and preserves, candies, wines and liquors, 
cigars, etc., are suitable subjects for consideration. In some neighborhoods, per- 
fumes and high grade toilet soaps may be advantageously added. All of these are 
dealt with in their alphabetical positions in this volume. If his surroundings warrant 
their addition and if he is able to give their handling and sale proper attention, with- 
out detracting from the service of his regular stock, the grocer can improve his trade 
greatly by the introduction of specialties — they will extend the number of his 
customers and increase and hold general interest in his establishment. The greatest 
care should though be taken that only articles of real merit are stocked (see Humbugs). 
Many special lines make excellent drawing cards if properly featured in the store and 
in window displays (see article on Window Displays). 

SPECK: the German word for Bacon, widely used among German descendants in 
Pennsylvania for salt pork or unsmoked bacon, as "cabbage with speck." 

SPECULATION: on the part "f a dealer consists usually in purchasing more than 
his requirements demand, or, in other words, more than is sufficient of any line of 
goods for the regular conduct of his business. Generally speaking, to the majority of 
tradesmen, speculation is an evil. Many fortunes of considerable magnitude have 
been made by it, but they are overshadowed by the vastly greater number that have 
been lost. Much more money is made, and at one tithe of the risk and anxiety, by 
legitimate, steady business. We do not say, never purchase more than your wants, 
but this we do say, and most emphatically — never purchase more than you can pay 
for without inconveniencing yourself in your regular business. The time, energy and 
capital which a man spends in speculation will, if directed to his store and the gen- 
eral improvement of his trade, nearly always be productive of infinitely better results. 
Make your store your "speculation," and the result will be highly satisfactory. 



THE GROCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 579 



SPELT: a grain resembling wheat and grown for the same purposes in southwest 
Germany, Switzerland and parts of Spain. It was the principal cereal of Egypt and 
Greece in ancient times. 

SPERM OIL: is procured from the sperm-whale (see Whale Oil). 

SPERMACETI : a white, waxy, unctuous substance obtained by filtration and treat- 
ment with potash lye, from the oily matter found in the head of the sperm-whale. 
Good grades come in fine, white, smooth and nearly transparent flakes, dry and friable 
but soft to the touch, with a flavor somewhat like butter and a faint tallow smell. It 
is used by pharmacists as the basis of ointments, etc. It was formerly employed in 
the manufacture of candles, in the laundry, etc., but for these purposes it has been 
generally superseded by the cheaper paraffin. 

SPICES : may be described as aromatic vegetable substances used chiefly for the sea- 
soning of food. They represent different portions of their respective plants — Ginger 
is the root-stock; Cinnamon is the bark; Cloves, Nutmeg, etc., represent the fruit, and 
Sage, Thyme and other herbs, the entire upper part of the plant. Their aroma and 
characteristic qualities are contained chiefly in their essential oils. 

Tropical spices such as cinnamon, cloves, ginger, nutmeg and pepper — the flrst 
four shown on the Color Page opposite page 580 and the last-named opposite page 468 
— were, because of their great scarcity, even more highly regarded in olden times 
than they are now. They are frequently referred to in the Old Testament and are there 
generally classed with other things of known and considerable value — they were con- 
sidered flt presents for royalty, and it is recorded that they were included in the trib- 
ute which other monarchs paid to Solomon. They were also indispensable ingredients 
in the sacred oil used in the Tabernacle. The wealthy Eomans were especially lavish 
in their use, both in the preparation of food and burning them with the incense at 
the altars and in funeral rites. 

In ancient times and through the Middle Ages, Arabia was popularly credited with 
being the home of all spice luxuries, but this was to a great extent due to the fact that it 
served as a market for spice merchants from the East India Islands, Ceylon in par- 
ticular. Coming further down the centuries, we flnd that the trade occupies an impor- 
tant position in the history of our present civilization. For many years pepper was one 
of the chief items of commerce between India and Europe. Venice and Genoa are 
among the cities which waxed rich in great part on its traffic — and at times tribute 
was levied and rents were paid in pepper. 

A darker chapter is that of cinnamon, the nutmeg and the clove, cloaking many 
deeds of blood-stained atrocity. The Portuguese and the Dutch for generations main- 
tained their control of the supply by executing any but government employees 
attempting to engage in its export, by destroying plantations and accumulated stores 
— and on more than one occasion by massacring entire native populations to pre- 
vent them selling to other nations. 

The dawn of latter-day enlightenment, the destruction of monopolistic control 
and scientific cultivation of the various spice plants, have brought about an abun- 
dance of all varieties at prices which make what was formerly a luxury for only kings 
and nobles an everyday possibility for even the poorest of those living in the twen- 
tieth century. 



580 THE GROCER-' S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Modern commercialism for many years substituted extensive adulterations for old 
time barbarism — until quite recently a very large proportion of the "spices" mar- 
keted Avere mixed with a variety of other materials which robbed them of much of their 
strength and greatly impaired their characteristic flavors — but conditions in that 
respect have much improved, and both retailers and consumers can to-day, by exer- 
cising even a moderate amount of discrimination, obtain pure, high grade spices of 
every kind. This improvement has tended to restore public confidence and to stimu- 
late a more general demand — an excellent result, as their proper use relieves the cook- 
ery of the average American home of the criticism of "sameness" and monotony of 
flavor. 

Eetailers will flnd it profitable to take advantage of this change in sentiment, by 
exercising special care in purchasing spices and devoting more space and time to dis- 
playing, and, where necessary, explaining them — there is a much better margin in 
handling them than in the majority of other grocery items. There is also a wide field 
for their use — in everyday preparation of meats and desserts, as well as for preserving 
and pickling, etc. 

It would probably surprise many a grocer to be informed that tropical spices 
constituted the greater part of the stock of the originators of the business in which 
he is engaged, and that he is a modern development of the "Pepperer" or "Spicer" of 
the Middle Ages. A great deal of interesting matter on this and kindred topics will 
be found in the article on the Grocek. 

All spices should be protected from contact with the air, by keeping in well 
corked bottles or other closed receptacles. 

The principal spices of general modern consumption are Allspice or Pimento, 
Anise, Bay Leaves, Capers, Caraway, Cardamom, Cassia (see Cinnamon), Cayenne 
Pepper (see Pepper), Celery Seed, Cinnamon, Cloves, Coriander, Dill, Fennel, Gin- 
ger, Horseradish, Mace, Marjoram, Mustard, Nutmeg, Paprika, Pepper, Saffron, Sage, 
Savory, Thyme and Turmeric {see descriptive matter in alphabetical positions). Sev- 
eral of these are more generally classified as Sweet Herbs (see Herbs), but they are 
all "spices" within the full meaning of the word and are so considered in government 
and analytical circles. 

SPINACH : a vegetable, cultivated in many varieties, which is becoming increasingly 
popular both boiled as "greens" and in soups. When well 
cooked, it is about as health-giving an article as can be imag- 
_ ined. 

~' The best varieties are the Broad-leafed, Savoy or Curly- 

leafed, Prickly-leafed and New Zealand. It is essential that only 
^ ' --.f -- young leaves be purchased, as old leaves are coarse and not very 

palatable except after long and careful cooking. Much of that 
sold in Northern stores during the winter comes from the Southern States. Large 
quantities are also raised in hothouses. 

The strong green of spinach is employed to color pickle-vinegar and for many 
other food purposes. 

SPIRITS: alcoholic liquors secured by distillation, as Brandy, Gin and Whisky. 

SPIRITS OF WINE: alcohol (which see) obtained by distillation of wine. 





Four Principal Spices 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



583 



SPONGES: are popularly regarded as a kind of sea-plant, but in reality they are 
the skeletons of a low-type animal. They are reproduced by means of eggs, and the 
developed larvae are partly clothed with small hairs which enable them to swim or 
drift around until they find suitable places for adhesion. When, however, they have 
once fastened themselves to rocks or other submerged objects, they must, with few 
exceptions, remain there during their entire existence, the pressure of the water 
being the chief factor in holding them in place. 

The living commercial sponge is a solid looking mass, rather slimy in appear- 
ance, its exterior varying in color from light grey to nearly black, generally shading 
to lighter in the cavities. For sustenance, it sucks in the water through many small 
perforations, which pass it into a system of internal tubes, these distributing it into 
thousands of minute cells, which digest its microscopic animal or vegetable contents. 
The siiperfluous water is passed into drainage tubes and thence out of the large open- 
ings, the "eyes" or "craters," in the surface of the sponge. 

The Flesh of the sponge is the soft Jelly-like tissue of the tubes and cells, varying 
from transparent to deep-colored. The Skeleton, of the commercial varieties, is the 
interwoven mass of elastic, horny threads which constitutes the sponge of commerce. 
When cut, the interior flesh of a living Sheepswool Sponge resembles a much per- 
forated piece of beef liver. 

The large openings of the "skeleton"' sponge familiar to the consumer, are pres- 
ent in the living sponge, but the "tufts" and the depressions between them, and the 
smaller holes, are modified in appearance by the delicate membrane covering the exte- 
rior and permitting entrance to the tubes by small perforations only. The variance in 
shape is the result of differences in the surrounding conditions, the direction of the 
water currents, etc. 

Fine sponges are gathered by hand by divers, or by hooks on the ends of long 
poles. Coarser grades are dragged up by dredges. All types are exposed to the air 
for a short time after gathering and then thrown into pens or tanks of water to 



.>*^^^, 




Sponges growing on cement triangles 

at the U.S. Government Experimental 

Station. Anclote Key, Fla. 



584 THE GKOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

decay. When fully decomposed, they are squeezed or washed out to remove the mem- 
brane, skin and internal tissues and then set to dry. Nest come sorting, trimming, 
resorting, etc. The details of the processes vary in different localities. 

The market value is determined by the comparative fineness, closeness and elas- 
ticity. The most expensive are those known as the Turkey Oup and Mediterranean, 
or Turkey, Toilet — the best grades being obtained along the eastern shores of the Medi- 
terranean, especially off the Syrian Coast. They are small in size but very fine, silky 
and resilient. Another well-known type is the "Elephant's Ear," so-called because of 
its peculiar flat shape, which fits into the hand almost like a face-rag. 

Cheaper Toilet Sponges are generally bleached West Indian Toilet Sponges or 
small sizes of regular Bath Sponges. 

The Turkey, or Mediterranean, Bath Sponge and the American Sheepswool, or 
Wool, are the most widely used of good Bath Sponges. The best qualities of the 
Sheepswool come from the West Florida shore of the Gulf of Mexico. 

Because of their darker color, the Sheepswool are generally bleached. The pro- 
cess frequently shortens their life, but it has become popular, as it softens them and 
gives them a clean, bright appearance. 

The next in grade of the American product for bath purposes is the Yellow 
Sponge, which is very cheap in comparison with the imported variety, yet is fairly 
satisfactory in quality. 

Being a natural product, sponges vary greatly in appearance. Those of especi- 
ally good shape and style bring much higher prices than others of the same quality 
but of less choice appearance. For ordinary family purposes, an "off shape" sponge 
is just as good as an expensive selected one of the same variety. 

The Turkey Cup, Mediterranean Toilet and American Sheepswool and Yellow 
are shown in the page illustration opposite. 

Sponges that have deteriorated in storage can be restored by immersing in a mix- 
ture of one part glycerine to eight parts of water, then squeezing out and drying. 
Where this process is not required, they can be improved by similar immersion in 
salt and water, or a weak solution of soda. 

In popular opinion, the chief use of the sponge is for toilet and bath purposes. 
These, however, account for only a small part of the crop, the bulk being employed in 
the arts and industries. There is a steadily increasing exportation of the American 
product to Europe for commercial purposes. 

In common with other civilized governments, the United States is devoting a 
share of its attention to artificial propagation, as the increasing demand has for some 
years been confronted with a diminishing supply. After many experiments it has 
been found that the best results are attained by "planting" small pieces of cut sponges 
attached to cement disks. The illustrations on page 583 show experimental plants 
from cuttings, growing on cement triangles, at Anclote Key, Fla. 

SPOTFISH: a deep-bodied Southern fish resembling a bass, which takes its name 
from a well marked spot on either tail or shoulder. It generally averages about nine 
inches in length, and is continuously in season except during June and July. The 
flesh is a delicate white. 

SPRAT: a small fish of the herring type, caught in abundance in many parts of 
Europe, and extensively consumed there both fresh and smoked. There is a limited 




(l; Florida Sheepswool (3) Florida Yellow 

U) Mediterranean Toilet (ii Turkey Cup 

FOUR REPRESENTATIVE Sl'ONGES 



58f) 



THE GKOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Sqimbs. tliree w 



sale of Dried Sprats in this country — under their own name, in addition to what we 
eat under other titles! 

Kilkies, exported chiefly from Baltic ports, are cured sprats flavored with spices. 

SPRUCE BEER: a slightly fermented beverage, of the same general character as 
root-beer (which see), flavored with spruce essence and various spices. 

SQUAB: a young pigeon. There is a large and constantly increasing demand for 
squabs, particularly in the large cities. The birds are at their best when about four 
weeks old, i. e., after they have grown plump and before they have left the nest to fly 

— for, unlike chicks, they are quite helpless when young. 
At that time their flesh is milky and very delicate — 
after tliey have left the nest, it rapidlj^ loses the special 
squab characteristics. Good specimens will, at the age 
mentioned, average eight pounds or more to the dozen. 
Tlie best known varieties are the young of the 
Homer, Dragoon, Carneaux and Runt pigeons. The 
last named is the largest of all, but is not so frequently 
bred as it is not as prolific as the others. 

Size, plumpness and light-colored flesh are the 

points to be observed in buying squabs. They should 

be very carefully handled, both in the store and wngon, as their flesh damages easily. 

-They were formerly obtainable only in summer and they are still most plentiful then, 

but artificial mating now supplies them to the market all the year. 

SQUASH: a term applied to the edible fruit of many varieties of gourds, found 
in divers sizes, shapes and styles. The most famous of all is the Pumpkin (which 
see). The others are classified as Summer and Winter squashes and are used as a 
vegetable — stewed, baked and fried — as a substitute for pumpkin in pies, etc. 

Summer squashes are 
usually consumed green, 
the seeds cooked with the 
flesh. They arrive in the 
market about the middle of 
June. Winter squashes 
are generally larger in size 
and are eaten ripe, the 
seeds being removed before 
cooking. They are service- 
able through the winter 
and can often be held until 
the summer crop is ready, 
if thoroughly ripe, taken 
before the frost has 

touched them and stored, squashes of all shapes and sizes 

preferably in tiers, each one free, in a moderately warm, dry place. 

Among well known types are the Vymling, or "Patty-pan," or "Scalloped,'' or 
"White (or Yellow) Bush," white and yellow fleshed, the latter known also as Custard 





SWEET SOP 



MAN60STEEN 



TROPICAL FRUITS 



THE grogek's encyclopedia 589 



Squash; C'rookiicck, white and yellow; Hubbard, from dark green to orange and mod- 
erately smooth to very rongh and warty, and Blarroiv, yellow. 

The Vegetable Marrow (which see) is an English type of squash. 

SQUIRREL: a small rodent with slender body and bushy tail, of familiar appear- 
ance and habits, found wild in every part of the world except Oceania. By residents 
of the larger cities it is best known as tlie protected, semi-domesticated pet of public 
and private parks, but it is also esteemed by many jjeople as among the most desirable 
of small game animals, all varieties — black, red, grey, etc. — being equally acceptable. 

STAPLE: a term now commercially applied to the most important articles of mer- 
chandise. As formerly employed, it had two distinct and different meanings — (1) a 
commercial monopoly by royal grant, and (2) a district with market rights. Later, it 
became a name for a wholesaler, as a "wool-stapler." 

STAR APPLE: a tropical American fruit of the Sapodilla family, about the size of 
an apple, with skin of green to dark purple {see Color Page opposite 586). When 
cut crosswise, it presents an exceedingly attractive appearance — the pulp, of "crushed 
raspberry and cream" color, marked by a central star of translucent "jelly," holding 
several large, flat, brown seeds. The flavor is rather peculiar, but it lends itself to many 
forms of preparation. 

STARCH: is one of the most important and widely diffused of the proximate 
principles of the vegetable kingdom, being found in nearly all plants, serving for 
them the purpose of reserve food. It is formed from the water, obtained by the roots 
from the soil, and the carbon-dioxide drawn from the air, the combination being 
effected by the action of the sun on the chlorophyll of the leaves and stems. 

In spite of its presence in a multitude of seeds, fruits, roots, etc., frequently in 
large percentage and sometimes in comparatively pure state, there are only a few plants 
furnishing it in sufficiently large quantity and growing in sufficient abundance to be 
profitably utilized for its commercial production. The best known of these are Corn, 
Wheat, Rice and Potatoes. After them come ^Iaxioc (which see), or Cassava, for both 
edible and industrial purposes, and Sago for the former only. The greater part of the 
American oiiti^ut is obtained from corn ; that of Europe from the potato. 

There are two principal grades of starch, (1) that used for food and (2) that 
employed for manufacturing and industrial purposes. The latter may be roughly sub- 
divided into (a) Laundry Starch, (b) starch for the finer manufacturing purposes, 
and fc) starch for calico manufacture, etc. 

Food starches include such items as Arrowroot, Cornstarch, Sago and Tapioca 
(all described under their special headings). 

In this country, potato starch is considered especially suitable for sizing yarns 
and for some kinds of silk and wool printing, but in the textile industries generally, 
rice and wheat starch are preferred to the potato product because of their greater stiff- 
ening powers. Corn starch has still greater stiffening powers and is consequently the 
most highly esteemed for many purposes, particularly in the laundry business, because 
of the white, smooth, glossy finish which it gives. 

Pure starch is a glistening white powder with a characteristic feeling when 
rubbed between the fingers. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether and cold water. 



590 

Making Starch from Corn. 

The corn grain, after shelling, clearing and going through Magnetic Separators, 
which draw out any nails or metal fragments, is steeped in vats of warm antisepticized 
water for about twelve hours and is then roughly crushed in order to facilitate the 
separation of the hull, germ and endosperm — the last-named, the body of the corn, 
containing the starch, together with a certain amount of gluten, etc. In the separa- 
tor, the germs (which contain the oil) rise to the surface and the hulls sink. Both 
being removed for utilization in various forms (see table of products in the general 
article on Cokn ) , the endosperms are ready for the extraction of the starch content. 

First comes treatment with sulphur dioxide or a similar antiseptic, then grinding 
and agitating in "shakers." The resultant starch-milk is allowed to settle and the 
crude starch obtained passes to tanks "where it is washed in, and mixed with, alka- 
line water and is then run onto the "tables" where the starch is deposited. The tables, 
in numerous sections, each one hundred or more feet long, are set at a slight slope 
and are divided into canals, eighteen inches in width. The starch goes next to the 
"breakers," where it is again mixed with water, and thence to the centrifugal washers, 
refiners, etc., finally arriving in the muslin-lined drying boxes — constructed in sets, 
each box five to six feet in length and seven inches deep, with a perforated bottom. 
The boxes are connected with a vacuum chamber which rapidly extracts the water. The 
blocks thus obtained are cut into 7-inch cubes, kiln-dried and broken into various sizes. 

Making Starch from Potatoes. 

The potatoes are first carefully washed and put through machines which remove 
the stones, gravel and dirt. They are then ground by means of other machines and 
the resultant pulp is sieved under a continuous flow of water, which washes the greater 
part of the starch through, leaving a residue of fibrous matter, or pomace — which is 
in this country frequently discarded as of little value, the starch content being com- 
paratively small, but in Germany is generally pressed for hog-feed. 

The starch-laden liquid from the sieves is allowed to settle in vats, and the crude 
starch thus secured is put through several washing, purifying and decolorizing pro- 
cesses, going then to the dry-houses, where it is spread on steam-heated frames. This 
preliminary drying is succeeded by other processes of water-extraction by means of 
cloths, etc., or by air or vacuum pumps. Finally come refining, separating, bleaching, etc. 

In some factories, the potatoes are sliced, steeped in water and allowed to ferment 
to facilitate the extraction of the starch. The starch-milk is also frequently run along 
sloping gutters, on which it deposits the starch. 

Starch from Wheat. 

There are several processes used for the extraction of starch from wheat. By the 
older methods, the grain is first steeped in water until sufficiently swollen, then, either 
still whole or bruised by passing through rollers, is placed in fermenting vats. 

When the fermentation has been completed, the mass is, in large factories, placed 
in washing drums from which the starch-milk runs into tanks. When the crude 
starch has settled, the water is run off and the starch is mixed with clear water and 
passed through various sieves and then washed, refined, etc. 

The fermentation greatly reduces the value of the residue, as the sour gluten is 
fit only for hog feed, but the process is still largely employed because it is the easiest 
method of loosening the especially sticky gluten of wheat. 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 591 

Among the numerous methods of wheat-starch manufacture without fermentation, 
are several similar to that just described, except that the separation is made while the 
steeped grain is fresh, the sweet gluten residue having considerable commercial value. 

By the most modern methods, the wheat flour is first formed into a dough or paste. 
If the former, it is then separated into small pieces and worked backwards and for- 
wards by machinery over a fine sieve and under a stream of water, the starch being 
carried off in milk form and a glutenous mass being left. If the paste form is em- 
ployed, the starch is extracted by washing without kneading. The most promising of 
all fresh-grain methods is by means of centrifugal machines, the action giving almost 
pure starch by separation from thin flour paste. 

Starch from Rice. 

Kice is of all grains the richest in starch, but it is in such form that the fresh 
grain processes will not extract it. Instead, the rice is first steeped in an alkaline 
solution, then washed and ground fine and again passed into the alkaline solution, 
where it remains with frequent stirring for twenty-four hours. This is followed by a 
rest of seventy hours, during which a partial separation is effected, the gluten having 
risen to the surface of the liquid and the fibrous portion of the grain and the starch 
having fallen to the bottom. The gluten and water are drawn off and the fibre and 
starch deposit stirred, then mixed and washed with an abundance of water and again 
allowed to stand. This second settling leaves the fibrous portion at the bottom of the 
tanks with a second layer of crude starch. The removal of the starch is followed by 
various purifying, washing, decolorizing and drying processes as for other starches. 

STARCH GLOSS, STARCH POLISH, Etc.: are preparations designed to give 
a glossy finish to starched goods. They are variously composed, frequently con- 
taining a number of ingredients. Starch Oloss usually consists of common laundry 
starch with the addition of a certain quantity of borax and stearin or parafifin wax. 
Starch Polish is generally based chiefly on paraffin wax or lard. 

STARCH SUGAR. See articles on Coen Sugae and Glucose. 

STEARIN — Commercial : consists of the solid acids, chiefly palmitic and stearic, of 
animal fat. It is a hard, dry, crystalline substance of pearly color. Its presence in, or 
absence from, rendered beef fat is th& principal difference between "tallow" and the 
edible "oleo" oil. It is extensively used in the manufacture of Candles (which see). 

STERILIZED MILK: is milk which has been subjected to heat sufficient to destroy 
all micro-organisms. See Milk. 

STERLET: a small variety of Sturgeon (which see). 

STEWING. See sub-head in article on Cookeey. 

STILTON CHEESE: the richest of distinctively English types. See Cheese. 

STIR-ABOUT: a colloquial Irish term for thick gruel formed of mixed oatmeal and 
cornmeal, or either separately, boiled with milk, whey, broth or water, etc. It cor- 
responds to the "brose" of the Scotch. 



592 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ST. JOHN'S BREAD, or Carob Bean, oi- Locust Bean (see Color Page oppo- 
site) : the pod of the Carob Tree, which flourishes in Palestine and all along the Medi- 
terranean. The pulp is sweetish in flavor, succulent when fresh, but quite hard when 
dry. The title "locust bean" is probably derived from its similarity to the pod of the 
domestic Locust Tree. A resultant singular mixture of ideas leads many to suppose that 
the food in the Wilderness was not grasshoppers or "locusts," but locust beans. They 
are actually the husks with which the prodigal son would fain have filled himself, and 
which he was feeding to the swine — the original text of the scriptures reading "carob" 
for the "husks" in our translation. They are extensively imported into England as 
food for cattle, but are only sold in this country as a curious fruit for little prodigals 
who are generally very ignorant of their history. 

STOCK — Fo7- Soup. As a culinary term, the word "stock" signifies a strong soup or 
broth which serves as the foundation of most soups, sauces, etc., in all professional 
and many home kitchens. It is made variously of meats, vegetables and other appro- 
priate items. Lean meats only should be used and a fair proportion of bones is essen- 
tial, as these supply the gelatinous ingredient which acts as a natural thickening. 
The trimmings of roast and baked meats are especially desirable additions to the 
stock-pot because of the rich, meaty flavor they possess. 

STOCK-FISH: is, properly speaking, fish of the cod tribe dried in the air without 
salting, but the term is generally applied to the dry-cured fish irrespective of the 
method of preservation. 

STOLEN GOODS, in the majority of cases, the purchaser of stolen goods has no 
better title or right to them than the thief. Money and negotiable instruments are, 
however, generally the inviolable property of the person who has received them in 
exchange for proper value and in good faith, even if from the hands of a thief. The 
reason for this exception is that, otherwise, intolerable risks would be attached to 
every business transaction. 

STONE FRUITS: the popular designation for all fruits, such as plums, etc., which 
have a fleshy.rind and a bony "putamen" or stone. 

STOUT, or Porter, or Brown Stout: a fermented beverage made of malted bar- 
ley or other grain, yeast, hops and water. The name Stout was first applied to a 
heavier variety of Porter, extensively brewed in London and Dublin, but present 
custom tends to calling all Porters, excejit the very lightest, by that name. 

Porter was originated in London in 1722. Previous to that date, Ale, Beer and 
"two-penny" constituted the stock-in-trade of the London publican, and were drunk 
either singly or together, under the names of "half-and-half" or "three threads," 
drawn from two or three different casks, as the case might demand. The inconvenience 
and trouble thus incurred, led to the inveutionof a beer possessing the flavor of the mixed 
liquors, and the new beverage speedily obtained great favor among the poorer classes. 
It was at first called "entire" or "entire butt," on account of its being drawn from 
one cask only, but it afterwards acquired the now familiar name of Porter, because of 
its general consumption among porters and laborers. The word "entire" is still fre- 
quently met with on the sign-boards of taverns about London. Later on. Porter or 




5T. JOHN'S BREAD (Carob Bean)— flowering branch and fruit 
(green and dried) 



THE GROOKIfS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



595 



"Stout" achieved high distinction and recognition as a desirable malt bevei-age and 
became a favorite tonic for invalids and convalescents. 

The characteristics of pure and wholesome Porter, or Stout, are its dark-brown 
color and its peculiar bitter and slightlv burnt taste, due either to its being brewed 
from "high-dried" malt, or to the roasted malt added if "pale" or "amber" malt is 
the chief component. ' 

The heavier Stouts are "vatted" and "stored" until they reach maturity, frequently 
in high grade breweries for more than a year before being sent out to the retailer. 
Milder Stouts, or Porters, are held for only a few months, and light or draught Porter 
often for only six or eight weeks. 

The general trend of popular taste during the last quarter century has been 
towards the milder malt beverages, but this has not affected the consumption of the 
best known brews of Stout, either domestic or imported. 

Stout should be stored in a cool place, not below 44° nor above 50° Fahr. 

STOVE POLISH: is based on Ceylon plumbago or graphite. The old-fashioned 
sticks or cakes have been superseded by pastes and liquids which require little or no 
rubbing to produce the desired shine. 



STRAWBERRIES. The Strawberry is 
a fruit native to both North and South 
America, greatly improved by cultivation 
and now grown in a number of choice 
varieties. The most popular types are 
developments of the Pine or "Chili" 
strawberi'y, indigenous to North America 
but so styled because it was first intro- 
duced into Europe from Chile. 

Strawberries are now grown in near- 
ly every state. Especially large crops 
are raised in New Jersey, New York, 
Delaware, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, 
Florida and California. 

On account of the improved means 
of transportation, the season in the New 
York market, formerly limited to about 
three weeks, now extends over four 
months at moderate prices — and all the 
year for those who are willing to pay 
higher rates. The earliest supplies come 
from Florida, and the latest from New 
York and some of the New England 
States and Canada. Great quantities are 
canned and otherwise preserved both for 
domestic use and exportation. 




rrigating a strawberry licld, Hood River Valley, Oregon 



STRAWBERRY PEAR: the fruit of Ccrciis Triangularius. of the Torch Cactus 
genus. It is bright red in color and somewhat pear-shaped, the pulp slightly acid and 



596 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



suggesting the strawberry in flavor. In addition to its consumption fresh, it is an 
important ingredient of the Pepper-Pot of the West Indies. 

The "Torch" cacti derive the title from their long, tubular flowers, which are 
often of striking beauty. The plants themselves vary greatly in type, from some which 
are of the climbing order, to the Cereus Giganteus, which frequently consists of a sin- 
gle, straight, tall trunk one to two feet in diameter and from fifty to sixty feet high. 
The fruit of the Giganteus, gathered from the bigger plants by means of long poles, 
is oval in form and two or three inches in length, with green outer skin and crimson 
pulp. It is highly esteemed both raw and preserved. The Cereus Pectinatus is a 
variety with edible stems, which are cooked as a vegetable after removing the spines. 

STRAWBERRY TOMATO. See matter following title of Ground Cherry. 



STRING BEANS. See general article on Beans. 

STUFFING: a mixture of bread crumbs, etc., with seasoning, meat, etc., used in 



"stufang' 



poultry, and some other meats, before cooking. 



STURGEON: a large fish esteemed both for its flesh and its roe, known as "caviar," 

found in different sizes and varieties in various parts of the world. The principal 

American types, in season from June 1 to the middle of October, are the Sharp-nosed 

and the Short-nosed, both from sis to 

eight feet in length, found on the Atlantic 

Coast; the Lake Sturgeon found in the 

Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley 

rivers, averaging flve feet in length, and 

the White Sturgeon of the Pacific Coast, 

measuring from eight to ten feet. 

The largest and finest of the species 
is the Beluga, or Huso, or Hansen, or 
"Great White Sturgeon," of the Black 
and Caspian Seas and their rivers. It 
furnishes the best grades of Caviar 
(which see). 

The Common Sturgeon of Europe 
corresponds in average size, etc., to our 
Atlantic Coast varieties. 




BT RUSSIAH CAVIAR CO. 



A Beluga (the large iisii) and a Sterlet 

Its back is marked by long, bony scales, interspersed with 
patches of naked skin or smaller scales, in color varying from dull blue to yellowish 
grey, shading to whitish on the belly. 

The smallest variety is the Sterlet, which seldom exceeds three feet in length. It 
has a long, narrow snout, upper skin of dark grey and whitish belly. 

In Europe, sturgeon meat is eaten both fresh, generally stewed, and smoked, the 
latter known as "balyk." In America, the chief consumption is of the smoked 
product, which is sold principally from October to April. 

In England, the sturgeon was at one time known as the "royal fish" and its con- 
sumption was confined to the king's table and those individuals or cities holding the 
royal permission to eat it. 

Isinglass (which see) is obtained from the swim-bladder of the sturgeon. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



597 



SUCCORY: a colloquial name for the salad plant Chicory (which see). 

SUCCOTASH: a stew of green corn and lima beans, now a popular canned goods 
item. Both the principle of the dish and its name are borrowed from the native 
Indians. The Puritan writers, who first described this dish as being "seethed like 
beanes," spelled its Indian name Sukquttahhash. 



SUET: a term applied to the fat from the loin and kidney regions of beef and mut- 
ton carcases, etc. It is used in cookery and tallow manufacture and for numerous 
other purposes. 

SUGAR. Until the middle of the nineteenth century, the world relied almost entirely 
on the sugar-cane for sugar. By 1860, the manufacture of beet sugar had begun to 
attain commercial importance and it continued to increase thereafter so rapidly and 
to such an extent that the cane plantations of the West Indies and other tropical coun- 
tries were in hundreds of cases reduced to a condition that verged closely on ruin. 
By 1900, the civilized world — omitting China and India, which, though large pro- 
ducers, export only unimportant quantities — was consuming two pounds of beet to 
one pound of cane sugar. 

The pendulum has since swung a little the other way. The repeal of the beet- 
sugar bounties put competition on a more even basis, and the improved conditions 




A Sugar-cane plantation, Hawaii — note the pipe system for irrigation 



598 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



iu Cuba, Porto Eico, Hawaii and the 
Philippines have very largely increased 
the output of cane sugar. The world's 
sugar j)roduction now averages between 
fourteen and fifteen million tous annu- 
ally, of which a little more than half is 
caue sugar. 

In the United States, popular senti- 
ment tends to favor cane sugar in the 
abstract, but in actual practice the con- 
sumer cannot tell one from the other 
when properly refined — for there is no 
difference, either apparent or by analy- 
sis, in flavor, appearance or composition. 
As a result of the crude ]3rocessing of the 
first beet sugar manufactured here, some 
prejudice still exists against its use for 
canning or preserving, but this is now 
entirely unwarranted. 

Commercial interests and conditions 
have made the United States the greatest 
cane-sugar importer. The country con- 
sumes the entire home beet-sugar output 
■ — several states, including Colorado, Cali- 
fornia, Michigan, Utah, Idaho and Wis- 
consin, producing large quantities of 





Irrigating plains near Santa Clara, Peru, 

excellent quality — but 
our importations are of 



IWIiT, UKPEllWOOO it 

and planting 

90% to 
the cane 



uN-nEitivoon, n. v. 

sugar-cane 

98% of 
product. 



COPTKIGHT, 



Cutting Sugar-cane, 



SDEQWOOD ti nNDSBWOOD, N. 

near Marinao, Cuba 



The Sugar Cane — Its History and 
Cultivation. 

The manufacture of sugar from the 
sugar-cane probably antedates all authen- 
ticated history — reference is found to it 
even in the Sanskrit of Ancient India. 
Its present title is derived from the 
Sanskrit, Carkara, modified by its course 
through various other languages — the 
Prakrit SakJmra, then the Persian 
Shakar and the Arabic Sakkar, the Greek 
8akchar, the Latin Succarum and the 
French Sucre — of which last-mentioned 
the Anglo-Saxon "sugar" is an easily un- 
derstood change to better suit the English 
tongue. 

The cane was introduced into Europe 
from the East by the Saracens soon after 
their conquests in the ninth century, and 




SUGAR CANE 



THE GUOOEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



601 



it is stated by Venetian historians that by 
the twelfth century their countrymen 
were importing sugar from Sicily at a 
cheaper rate than they could obtain it 
from Egypt, where it was then most 
extensively made. 

The first plantations in Spain were 
at Valencia, the industry extending 
thence to other Spanish provinces and to 
Portugal, Madeira and the Canary 
Islands about the beginning of the fif- 
teenth century. From Gomera, one of 
the Canaries, the cane was introduced 
into the West Indies by Columbus in his 
second voyage to America in 1493. By 
1518, the Spaniards were operating 
twenty-eight plantations in San Domingo 
and an abundance of sugar was manufac- 
tured, the island for a long period fur- 
nishing the bulk of the European supply. 
Barbados, the oldest English settlement 
in the West Indies, began to export sugar 
in 1646, and as far back as the year 1676 the trade required ships of 450 tons burden. 

The sugar-cane is to-day cultivated in every tropical and semi-tropical country. 
There are several varieties, but that known as "Otaheite" is the most productive — the 
cane being the juiciest and sweetest. The type grown on the Malacca section of the 
Malay Peninsula is the largest. 

Sugar-cane is usually raised by the planting of slips, or buds, and grows to a 
height of from six to ten feet, in some sections to fifteen feet, with a diameter of from 
one to two inches. A field of it resembles in general appearance a flourishing field 
of Indian corn prior to heading. 

The cane is generally ripe for harvest at from twelve to sixteen months' growth. 
It is cut close to the ground just before its flowering time, being then heaviest in 




COPTRIGBT, UNDEB1T00D & n.SDEBWOOri, P 



Harvesting Sugar-cane, Santa Clara. Peru 




The central Conchita of a Cuban sugar plantation— receiving n train of cars loaded with sugar-eane 



30 



602 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



juice. The stubble develops new cane, the plants thus continuing, if so permitted, 
for several years. As however they gradually become weaker, it is customary to plow 



the stubble out after the second, third or fourth cutting- 



-according to the strength 



of the soil — and to plant new slips. 

The tops are sliced off the cane immediately after cutting and the leaves stripped, 
only the denuded stalks being transported to the mills. An average analysis of high 
grade stalks in this condition shows about 72% water, 18% sugar and 10% woody and 
vegetable matter. 

The Manufacture of Raw Sugar and Sugar Refining. 

Two different processes are in use for extracting cane juice — "milling" and "dif- 
fusion." The former is the "old" way, but it is still the one most generally employed, 
except in a few localities particularly suited to the diffusion method. "Diffusion" is 
used exclusively in treatment of the sugar-beet. 

By the Milling Process, the stalks are unloaded from cars or wagons in huge 
bundles, often weighing five tons or more, into a "hopper," or onto a "carrier," which 
transports them to a "shredding" machine which tears the cane to shreds, or a 
"crusher" which crushes the hard rinds. Thej' go next to the roller mills. The first 
mill extracts probably 60% of the juice. The "bagasse," as the crushed stalks are 
called, is then sprayed with water and put throiigh a second, and again, after macera- 
tion or saturation, through a third mill — after which the stalks are consumed as fuel 
in furnaces specially designed to utilize them. 




Crusliing SuKar-cane— a Roller Mill in Santa Clara, Peru 



THR grocer's encyclopedia 



603 




Baggmg Sugar in i Cubiii mill 

The Diffusion Process recognizes the fact that in both cane and beet sugar juice 
there are two distinct substances — one that crj'stallizes and becomes sugar, and 
another that is gummy and will not crystallize. Crushing the cane in the mill extracts 
both together and the entire product must be treated and separated afterwards. Dif- 
fusion takes out little except crystallizable juice, thus obtaining a liquid that gives 
a maximum of sugar and a minimum of syrup. 

For the Diffusion process, the cane-stalks are sliced thin by cutting machines. 
The beets may either be similarly sliced, or crushed into pulp. The "chips" or pulp 
go to a .series of large tanks called "diffusers" or "cells," where steam or water satura- 
tion extracts the sucrose, the liquid being forced from one tank to the other, from those 
containing the partially exhausted chips to those filled with fresh chips. 

The juice obtained by either process is of a sweetish taste and the appearance of 
sweet cider. It is pumped into tanks called "defecators," where it is first treated with 
milk of lime and carbon-dioxide, to remove impurities. It then commonly undergoes 
two or three other purifying processes, by evaporation, through filters, etc., before it is 
ready for the multiple vacuum boilers, where it is condensed to syrup, and the vacuum 
pans, where it forms into crystals. 

Next comes the separation of whatever proportion of uncrystallizable syrup is 
mixed with the crystals. This is now generally accomplished by centrifugal machines 
— a wide-sided, cylinder-shaped basket of fine mesh is revolved at high speed inside an 
iron casing, and the syrup is ejected by the action into the casing, whence it drains 
into a receiver. The "cured" sugar left is known as Centrifugal, or "Raw," sugar, or 
locally as "Brown Sugar." The syrup of the 
cane product is shipped as Molasses. When the 
centrifugal process is not used, the Raw Sugar 
is known as Muscovado. 

Molasses Sugar is tliat obtained by further 
boiling of the molasses. The uncrystallized resi- 
due of this process is known as "Black-strap." 
It is frequently marketed as "molasses," but is 
an inferior article. 

Practically all of the sugar imported into 
the United States — whether beet sugar from Eu- 
rope or cane sugar from Cuba, the Dutch East 

Crystallizers to concentrate the sugar juice 



\l 




'^ 


mm*:. \ 


■•*^. . '-^Mi 



604 



THE GROCKB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




COPYBIGHT, EETBTOSB VIEW CO. 



Vacuum Pan for final Crystallizing: 



Indies or Hawaii (tlie tliree ciiief sources), or elsewhere, comes in as Raw Sugar to be 
refined here, being graded in the custom-house according to its response to the polari- 

scope test (see Polariscope). In refining, it is 
melted, passed through cloth filters to remove 
impurities and then through animal-charcoal 
filters to abstract all coloring matter. The clear 
syrup thus obtained is next boiled in a series of 
vacuum pans to crystallization. At this point, 
the process varies according to the market size 
of the sugar to be produced. For Granulated 
or Poiodered sugar comes a further turbining, 
etc., and grinding to the desired size. Confec- 
tioner's Sugar is powdered sugar ground especi- 
ally fine. For Cict or Tablet, or "Lump," sugar, 
the melted product is run into frames divided 
into compartments about an inch wide, the 
frames after cooling being placed in turbines, 
where brisk revolving brings out the "first" 
syrup. A cleansing liquid is then added and 
further prolonged revolving brings out the "last" syrup. Next comes the drying in 
the ovens and, finally, the bars are cut or broken by special machinery into the desired 
size. The syrup yielded in these processes is again melted and further refined into 
sugar. 

The refining of beet and cane sugar is identical in methods, but beet sugar is 
never sold "raw" as its unpleasant native twang is only dispelled by complete refining 
— whereas good raw cane sugar (the "second" or "yellow") has so delightful a flavor 
that large quantities are sold without any treatment other than sieving and grading. 
One of the best known trade varieties is the light, large crystal kind styled Demerara 
Sugar (which see). 

Cane molasses and the final uncrystallizable residue of cane-sugar refining are also 
consumed to the last ounce (see articles on Molasses and Syrup). 

It should be understood that the foregoing is but a superficial description of the 
art of sugar-making and refining. In actual practice, much experience is necessary to 
produce the best results — the supervision of each process, especially those of crystal- 
lization, calling for high ability. 

The U. S. Department of Agriculture defines 
Sugar as "the product chemically known as 
sucrose (saccharose), chiefly obtained from the 
sugar-cane, sugar-beet, maple or palm"; Stand- 
ard Sugar as "white sugar containing at least 
99.5% of sucrose"; Granulated Loaf. Cut. Milled 
and Powdered sugars as "different forms of 
Standard Sugars," and Massecuite, Melada. 
Mush-sugar and Concrete as "products obtained 
by evaporating the purifled juice of a sugar-pro- 
ducing plant, or a solution of sugar, to a solid 
or semi-solid consistence in which the sugar 
exists chiefly in a crystalline state." 

OOPTBinuT, HETSTOVB VTEVf CC 

Centrifugal machines, to separate the syrup from 
the sugar crystals 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 



605 




KETflTOJIS VtBW CO. 



Washing the Beets with revolving'bruslies 



Beet Sugar. 

The discovery of the value of the beet as a 
sugar producer is attributed to Margraff, a Ger- 
man scientist, in 1747. He was not, however, 
able to devise a commercially successful method 
of extracting the sugar and little more was heard 
of the idea until fifty-two years later, when Karl 
Archard, one of his pupils, submitted a method 
of extraction to the Institute of France. 

The Institute appointed a committee to in- 
vestigate the matter and reported favorably on 
it, with some reservations as to the cost of manu- 
facture. The result was the starting of the now 
gigantic 'beet-sugar industry, for within the ten 
years following several small factories were 
erected and put into operation. 

A great impetus was given in 1810, when 
Napoleon I offered a prize of a million francs, or $200,000, for the best method of beet- 
sugar making, and further encouraged home cultivation and manufacture by large 
bounties. Increased growth and greatly improved methods resulted, but it was many 
years before its manufacture was brought to the point of equalling cane sugar in qual- 
ity and appearance — for a long time it held a disagreeably pronounced flavor and 
was in other respects inferior. 

Though the industry was destined to grow to such proportions, it is interesting to 
note that not even the example and attitude of Napoleon satisfied the scoffers of his 
generation — they could not believe that the homely beet would ever vie with the tropi- 
cal cane as a sugar producer. The literature of the times contains, for example, a 
humorous caricature, published in 1811, ridiculing the emperor and his son, the little 
King of Rome. Napoleon is represented as sitting in the nursery squeezing a beet into 
a cup of coffee and near him is the King of Rome putting another root to his mouth — 
his nurse telling the youngster to "Suck, dear, suck! — ^your father says it's sugar!" 

After the downfall of Napoleon the industry languished for many years, but 
improvements were made from time to time, especially in Germany, and then France 
also took the matter up again with renewed energy, both nations stimulating manu- 
facturers by liberal government bounties. Later, Russia, Austria, Hungary and other 
European countries entered the field. Up to 1860 the annual product amounted to 
only about 150,000 pounds — but by 1889, Europe was manufacturing 1,800,000 to 
2,000,000 tons a year. To-day the Avorld's output averages between 7,000,000 and 
8,000,000 tons. 

The cultivation of the sugar-beet was first taken up in the United States in 1880, 
American interest having been developed by the exposition of machinery and processes 
at the World's Fair in Paris in 1878. Congress called for a report on the subject and, 
following its receipt, farmers in several states added the sugar-beet to their crops — 
receiving for a time encouragement in the form of bounties by the Federal Government 
and various State Legislatures. In the beginning, inexperience and want of adequate 
machinery told heavily against success, but these drawbacks were soon surmounted 
and the annual United States output now averages more than 400,000 tons. 



606 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 













Hi 






^P 


P 


Wy 








*^^ 





, KETHTONB I'l 

Beet pulp and juice flowius into tanl\s for 
diffusion with water 



The beets used for sugar making are raised 
from specially grown and carefully selected seed, 
for their value depends not on their size but on 
the density of their juice — sugar factories gen- 
erally paying the grower according to the sugar 
percentage in an average of his crop. The white 
elongated type is generally conceded to be the 
best producer and a root weight of from fourteen 
to twenty-four ounces as the most generally 
satisfactory. 

The beets are as a rule transported by wagon 
to the mills, there to be Avashed, sliced and placed 
in the difPusion tanks. 

In some parts of France and Germany, the 
labor of carrying the beets to the mills is avoided 
by a system of underground piping from the beet farms to a central factory. Each 
district has a diffusion apparatus to extract the juice, tvhich is then treated with a 
small quantity of lime and pumped into pipes leading into large vats in the factory. 
One hundred pounds of the best Silesian beet-roots will yield an average of about 
ten pounds of sugar — about half of fine quality and the balance of minor grades. 

The value of the crop is increased by the fact that the pulp after the extraction 
of the juice is still an excellent cattle food. 

Other Sources of Sugar. 

The general assumption is that only plants 
such as the sugar-cane, beet and sugar-maple will 
yield sugar, but in fact a great many others con- 
tain it, frequently in considerable quantities. To 
extract and manufacture crystallized sugar at a 
price which the general public is willing to pay, 
requires, however, a plant easily cultivated, 
bountiful in crop and possessing a large per- 
centage of sugar in a form that lends itself 
readily to crystallization, and, so far, only the 
sugar-beet and sugar-cane have responded to the 
test Avell enough to interest the civilized world. 

The sugar obtained from the sap of the 
North American Maple tree is omitted from this 
consideration. It is a decided commercial suc- 
cess — the "crop" is not only always sold to the 

last ounce, but a great abundance of imitations are marketed in its name — but it is too 
limited in quantity to enter into calculation as a general sugar product. Its delicate 
flavor classes it rather as a natural confection (see article on Maple Sugar and Maple 
Syrup). The product of the Sugar Palm is also thoroughly desirable, but the total 
output is comparatively small. 

From time to time numerous fruits, grains and vegetables have seemed to offer 
commercial possibilities — a fairly good sugar can, for example, be obtained from 
bananas ; sorghum a few years ago was hailed as the coming American sugar crop and 




, KETRTON'E T 

A shed for storing beets -canals under the bins 
carry the roots to the washing room 




(1) Weeding the beet fields— note the manner in wliich the women's skirts are caught up to make their labor easier 
(3) Pulling- the mature beets (3) Cutting otf the tops 

THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 




(1) Weighing tlie wagons of beets as delivered at a sugar-factory (2) piling up the beets after unloading the wagons 

(S) General view of the Diffusion Vats or Cells 

THE BEET-SUGAR INDUSTRY IN THE NORTH OF FRANCE 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



G09 



for a short period did keep several factories busy ; the juice of the birch tree has been 
used in Scandinavia and Scotland, and both Europe and America have experimented 
with the sugar-melon, etc., but none of these has lived up to first hopes, nor reached 
the point of competition for the general market. 

Sugar as a Food. 

Sugar was formerly dealt with rather harshly by medical experts, it being 
charged with injury to both teeth and stomach. It is now generally acknowledged 
as a food item of great value. Used in moderation, it has been proved that it is a 
flesh and bone builder for children and important as a substance for supplying energy 
under conditions of continued physical strain — for soldiers on long marches, etc. 

This endorsement by physicians is particu- 
larly directed to the pure sugar itself — eaten 
plain, dissolved in water or contained in choco- 
late, etc. It does not extend to an extensive diet 
of sweetened articles such as pastry. 

The United Kingdom is the greatest per 
capita consumer, averaging about ninety-three 
and a half pounds annually for each member of 
the population. The United States comes next 
with about eighty-two pounds. Then, in the 
order named, are Denmark, Switzerland, Nor- 
way, Sweden, Holland, Germany and France. 
The smallest per capita consumption is in Italy, 
with only about seven and a half pounds, and the 

Balkan Peninsula, with less than seven pounds. a primitive sugar Mill, Panama Canal zone 

Grape Sugar, Invert Sugar, Starch Sugar. See Glucose and Corn Sugar. 

SUGAR APPLE: another name for the fruit described under the title of Sweet Sop. 

SUGAR BERRY: one of the many names of the Hackberry (which see). 

SUGAR CANDY: a confection of pure sugar. See Rock Candy. 

SUGAR CANE. See sub-head in article on Sugar. 

SUGAR LOAF: a compact mass df refined sugar in cone-shape. 

SUGAR MELON : a variety of cantaloupe, nearly round in shape, with silvery-grey, 
ribbed exterior and thick, aromatic, very sweet flesh of orange color. It averages 
about five or six inches in diameter and weighs generally from 21/2 to 4 pounds. 

SUGAR PLUM: a term locally applied to various forms of candy, especially those of 
small size and oval or round shape. 

SULPHUR: also known as Brimstone in its crude state, is a mineral widely distri- 
buted over the earth's surface. When pure , it is a pale j^ellowish in color, solid but 
brittle, and insipid and odorless when cold. Formerly, a full ninety-five per cent of the 




610 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

American, as also the bulk of the entire world's supply, came from mines in Sicily, where 
it is found in large quantities in gypsum beds, but to-day the principal domestic source 
is the State of Louisiana, where immense deposits exist about 400 feet below the sur- 
face. The supply is reached by melting it underground by superheated water and 
pumping it up in a liquid state. On congealing, a practically pure sulphur is 
obtained. More than 300,000 tons a year are seciired by this process. 

The domestic output is supplemented by the importation of sulphur ore or rock 
from Spain, Portugal, Canada and other counti'ies, and a limited quantity of Crude 
Sulphur from Italy and Japan. 

The ore is cooked in special furnaces and the melted sulphur is run into wooden 
molds to set, the product being the Crude Sulphur of commerce. Finer grades are 
obtained from it by distillation. 

Sulphur in its various forms — sulphuric acid, sulphur-dioxide (or sulphurous acid 
gas) etc. — is employed in many ways — as a germicide, disinfectant and insect 
destroyer — in the bleaching of some materials, in the manufacture of vulcanized rub- 
ber, matches, etc. Its most popular medicinal use is as a laxative. 

SULTANAS: a variety of small seedless raisins. See general article on Raisins. 

SUMMER DRINKS. Under this head come such articles of the retailer's stock as 
root-beer extract, fruit syrups, grape juice, lemon and lime juice, ginger ale, sarsapa- 
rilla, etc. In hot weather it is i^rofitable to make a handsome display of these lines. 

SUMMER SAVORY: one of several names for the herb described as Savory. 

SUNFLOWER OIL: is obtained from the pressed shelled seeds of the sunflower. 
The industry originated in Mexico, but its present commercial centre is the Black 
Sea Provinces of Russia, in which country it is popular as a salad, cooking and indus- 
trial oil, and whence large quantities are exported. It is pale yellow, nearly odorless 
and mild and pleasant in flavor. 

Sunflower Seed: is sold here as a bird food, especially for parrots. 

SWANS : are generally bred for ornament, but there is a small annual consumption 
of the young birds, called "cygnets." Their flesh is too highly flavored for the general 
public taste, but it receives the practical approbation of some epicures. 

SWEDISH TURNIP, or Turnip-rooted Cahhage: a variety of cabbage which is grown 
chiefly for its large turnip-like root, which grows partly under and partly above 
ground. In flavor it resembles the Kohlrabi. The flesh is yellow in some types, par- 
ticularly the Rutabaga, and white in others. 

SWEDISH PUNCH: punch of arrack or other spirit, variously flavored. Some 
bottled varieties are allowed to develop an effervescence like champagne. 

SWEETBREAD: the soft, milky thymus glands of the young calf and lamb, the 
former being the more highly esteemed and considered one of the greatest of all meat 
delicacies. Lamb sweetbreads are too small to be commercially important. The 
glands are divided into the "throat sweetbread" and "heart sweetbread," the latter 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



611 



being generally preferred because of its special tenderness and larger size. They are 
most delicate when obtained from a young suckling calf, and they gradually dis- 
appear after it is turned out to grass. They should have a generally clear appear- 
ance and should be a little darker than the fat from the same carcass. In France they 
are developed to large size by special feeding. 

The Pancreas of the older animal, frequently but incorrectly styled "sweetbread," 
and also known as the "Belly SAveetbread," is an entirely different gland, but it bears 
a resemblance sufficiently close to warrant its consideration under this heading. That 
most commonly retailed is from the beef carcass and is distinguished in some markets 
by the appellation of "Beef Bread." It is not as choice as the true sweetbread, but, 
properly selected and prepared, it makes a very pleasing dish. Both careful selection 
and cooking are essential, the former because Beef Breads are frequently too fatty 
and the latter because, in incompetent hands, they are liable to be tough. 



SWEET FLAG: a plant of the reed type growing in SAvamps and on river banks in 
the Northern States and some parts of Europe. Its root, which has a strong aromatic 
smell and a biting taste, is in some sections converted into a home-made confection by 
candying in slices. It is also employed in medicinal preparations, in the making of 
toilet vinegars, by rectifiers, etc., and for scenting snuff. 

SWEETMEATS : a general term applied to all candies and sweet preserves. 

SWEET POTATOES : are the roots or tubers of a creeping, vine-like plant, native 

to tropical America but growing freely in any part of 
North America where the summers are long enough to 
permit sufficient root groAvth, and cultivated also in 
the East Indies, the Philippines and other Eastern coun- 
tries, and the South of Europe. Botanically, they are 
Tiot in any way related to the ordinary or "Irish" potato, 
the plant being closely akin to the convolvulus and 
morning-glory vines, but in food value they correspond 
closely, excepting that the "sweet" contains from 4% 
to 10% of sugar, Avhereas the ordinary potato has none. 
The several varieties may be divided into the 

"moist-fleshed" and the "dry" or "mealy" fleshed types. The Southern-grown product 

is generally drier than the Northern. Large and moist-fleshed roots are frequently called 

"yams," but incorrectly. 

Sweet potatoes should be stored in a dry 

place where the temperature is not below 60° 

nor above 70° Fahr. Great care must be 

exercised in protecting them during cold 

weather as they are easily damaged by frost. 

Some persons bury them in sand or dust, 

but this is not necessary. If used, it should 

be perfectly dry. 

They must also be handled nearly as 

carefully as eggs. Their condition should 

be well noted before buying, and any that 

Igorrote grirls 




Sweet Potatoes 




612 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

are bruised should be rejected. The common potato may be shoveled around rather care- 
lessly, and often a bruise on one end, or even a decayed spot, will not affect the 
remainder of the root. But with "sweets," a bruise at one end soon spoils the whole. 

Ignorance on these points is responsible for many of the sweet potatoes of poor 
quality served during the winter. With proper attention they can be kept in good 
condition for several months. Kiln-dried, they can be held until the middle of June. 

SWEET SOP, or Sugar Apple {see Tropical Fruits, facing page 586) : a sweet, aro- 
matic fruit of the Anona family, somewhat resembling a small, crownless, greenish 
pineapple. The pulp is sometimes cooked, but it is best in its natural state. 

SWELLS {Canned Goods) : a commercial term applied to cans of food of any kind 
which bulge or "swell" out of shape. They should never be sold. See Canned Goods. 

SWISS CHARD. See matter and illustration following title of Chard. 

SWISS CHEESE. See Swiss Cheese and Emmenthaler in general article on Cheese. 

SWISS WINES: Tesemble those of Italy, but they have not attained as full inter- 
national recognition. A majority of the best red wines, among them Cortaillod and 
Faverge, of Burgundy style, come from the canton of Neufchatel, and the most noted 
of the white varieties, as the aromatic La Cote, Deselny, etc., from the canton of 
Vaud. Montreux supplies the dry golden Yvorne and Aigle; Geneva, a strong red wine 
known as Gringet, and Valais, Malvasia (Malmsey) and Glacier, of liqueur style. 

SWORDFISH: a large fish found in the Mediterranean, Atlantic and Pacific, 
highly esteemed for food, both fresh and salted. It takes its name from the fact that 
the upper jaw is remarkably elongated and compressed in the form of a sword or dag- 
ger. On our coasts it frequently reaches 12 feet in length and a weight of 400 pounds. 

SYNTHESIS (Chemical) : is the formation of special compounds by combinations 
of elements or radicals. The term is in popular language chiefiy applied to the 
artificial production of natural compounds, as in the synthetic manufacture of cam- 
phor, indigo, flavoring extracts, etc. 

SYRUP: a title under which may be grouped a wide diversity of articles. The 
two highest types are Maple Syrup (which see) and Cane Syrup, the latter obtained 
by condensation and refining of sugar-cane juice, without extraction of any of the 
sugar content. Next come those obtained as the residue (1) of the manufacture of 
raw sugar, (2) of sugar refining. The former is treated under the heading of 
Molasses; the latter is variously known as Treacle, Refiner's Syrup, Golden Syrup 
and Drip Syrup. The best qualities are refined and purified to a high degree and are 
as valuable from a dietetic standpoint as they are pleasing in taste. 

Equally wholesome, if properly prepared, is Corn Syrup made by imperfect hydro- 
lization of starch (see Glucose). When flavored with Cane or Maple syrup, or good 
Molasses, etc., it is a very enjoyable article. Its manufacture needs, however, careful 
supervision, as minor grades sometimes consist either wholly or in part of syrup left 
over from the processes used in developing various forms of Starch Sugar, etc., and 



THE GROCBR^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 613 



are liable to contain a percentage of the acid employed in the process. Purchases 
should be confined to concerns of known responsibility. 

U. 8. Standard Syrup is defined as "the purified and evaporated juice of the cane 
or other plant from which no sugar has been extracted." It must not contain more 
than 30% water nor more than 21^% ash. 

U. S. Treacle, or Refiner's Syrup, must not contain more than 25% water nor more 
than S% ash. 

A noteworthy development of the trade in recent years is the canning of a consid- 
erable percentage of the syrup retailed. It is said that the canned syrup does not 
contain the full flavor of that formerly filled into the old-fashioned jug from the 
syrup barrel, but its greater convenience seems to outweigh that defect. Can- 
ning offers further the great advantage that it does away with the necessity for any 
preservatives to prevent fermentation, as syrup hot from the kettle or pan filled into 
thoroughlv sterilized cans, or other packages, and then hermetically sealed, will keep 
almost indefinitelv without deterioration. 

See also article on Fruit Syrups. 

TABASCO: a long- podded red pepper cultivated chiefly in southern Louisiana. It 
is best known to commerce as Tabasco Pepper Sauce, a rich, red, concentrated extract 
generally put up in small bottles with corks shaped for dropping. It is also sold 
powdered, but to less extent. 

Tabasco Sauce is excellent for flavoring soups, salads, etc., and some people like 
it on oysters. Only small quantities should be used, as it is very strong. In making 
sauces, etc., if a sharp, quick effect is desired, mix with vinegar. If otherwise, mix 
first with olive oil and salt, and then with vinegar — the result will be soft and deli- 
cate, but still strongly marked by the characteristic Tabasco flavor. 

TALCUM POWDER: a class name for a number of kinds of face and toilet 
powders. Talcum being the pharmaceutical term for "talc," their general base, a mineral 
compound consisting of silica and magnesia, principally the former, found in combina- 
tion with other rock in various parts of Europe and North America. Talc is exten- 
sively employed in many other industries, as in the manufacture of porcelain clay, etc. 

TALLOW : is the rendered or melted fat of animals, separated by heat from cellular 
tissue, the term being chiefly used in connection with beef and mutton fat. It is used 
in soap-making, for softening leather, etc. Its quality varies very widely, some grades 
which are carefully rendered and purified being free from odor or taste, while others 
are so coarse as to be almost offensive in character. The large quantities produced 
here are supplemented by importations from Russia, South America and Australia. 

TALLOW TREE: the name given to several trees, native to different parts of the 
world, which produce a thick oil or vegetable tallow capable of being used in the 
manufacture of candles. See Chinese Talloio Tree in the article on Wax. 

TALLY TRADE: the English name for the "installment" system of payment. 

TAMARA: a mixed spice used in Italian cookery, consisting generally of one part 
each of aniseed and fennel seed, and two parts each of cinnamon, cloves and coriander. 




614 . THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

TAMARIND: an East Indian tree of 

the bean family wliicli reaches a height 

of from thirty to forty feet, and is now 

cultivated in all tropical countries. The 

fruit, whose principal ripening season is 

during the months of June, July and 

August, consists of long thin shell-pods, 

dark brown when ripe, filled with an 

acrid-sweet, dark-colored pulp enclosing 

large, flat, hard seeds. The general method Tamarinds 

of treatment is to remove the shells and throw the pulp, together with the network 

of fibre which covers it, into kegs, usually of fifty pounds capacity, then fill with 

boiling syrup. The kegs Avithout further preparation are shipped to various foreign 

markets, to be repacked by local dealers in stone jars, glasses, etc. 

Sugar Tamarinds is a higher grade packed in jars immediately after gathering, in 
alternate layers of fruit and sugar, and retaining much of the original color and taste. 

Tamarinds serve as an excellent addition to chutneys, curries, etc., and some peo- 
ple enjoy them as a preserve. A pleasant laxative drink is prepared by mixing with 
either hot or cold water. 

TAMPING: a term applied to the wrappings of bales of sago and other goods 
packed by the Malays, among whom the word means "package" — as, Sago Tamping. 

TANGELO: one of the new citriis fruits, a cross between the tangerine and grape 
fruit. It blends and modifies the characteristic sweetness and bitterness of its 
parents, and offers a distinctive and agreeable fiavor of its own. It is a fruit of con- 
venient size, being smaller than the grape fruit but larger than the ordinary orange. 

TANGERINE: a small orange with a thin, loose, fragrant rind. See Oranges. 

TANSY: the very aromatic and somewhat bitter leaves of a garden plant, employed 
for both medicinal and seasoning purposes. 

TAPIOCA: is made by heating the starch obtained from the roots of the Manioc 
(which see). Under the action of the heat the starch grains burst and are converted 
into small irregular masses. This product, after thorough baking to remove all 
remaining moisture, is Flake Tapioca. Pearl Tapioca is that rolled into pellets before 
baking. The product is also marketed in various sizes of Granulated — listed as such, 
and also as "Manioca," etc. — and in pulverized or flour form. 

In cooking, tapioca becomes a translucent and highly nutritious jelly, largely 
retaining its raw shape,* thou'gh in Increased size. With appropriate additions, it 
makes excellent puddings, and it is also valuable for thickening soups. 

Tapioca Crecy and Tapioca Julienne are artificial products of French preparation 
from potato starch, mixed with various vegetable substances. They are intended 
chiefiy for use in soups, etc. 

TARE: a deduction from the gross weight of goods, allowed to cover the weight of 
the package. Actual tare is obtained by emptying the package and weighing it apart 



THE GROCER S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



615 




from its contents. Average tare is calculated by Aveigliing a few of the packages and 
deducting from all filled packages the average weight so ascertained. Estimated tare 
is arrived at by a reasonable allowance for the supposed weight without actually 
ascertaining it. After the deduction of the tare, the balance is called net ireif/ttt. 
Formerly, other deductions were made after taking off the "tare" — one for waste 
through dust, etc., being called tret; followed by lesser ones called draft, for the turn 
of the scale; cloff, an allowance of 2 lbs. in every 3 cwt. I'etailed, etc. 

TARIFF. All legislative rulings and statutes, proposed or executed, on the subject 
of the tariff, should receive every merchant's study and consideration. It is not neces- 
sary to be a professional politician to see that all tariff conditions and changes affect 
the merchant doubly^ — (1) by their application to his stock, and (2) by their effect on 
the prosperity of his customers. 

TARO: a tropical plant especially abundant in the South 
Pacific Islands. The roots are acrid, but they make an agree- 
able and wholesome food cooked in various ways, and the 
leaves and stalks are prepared as "greens." zQ 

TARRAGON: a small aromatic herb used for flavoring vine- 
gar, mustard, pickles, sauces, salads, etc. It is sold green and 
dried, the latter both loose and in cans and bottles. A half- 
pound of green tarragon will flavor fifty-four gallons of Tarra- 
gon Vinegar. 

Taro 

TARTAR: is best known to the trade in the form of Cream of Tartar (which see). 

TARTARIC ACID {Gommercial) : is made from crude tartar or Argol (which see). 
It is used in the manufacture of baking powder, effervescent beverages, etc., and as 
a substitute for citric acid and lemon juice in the preparation of cooling drinks and 
saline draughts. Industrially, it is employed in large quantities in calico printing, etc. 

TASTE. The sense of taste varies far more widely than is generally supposed. The 
trained and delicate palate of the wine or tea sampler is not merely a matter of educa- 
tion — a primary requirement is a native possession of fine sensibilities of taste and 
smell — both are important, for many of the more delicate flavors appreciably affect 
both senses. When tasting wines or teas, tlie expert does not drink the liquor — instead, 
he passes it quickly and thoroughly around his mouth so that it may strike every part 
of its lining membrane, and then as quickly spits it out. Bad health, or any derange- 
ment, temporary or otherwise, of the stomach or other organs which come into connec- 
tion with the nose or palate, limit the power of accurate- taste. Cigar samplers, after 
tasting so many brands that their sense of taste is dulled, resort to a free use of 
strong coffee, which quickly refreshes it. See also reference to this subject in the 
article on Butter. 

TAUNUS SPRING. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

TAUTOG : another title, from the Indian word tant,tov the Blackfish (which see). 



616 THE GBOCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

TEA. The first discovery of the virtue of the beverage obtained by infusing the' tea- 
leaf in water, is hidden in the obscurity of ancient history. One Chinese tradition 
gives the credit to some Buddhist priests, who, unable to use the brackish water near 
their temple, steeped in it the leaves of a shrub growing in the vicinity, with the inten- 
tion of correcting its unpleasant properties. The experiment was so successful that 
they spread the news among their neighbors and subsequently engaged in extensive 
cultivation of the plant. 

Another record attributes its discovery, about 2737 B. C, to Chin-Nung, a cele- 
brated scholar and philosopher, to whom nearly all agricultural and medical knowl- 
edge is traced in China. In replenishing a fire made of the branches of the tea plant, 
some of the leaves fell into the vessel in which he was boiling water for his evening meal. 
The consumption of the beverage thus formed- — the first "pot of tea" — proved so 
exhilarating in effect that he formed the habit of so using the leaves. Later, 
he imparted to others the knowledge thus accidentally gained, and in a short time it 
became the common property of the empire. 

China is generally acknowledged as the birthplace of the tea industry. Some 
writers reason that the honor belongs to India or Japan, but other authorities name 
the thirteenth century as seeing the first use of the leaf in the latter country. 

Tea was brought to Europe in the sixteenth century, the Dutch East India Com- 
pany introducing it into Holland. The first authenticated mention of it in England 
is in the year 1657 — at which time it was considered a very rare luxury. It was known 
as early as 1680 in the American colonies, selling at from five dollars to six dollars 
a pound for the cheapest varieties. Its use was for many years widely condemned 
by writers and preachers, who attributed to it numerous qualities inimical to health, 
morals and the public order, but that attitude was long ago relegated to oblivion and 
the enormous quantity now consumed places it among the most important of food 
articles. Its title comes from Te, the Chinese name for it in Amoy dialect. In other 
parts of China, it is known at Ta, Clia, Dzo, etc. 

The tea shrub is an evergreen somewhat similar in appearance to the camellia, 
to which it is botanically related. The Assam type in its wild state grows to a height 
of fifteen to thirty feet, with numerous branches and a wealth of lance-like leaves, 
which often attain a length of six to nine inches. The China varieties and the 
numerous crosses are more dwarf in habit and of smaller leaf. The rather large, 
white, fragrant flowers grow singly, or two together, in the axils of the leaves. Under 
cultivation, the shrubs are not allowed to exceed four or five feet in height, and flower- 
ing is permitted only for seed purposes. 

The plant, raised from seed in the nurseries, is set out in the fields or "gardens" 
when about twelve inches high. It bears its first crop when about four years old — 
according to locality, soil, etc. — but a year or more before the crop is expected it is 
cut down to a height of a foot or less. It is again cut down to about twenty-four 
inches three months before gathering — the object being to make the bush spread and 
to stimulate the fullest possible gro'wi^h of the "flushes" or young shoots which fur- 
nish the tender, succulent new leaves desired. After this operation it is "picked" regu- 
larly for two years — the bushes putting forth new "flushes" at frequent intervals — 
when it is again pruned back to allow it to rest. With proper care and under favor- 
able conditions, its bearing life is practically unlimited. 

The picking is generally delegated to women and children. Each has a basket 
strung bv a cord over the head or attached to the waist in such a manner as to leave 




TEA PLANT 



THE G U U C E U S 10 N C Y C L !■ E D I A 



619 



both bauds free for pluckiug. Only tbe n \\- «hoots are gathered, and care is taken to 
avoid damaging the leaf-bud in the axil below the leaves taken, as that in its turn 
soon develops into a new "flush." The whole flush may be taken or only the choicer 
upper part, according both to the size of the shoot and the minimum grade leaf desired. 
The rapidity and accuracy of the experienced picker is almost incredible. 

The accompanying illustration of an average "flush" shows the leaves which 
determine the size classifications of the manufactured tea, though in actual growth 
such exact regularity is unusual, the j^oung leaves frequently appearing two or more 
together. A mixture of Nos. 1 and 2 is the grade known as 
Broken Orange Pekoe or Flowery Pekoe. Nos. 4, 5 and 6 
make the teas of medium to popular prices. Cheaper 
grades consist frequently, in whole or part, of the larger 
leaves from more fully developed shoots. The 
title "Congou" is by several authorities still 
accorded to No. 6, but this expression is con- 
fusing, as in the American market the word 
Congou serves as a general name for the bulk 
of China Black Teas. The name 
Bohea, correctly the title of one of 
the China varieties of the shrub, 
is similarly applied in some 
circles to any leaves larger 
than No. 6, though it was 
formerly used as a specific 
title for very choice grades. 

The young leaves of all 
varieties are very similar in 
general appearance when 
fresh plucked. The larger 
leaves differ considerably in 
general proportions, but they 
always retain the characteris- 
tic construction which 
renders it easy to detect the addition of leaves from other plants. 

The quality of the tea leaf before preparation depends on : (1) the locality — even 
the poorest product of an up-land garden is often choicer than the best of a low-lying 
garden; (2) soil composition — the minerals contained — for this plays an important 
part in determining flavor; (3) the selection of the leaves — by including some of the 
older leaves, the crop may be greatly increased, but the grade is correspondingly 
lowered; and (4) the judgment exercised in the time of plucking. 

The weather exerts a great influence. When the rain falls equably and a bright 
sun appears after heavy showers, the plants become rich with new shoots, and the 
leaves bright green, elastic in texture and rich in flavor. When too much rain falls at 
one time, shoots and leaves become hardened and less flexible. If there is too little 
moisture, they are stunted and sapless. 

In Ceylon, where there is no winter, the picking takes place every eight or ten 
days all the year round, but in China and Japan there are four principal harvest 
periods. The earliest buddings — pale green and very delicate — are gathered in the 

31 




1. Leaf bud or Tip or Golden Tip 

2. Orange Pekoe 

3. Pekoe 
Pekoe-Souchong or Souchong No. 1 

5. Souchong No. 1 or Souchong No. 3 
0. Souchong No. 9 or Souchong No. 3 



620 THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

beginning of April and are termed "first picking." In China, these, as a rule, realize 
high prices and are consumed chiefly by the wealthy classes in China and Eussia, very 
little reaching other markets. 

The first general gathering commences in May, and it is from this collection that 
we receive the finest China tea of commerce — known to the trade as "First Crop tea." 
Then follows a later picking, known as "Second Crop tea," and again a third and 
fourth, the quality gradually becoming lower in quality as the season proceeds, a large 
percentage of the late harvests being consumed locally and made into "Brick Tea." 

All kinds of tea come from the same shrubs, the main difference between "Green" 
and "Black" being that Black Tea is fermented and Green is not. The number of 
varieties of prepared tea, both Green and Black, is due to the sorting of the leaves 
into the different sizes, and to local differences in making and blending. 

Prior to the sorting, the freshly picked shoots undergo four main processes if 
Black Tea is required — withering, rolling, fermenting and firing. For Green Tea, 
fermentation is omitted. 

The shoots for Black Tea are first spread on shelves of wire or jute-hessian to 
"wither," the object being to allow the sap and other moisture to evaporate until the 
leaf is soft and flaccid for "twisting" in the rollers. The shelves are very loosely 
woven, so that the air can pass through them freely. The time required for this pro- 
cess varies widely — sometimes twenty-four hours, occasionally much longer. If the 
weather is damp, artificial heat is generally employed. For Green Tea, in order to 
avoid fermentation, steaming for a short time is substituted for the withering process. 

The withered shoots are put through rollers, which squeeze out any excess mois- 
ture remaining and give the "twist" which results in the characteristic form of the pre- 
pared leaf. The appearance of the leaf or "roll," as it is technically termed, when taken 
out of the roller, is a mess of mashy lumps. This is put through a roll breaker, which 
breaks up the lumps and sifts the detached leaves and young stems through the wire 
mesh into cloths placed below to receive them. 

For Green Tea, the product from the roll breaker immediately undergoes "firing." 
For Black Tea, it is spread out in wooden frames, covered with wet cloths and allowed 
to ferment until the leaves attain a bright copper tint — the color which they should 
have in the teapot after infusion. The extent to which fermentation is permitted, is 
determined by the smell and appearance of the leaf — points that require* experienced 
judgment, as too little means rawness and bitterness, and any excess destroys much 
or all of the flavor. 

For "firing," the tea is spread thinly upon wire trays and placed in the Sirocco or 
Desiccator, where a current of hot air, from 190° to 240° Fahr., passes through it. 
It emerges thoroughly dry and brittle — the finished tea, requiring only sorting and 
packing to be ready for the market. About 4,200 pounds of green shoots are required 
to make 1,000 pounds of the prepared article. 

After cooling over night, the tea goes to the Sifter, a machine with a series of slop- 
ing sieves, one above the other. 

The sieves are shaken, by engine or motor power, at a very high speed, and the 
tea falls through from one sieve to another, each sieve retaining a different size and 
emptying itself into a chest through a spout at the low end. 

The leaves and stems retained by the top sieve — i. e.. the largest — form the 
"ordinary" grades of tea. Each size smaller is correspondingly choicer — excepting the 
last, known as "Dust," or "Dust and Siftings," or "Fannings," sold at low prices. 



THE GROCBE-'S BNOYCLOPBDIA 621 

The second sieve retains (in Black Teas) Pekoe or Pekoe-Souchong, according to 
the crop or estate policy ; the third, Pekoe or Orange Pekoe ; and the fourth. Orange 
Pekoe or Broken Orange Pekoe or "'Flowery Pekoe" (so-called because of its cup qual- 
ity). The term "Pekoe" refers to the downy appearance of the under-sides and ends of 
the young leaves, and "Orange" to the color of the ends of the still newer leaves and 
to the "tips" or leaf-buds, which look like little chips of wood and are also commer- 
cially classed as "Golden Tips." 

The Tips give the tea a good appearance and add greatly to its strength and flavor. 
They are sometimes separated and offered as Pure Golden Tips, selling in London 
for as high as fifty dollars a pound. 

When the sorting is done largely by hand, as in China and Japan, the size grades 
are much more numerous. 

Caper is a Black Tea resembling the green Gunpowder in shape. 

In the Green Teas, the sorting produces the different sizes of Gunpowder, Young 
Hyson, etc. (see sub-head of China Green Teas). Uncolored green tea varies in tint 
from yellow to a greenish brown. The gray-green of the China and Japan teas 
imported prior to May 1, 1911, was due to the addition of a minute quantity of color- 
ing powder during the firing. 

The various grades — after, frequently, a supplementary picking over by hand — 
are day by day stored away in their separate bins, until there is enough to make what 
is technically known as a "break" — 5,000 pounds and upward. 

The next operation is Bulking. The whole contents of the bins of one grade 
are thrown together and agitated by scoops or shovels until so thoroughly mixed that 
each pound of tea will be the same as another in flavor and appearance. Finally 
comes the packing in chests, cans and packages — the tea in the first two cases being 
shaken down to make it lie close. The numerous processes of preparation are respon- 
sible for the broken condition of most of the leaves in the product finally marketed. 

Much of the Tea Dust which accumulates in manufacture and as the result of trans- 
portation and commercial handling, is of very fine quality. If protected from con- 
tamination and properly cared for in other respects, it makes good liquor. There 
is a strong prejudice against its use in America — partly, perhaps, because it lends 
itself so readily to adulteration — but in England it commands a ready sale, as, used 
in the correct proportions, it improves the blend, adding to its strength and pun- 
gency. In tea-growing countries it is a common practice to pulverize the leaves by 
rubbing in the band, dropping the powder into the drinking-cups in which it is steeped. 

The foregoing description gives a general idea of the method now employed in 
making India and Ceylon teas, both Black and Green, but the principles employed are 
those also used in the preparation of China and Japan teas, the chief difference being 
that in the two latter countries machinery plays a comparatively unimportant part — 
much of the Firing is done in pots, bowls or baskets over charcoal fires, and the Twist- 
ing bv placing the leaves in bags and rolling them with the hands. 

In China there is a strong contrast between the busy season and the slack time 
which follows it. In an interesting article, published prior to the recent introduc- 
tion of modern methods, the Fnocliom Hemld said : "A tea-packing house at this sea- 
son presents a very different scene from that of two months before. Then, one found 
long lines of fifteen-catty boxes waiting to be soldered up. Now, none. Next, one 
found fat bags stacked up eight or ten feet high, bursting with tea that escaped here 
and there through holes temporarily stopped with bamboo leaves; the bottom of the 



622 



THE GROCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




, KETSTOVE VIEW CO. 

Tea gardens on the hillsides, and Rice fields 
in the lowlands, near Shizuoka, Japan 



bags mostly stained from contact with wet flights 
of mountain stairs upon which the exhausted 
coolies had set them down on the passage. Now, 
one finds but empty chests, hundreds in num- 
ber. 

"Farther on, one came to the dozen long 
rows of sifters facing each other, forty in a row, 
the mesh of some taking a pencil, that of others 
refusing a pencil point — sifting tea-leaf rough 
and bold that, after a persuasive grasp or two 
of the hand, broke and consented, after a few 
shakes of the sieve, to be stripped of some of the 
sappy leaf-edges and leaf-ends and to appear 
below, the even and uniform leaf which the tea- 
drinker insists he must have (plus the dust due 
to the persuading). The transformation in a 
rough leaf in passing the meshes of a coarse 
sieve, with a gentle crush from the sifter's hands, enhances a rough bold tea very 
considerably in value. 

"In place of the rows of men then seen tilting and jerking their sieves in a monot- 
ony only broken by the Cantonese taskmasters' roll-call twice a day before the gen- 
eral, meal of fish and rice, there is now to be seen only the bare floor of hardened earth, 
piles of empty benches stacked in a corner and the sieves of the twelve different sizes 
used, each in its division in the three-story stands. 

"The dozen or score of fanning mills are still, too. The tea-leaf separated in these 
fanning mills has been sold, and the mills will rest until another May shall bring 
courage back to the pale and dispirited native teamen. 

"There are stacked in. this huge go-down a few hundred packages of the native 
maker's brick-tea wrapped in plaited bamboo strips, bound in half bamboo and triply 
rattaned. Aside here, its manufacture still continues. The Chinese upper millstone 
is being turned upon the nether by a Chinaman who is grinding the tea seeds left by 
a fanning mill, and in these sycee-boxes sharp spades are falling upon the stems, chop- 
ping them flne enough to go into the stemmy, dusty mixture to which the seed-dust 
gives the strength, while the chopped stems vouch for its being tea. 

• "In the firing house are the foiir Chinese rice kettles, two feet across the mouth, 
which when in use — set obliquely upon edge — turn the tea back in a shower over the 
hand of the stiri-er, a wood fire being kept up in the brick-wofk underneath. 

"Fire holes also, scores in number, follow in rows the walls of the firing house, in 
each an iron charcoal pan. Over each of these fires is a huge hour-glass-shaped basket- 
hood, or muffler that shiits in all the heat of each fire to but one outlet — that through 
the tea sieve which chokes the throat of each basket. In these baskets is dried the tea 
that comes in from the hills, wet or flat from constant down-pours and from the first 
fermentation of the leaf. 

"Here, too, on the floor above, the benches are empty where girls and women came 
to sort the rough stems from the leaf, getting half a cent for removing them from the 
two catties of tea apportioned to them, in wound bamboo-woven trays. 

"The floor is now bare where we then saw the Ningteh tea brought to a uniform 
shade, by shaking the bags with a few spoonsful of lamp black — then bulked upon 




COPTnionr, UNDEnn'ooD & tiddikwood, :t. i. 



Picking Tea on a great plantation near Osaka, Japan 



624 



THE GROCEB^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



m 










i 




1 












-i.--:- 

u 


n 



COPYRICIIT, KET9T0XE VfEW CO. 

Coming: home from the tea fields, Japan 



the floor, to be strewn white as a spring grave 
with the pure muhli blossoms; then blossoms in 
turn buried under another avalanche of funeral 
tea, and this again with blossoms, life upon 
death — then both rudely mingled together and 
put away in boxes for a night till the fragrance 
had been robbed by the dead tea, the faded 
flowers being finally thrown aside, spent and 
worthless. 

"Our round finished at the shed where, out 
of long sheets of lead, Chinese lads were glibly 
making lead cases by moulding them, hatter-like, 
upon a bos, and then running the soldering iron 
along the edges. Other Chinamen, in their natal 
costume, were washing off the dust and sweat 
of the day at a huge four-hogshead vat of hot 
water. There, too, were piles of wood for the hot 
tea-coppers, crates of up-river hardwood charcoal for the firing pans and firing baskets. 
We must leave without the sight we then had of the mad dervish dance of two Chinese, 
who, given a dozen pounds of tea stems in a tray, under their sandals perform about 
the interior periphery a double shuffle, twist and grind that is cooler for the spectator, 
the thermometer in the nineties, than for the performers from whose bodies the pers- 
piration rolls onto the tea stems below. 

"The box factory is elsewhere. We enter on our homeward way. It is in another 
old disused tea hong — occupied by foreigners in the days when money was made — 
tumbled-down now and abandoned to Chinese. Inside, a few Chinese youths, eating 
a dollar's worth of rice per month, were rapidly gluing and dove-tailing together, by 
rough wholesale strokes, boxes by the score. Few nails are used, for these are hand- 
made and cannot be afforded. What a bungling "mending" the merchant pays for 
when these frail cases reach the land of rough usage and coarse nails ! 

"There you saw a bit of thin teakwood ; there a bit of paper gaudily daubed with 
cardinal colors — a stroke or two — side marries end, the gaudy paper cover hides all 

joints, and the catty-boxes, gay with bird, butter- 
fly, dragon and phoenix, are en route to be stared 
at in a far-off grocer's window. 

"Every season sees vast quantities of tea 
pass through the sieves in hundreds of packing 
houses, some in hamlets in the hills, some, as in 
Foochow, in cities ten to fifty miles from the 
hills, much of it brought in by women who have 
carried it up and down the mountain pathways, 
twenty-five miles a day, regardless of their bent 
backs, their only food often a double handful of 
salt in their girdles to bite at before they drank. 
"Probably all the tea leaving Foochow has 
been lifted up and down as much as if it had 
been carried up one side of the great pyramid 
and down the other a score of times. Boatmen 

COPTBIOnr, KBTST09I TIHW CO. 

Sorting tea, Japan 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 



625 



at river marts have fought pitched battles for it, their livelihood depending upon its 
transport, and plenty of other men have been ready to fight for the privilege of carry- 
ing it — women, also, under their loads, behind their new husbands." 

This graphic picture relates to tea-making in 1874. Modern methods we have 
already described. 

Consumption and Principal Varieties. 

The consumption of Green Tea — twenty or thirty years ago the standard variety 
— has to a considerable extent given place to the taste for Black Tea. 

An equally important commercial change has been the increase in favor of Ceylon 
and India teas at the expense of the Chinese varieties. Imports from China have 
been greatly reduced during the last few years, falling from 53,157,332 pounds in 1904 
to 24,394,663 during 1910. 

When to this loss of trade from the United States is coupled a still greater dimi- 
nution in the English market, where Ceylon and India teas are most popular — for, 
after China and Japan, England is the world's largest per capita tea consumer — the 
natural assumption is that China must feel the change of conditions very severely. 
As a matter of fact, the Chinese merchants are the only material losers. The greater 
part of the China tea sold was, and is, produced by small planters who have never been 
able to secure an adequate price for their leaves, so when the demand for tea fell off 
many of them planted more beans and potatoes and were just as well contented. 

Japan has succeeded China as the principal source of the Green Tea consumed in 
this country, and supplies about half of the total quantity of all tea imported. The 
third place is held by Ceylon and India teas, imported both direct and via England. 

The titles most familiar to the public are Black, in all qualities and prices; 
English Breakfast, generally a China Congou ; Mixed, blends of black and green leaves ; 
Ceylon and India, black; Oolong, green-black leaf; Green, in "Gunpowder," "Young 
Hyson" and other sizes, and Japan, in general usage applied to a light Japan green tea. 

The more "fancy" varieties include the Pekoe, Orange Pekoe and scented types. 

"English 

The titles 
popularly known 
are, however, en- 
tirely inadequate to 
describe or classify 
the many varieties 
of tea on the mar- 
ket. They leave the 
importer, 
wholesaler or re- 
tailer a wide range 
from which to se- 
lect varieties and 
blends to suit his 
trade and environ- 
ment. 

Even the list 
following of China, 



Breakfast" tea is an American trade term unknown in England. 




CCH'TUtCHT, DNDEaVTOOD & D.fDKBWOOD, ( 



Tea Firing Machines, Cejion 



G26 



THE GEOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Japan, Ceylon and other teas is far from 
being exliaustive. It includes only the 
most important, and most generally 
accepted, trade titles and distinctions. 
Accuracy is rendered the more difficult 
by the lack of system in applying and 
retaining titles. 

The oddest range in qualities is 
found in China teas — they vary from very 
choice types which are too expensive to 
make importation profitable, to large 
quantities of grades so poor and so badly 
manipulated that their importation into 

this country is not permitted. " sorting over •• tea, Ceylon 

Teas as retailed consist usually of several varieties or grades "blended" to pro- 
duce the most pleasing results — a small quantity of an expensive highly fragrant tea 
being added to a plainer, lower grade to improve its flavor ; an over-strong high grade 
being toned down by a lighter variety — and so on indefinitely. 

CHINA GKEEN TEAS. 

The highest commercial types of China Green Teas are Moyime and Teenkai. 
Others of importance are Hoochow, Fychow and Pingsuey. 

All China Green Teas are graded as Fancy, Choice, Finest, Fine, Medium or 
Standard — as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. These are also sub-divided into : — 

GuNPOVPDER, consisting of the youngest and smallest leaves, and roundish in 
appearance. In four grades — extra, first, second and third; the smallest and most 
curled, being the choicest. 

Imperial, like "Gunpowder," but larger. In three grades — first, second and third. 

Young Hyson. In five grades— extra, first, second, third and "Cargo." The best 
grades have long, well-twisted leaf, varying in size. 

Hyson, larger than Young Hyson and more loosely twisted. In three grades — 
first, second and third. 

The average consumer regards "Gunpowder," "Hyson," etc.; as distinct qualities 
or varieties of green tea. Correctly speaking, they are the titles for particular sizes and 
shapes only — you may have a Gunpowder size of the poorest or of the choicest. 

OOLONG TEAS. 

Oolongs are frequently classified as Black Teas, but they really constitute a sep- 
arate type, for they are not as thoroughly fermented before firing as the general run of 
Black Teas and therefore hold part of the flavor and a little of the color of Green Tea. 
There are three recognized varieties, Foochoto, Formosa and Canton, but practically 
all of the supply imported is of the first two. 

Formosa Oolong, in the choice grades, has evenly curled dark leaf with a mixture 
of Pekoe tips. It is very aromatic in flavor. 

Foochow Oolong is especially black in leaf, and the liquor of the finer qualities is 
rich and mellow. 

Oolongs are commercially graded as Fancy, Choicest, Choice, Finest, Fine, Supe- 
rior, Good, Fair and Common. ■ 



THE GROCER^S ENCY^CLOPEDIA 627 

CHINA BLACK TEAS. 

The bulk of the China Black Teas imported into the United States is known as 
Congou. There are numerous grades, the highest of excellent cup quality, and their 
blending results in a great many varieties of all styles and values — among them 
numerous qualities of English Breakfast, Black Tea and Mixed Tea. The prin- 
cipal commercial classifications are into Choice-New-Crop, Choicest, Choice, Finest, 
Fine, Superior, Good, Fair, Common; by numbers, 1, 2, 3, etc.; as Pekoe, Souchong, 
etc. The leaf of the better qualities is greyish black and well twisted and the liquor 
is rich in color and pungently pleasant in flavor. 

Prominent among the fancy teas are: 

Flowery Pekoe : small, evenly-folded, olive-colored, generally scented. 

Orange Pekoe : small, black leaf with yelloAvish ends, generally scented. 

Pekoe : small, with whitish tips, generally scented. 

Ponchong (also used as a general term for all China paper package tea) : rather 
rough, dull black leaf, generally scented. 

SCENTED TEAS. 

The Scented Black Teas come almost e.\:clusively from China and Formosa. They 
are generally perfumed — in most cases after manufacture — by contact with the flowers 
of other plants, usually with the Chulan blossom, which has an odor similar to jasmine. 

The two leading varieties are Foochow and Canton, sub-divided into Scented 
Caper, Scented Flowery Pekoe, Scented Pekoe, Scented Pouchong, etc. 

Scented teas are chiefly used for blending — sometimes with high grade leaf to fur- 
ther enhance its value and sometimes with cheaper kinds to disguise their harshness. 
The best blends are frequently listed by the titles of the Scented Teas employed. 

JAPAN TEAS. 

The best varieties of Japan tea show a medium-sized or small leaf and a bright, 
clear, fragrant liquor — the latter in the Green Teas generally of a lighter color than 
the China Green. 

On importation they are graded as : 

Pan Fired : medium size, generally green, evenly curled. 

Basket Fired: long, dark, well twisted. 

Dust or Fannings. 

"Nibs" is irregularly twisted, larger leaf, sifted from the higher grades. 

For commercial purposes, Japan teas are graded as Extra Choicest, Choicest, 
Choice, Fine, Good, Medium and Common. They are marketed both as "Japan Teas" 
No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc., and by conventional titles for size and style. 

CEYLON TEAS. 

The ordinary grades of Ceylon Tea are largely marketed in this country as "Cey- 
lon Tea" of First quality. Second quality, etc. 

A fuller division is into the following principal varieties, each subject to sub- 
division into several grades : 

Broken Orange Pekoe, or "Flowery Pekoe," the very finest variety : small young 
leaves and a large proportion of Golden Tips. 

This grade is not generally marketed here because the U. S. Laws prohibit the 
entry of any tea containing more than a certain percentage of Broken Leaf that will 
pass through a certain designated sieve. As Broken Orange Pekoe is always small in 



628 THE GKOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

leaf and contains a considerable proportion of still smaller tea, it must be very care- 
fully screened if it is to pass the test, and the loss and difficulty thus inyolved pre- 
vent all but the very largest importers from attempting it. The intent of the act when 
passed was to guard the public against inferior and unclean grades, but it has also 
resulted in keeping out some very choice types. 

Orange Pekoe : similar to Broken Orange Pekoe, but the leaves larger and with 
a smaller proportion of Tips. The liquor is clear and fragrant. 

Pekoe : leaf slender, whitish and satiny ; liquor, dark-reddish, bright and fragrant. 

Pekoe-Souchong and Souchong — constituting the bulk of the Ceylon teas of gen- 
eral consumption, blended frequently with Pekoe: leaf larger and coarser than the 
preceding varieties, but giving a rich and pleasant liquor. 

It is the black varieties which have won popularity for Ceylon teas, but some 
Green Ceylon is also prepared under titles corresponding to those of China Green. 

Ceylon teas are further divided by shippers into "low" and "high" grown — those 
from low ground and those from higher altitudes. The latter are much superior. 

INDIA TEAS. 

The greater part of the India product is of Black Tea, the best qualities coming 
generally from the districts of Darjeeling and Assam. The leaf is ordinarily a grey- 
black and is in the best grades Golden-Tipped. The liquor is strong and pungent. 

The chief commercial classifications are Broken Orange Pekoe or Flowery Orange 
Pekoe, Orange Pekoe, Broken Pekoe, Pekoe, Pekoe-Souchong, Souchong, etc., or "India 
tea" of First quality, Second quality, etc. 

The general style and appearance of China teas are followed, but there is a differ- 
ence in detail — the leaf is generally longer and narrower and better curled and cured. 

JAVA TEAS. 
A small quantity of Java teas is annually imported, both direct and via Holland. 
They are primarily known under local classifications, but they are prepared as Pekoes, 
Souchongs, Oolongs, etc. In liquor they have good strength, flavor and color. 

THE INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES. 
Attempts covering nearly a century to create a tea-growing industry in this coun- 
try have not met with any degree of commercial success. Some of the tea obtained 
has been excellent in quality, but none has been able to compete with the Asiatic crop. 

TEA TERMS. 

It will be noted that the titles originally applied exclusively to the China 
product have extended to nearly all teas, irrespective of their place of growth or 
manufacture. A majority are corruptions of local Chinese terms, as for example: — 

"Oolong," from ou-loung, "black dragon," referring to the black leaves mixed 
with the greenish-yellow. 

"Hyson," from hetsien, "spring time," the season of the first and second pickings. 

"Young Hyson," from t^ii-tsien, "before the rains," or "young spring time." 

"Pekoe," from pak-ho, "white hair" — referring to the down on the young leaves. 

"Souchong," from siaou-chung, "small sprouts." 

"Congou," from kung-fu, "labor." 

"Gunpowder" tea is an Anglo-Saxon name, originally suggested by its small round 
form. It is called choo-cha, or "Pearl tea," by the Chinese. 




', UNDERWOOD Si fsnBmWOOO. ». T. 



Coolies unloading Tea at Hankow, the great Tea Market of Interior China 



G30 T I-I E G R C E U " S R N C Y C F. P E D I A 

Retailing Tea. 

The demand for tea has so greatly increased during the last few years that 
retailers find it profitable to give it special attention. Only good dependable varieties 
should be stocked, and when a satisfactory line . is established and selling well, it 
is usually the wisest policy to avoid making any changes, as the average tea-drinker 
becomes used to one particular flavor and prefers it to anything new. 

In purchasing, the first and most important test is that of flavor when brewed. 
Next comes the appearance of the leaf in bulk and individually. Generally speaking, 
the best qualities are small and more or less tightly curled — with variations as noted 
in the descriptions of different types. Young tea is easily chewed to a pulp, and fresh 
Black Tea is smooth and elastic when pressed in the fingers. 

For the flavor test, the requirements are a scale of the style ordinarily used by 
druggists (cost about |5) and a dozen small china cups of equal size. The old rule 
for sampling was to weigh the equivalent of a silver 5-cent piece into each cup, pour 
boiling water over and taste when sufficiently cool. As the silver 5-cent piece has gone 
out of use, the easiest method for the average person is to weigh the equivalent of a 
dime and put half of the quantity into the testing cup. It would be useless to attempt 
to impart any detailed rules by which to discriminate, as only experience and constant 
application — with a fine palate as an initial qualification — can produce a really pro- 
ficient tea-taster. 

Success in catering to consumers requires a knowledge of individual tastes 
■ — there is a tea to suit everyone, if you know what each one's preference is. As a 
general thing, one can count on a good sale of Oolongs, Mixed and English Breakfast, 
when the neighborhood has no particular race characteristics. Ceylon and India and 
Oolongs are most popular where English and Irish people are especially numerous. 

Blending, Storage, Etc. 

The highest branch of the tea-merchant's calling is found in the blending of teas 
— the mixing of different- styles and strength to produce special results — but for the 
retailer without good experience to attempt it, is rather risky. To produce an especi- 
ally pleasing blend is not an easy matter, and to repeat it is still more difficult — and 
it is very undesirable to establish a demand for a particular flavor if you are unable 
to continue supplying it. The art is fascinating — and profitable if successfully con- 
ducted — but first experiments should be on a very small and conscientiously 
recorded scale, and they should be accompanied by a close study of the literature of 
the business, for there are many points — the comparative keeping qualities of differ- 
ent varieties, for example — in addition to flavor and aroma, which must be very care- 
fully considered. 

Tea, whether in bulk or package, should always be kept in a moderately cool, dry 
place, away from all other articles of distinctive smell. Not only cheese and similar 
strong smelling articles, but even the aroma of oranges, lemons, etc., will affect it. 
Dampness will spoil it utterly by starting secondary fermentation, and exposure to 
the air, if in bulk, will cause it to lose flavor, strength and aroma. 

Tea naturally keeps fresh best in tight-fitting canisters and in sealed tin or lead 
packages, but it deteriorates with age no matter how packed. A retailer who is jealous 
of his reputation should sell no tea of any kind — package or otherwise — that is more 
than six to nine months old. 




CHINESE COOLIES ON THEIR WAV TO TACIllIiX-LL-. WITH BRICK TEA FOR TlUlil 
The load of tile coolie on the left weighs 298 lbs., that of the man on the right 317 lbs. 



632 THEGROCER-'SENCYCLOPEDIA 

Tea Analysis and Its Use as a Beverage. 

The most important components of the tea-leaf of commerce are (1) Theine, the 
chief stimulating principle, usually placed by analysis at from 2% to 3%%; (2) the 
oil and resinous ingredients, which furnish the flavor and aroma of the liquid, and 
(3) the tannin and gummy substances, which give it "body" and strength. There is, 
in addition, a small quantity of essential oil, which slightly increases the stimulating 
properties. 

Chemical analysis shows also a large percentage — 40% to 60% — of protein, cel- 
lulose, fibre, etc. — but nearly all of this is found in the residue, the "tea-leaves," left 
after making the liquid. The greater part of the tannin, which averages from 12% 
to 18%, meets the same fate if the tea is fresh made. 

To enjoy the best qualities of any variety — and also the best physiological effect — 
tea drinkers should bear in mind that, (1) the water used must be both fresh and 
boiling; (2) the pot in which the infusion is made must be kept hot, but not boiling, 
for from three to five minutes after pouring in ; and ( 3 ) the tea must not stand longer 
than three to five minutes before drinking. 

If the water used is not fresh— i. e., if it has been standing long or been pre- 
viously boiled — the tea will be flat in flavor. If it is not actually boiling at the time 
of pouring on the leaves, the result will be a rough, raw taste. A china or earthen 
pot is better than a metal one. A pot warmed before putting in the dry leaves, is 
better than a cold one. 

The fresh-brewed liquid (after a three to five minutes infusion) contains nearly 
the total amount of the theine (which corresponds to the caffeine in coffee) and only 
enough tannin, etc., to give it palatable strength. If it is allowed to stand on the 
leaves longer than five minutes, its flavor will be injured by the excess of tannin devel- 
oped; if longer than seven minutes, the tannin will not only detract from the flavor, 
but also tend to render the beverage a detriment to digestion. The brewed tea can, 
however, be saved for later use, either hot or cold, if poured off the leaves into a china 
or earthen vessel. 

The quantity of leaves required to make good tea depends both on individual 
tastes and on different varieties. India and Ceylon are generally stronger than China 
and Japan. 

The result is also frequently affected by the water supply — the water in some 
localities makes much better tea than is possible in others. Some authorities assert 
that the quality of the water should be considered as a factor when making a blend — 
that water containing an excessive amount of lime or other mineral matter, requires 
the stronger, coarser varieties of leaf, and that the delicate types produce their fine 
flavor and aroma only when the water is "soft." This is disputed by other experts, 
who assert that the "best tea" is the best everywhere, though it will display its quali- 
ties^ to better advantage under favorable conditions. 

To make good Iced Tea use from one-quarter to one-third more of the leaf than 
for tea to be served hot. Prepare the beverage just as carefully, and do not allow 
It to stand on the leaves for longer than five to seven minutes. Pour the liquid off 
into another vessel and alloto it to cool gradually. It should always be made two or 
three hours before serving, to give it time to cool gradually. To chill hot tea by setting 
in the refrigerator or putting ice in it, is to spoil its flavor. When ready to serve, add 
ice, lemon, sugar, etc., according to taste. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 633 

Brick Tea: consists of leaf and dust shaped by pressure into cakes, divided by 
indented lines into small, easily separated squares, which expand when put into boiling 
water. It is manufactured in large quantities in China, both for local consumption in 
various sections and for export to Tibet, Siberia and elsewhere, serving as a standard 
article of barter for numerous commodities produced in those countries. It is gen- 
erally transported, often for great distances, on the backs of the hard working native 
"coolies" or porters. The illustration on page 631 shows the peculiar method of arrang- 
ing a "pack," the long bundles of bricks, wrapped in matting, being piled sail-fashion 
on a cane frame fastened on the porter's back. For months at a time there is an almost 
continuous procession of these coolies along the roads to Tachien-lu, a little frontier 
city cramped within mountains, which serves as the general mart for Chinese and 
Tibetan traders, the latter bringing musk and gold dust to exchange for the tea. 

Caddy or Tea Caddy: a small chest, box or canister, or a chest containing several 
canisters, for packing or holding tea. The word was adapted from the Chinese Catty, 
a small measure of tea, as a title for the characteristic oriental tea packages them- 
selves. Catty was derived from the Malay Rati, a little more than a pound. Large 
quantities of imitation oriental caddies are now made in this country and used by 
grocers to repack tea. They are shipped in "nests," the smaller sizes fitting into the 
larger, thus giving a wide variety of size and occupying very little space. 

When used as a measure, the word "caddy" now generally signifies any package 
containing less than a half Chest. A Chinese Chest is equivalent to about 82 pounds 
or 3/5 of a Pecul (about 139 lbs.). The India and Ceylon Chest contains 90 pounds. 

Tea Tablets: consist of Tea Dust or finely ground tea pressed into squares or cubes 
for use by campers, etc. 

Tile Tea: is a kind of flat Brick Tea made in China, exported by way of Keachti 
and distributed throughout Siberia by Armenians and Tartars. It is cooked with 
milk, butter, salt and herbs and eaten as a vegetable. 

TEAL: a well known variety of wild duck. See Ducks {Wild). 

TENDERLOIN. See general article on Beef. 

TEPLITZ. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

TERRAPIN. The Diamond-hack, which is the kind always inferred when terrapin 

is mentioned, is the female of a small salt-water 

variety, named from the diamond-shape marking 

of its shell. Within the last half century it has 

developed from almost a waste product — an 

article fed to slaves and apprentices before the 

Civil War — into one of the highest priced of food 

delicacies. The average marketable specimen ---^^iil^l 

now brings, at wholesale, from |2.50 to $8, the Diamond-Back Terrapin 

figures steadily rising with the diminishing supply. 

The terrapin from the mouth of the Chesapeake River were formerly considered 
the best, but equally good lots come from several other Southern States, both coast 
and gulf, and from Long Island, Connecticut and other Northern points. Those from 




G34 



I'HE grocer's encyclopedia 




DiAMOND-B, 

Showing full 



ACK Terrapin 
back markings 



Long Island now command the best prices in the North. 
Counts are terrapin of sis inches in length and over 
— measuring the under-shell ; those under six inches are 
Shorts. The range of size is from two to nine inches, 
but the very small are rated as inferior. The season 
extends from November to May. 

It is only the female or "cow" terrapin which is 
sought for marliet purposes. The "bull" has little or 
no value. The choicest terrapin are those styled "Full 
Cows" — i. e., those containing eggs. 

The MississijJin and North Carolina terrapin are 
also marketed, but they lack both the distinctive dia- 
mond marking and the true delicacy of flesh and are 
consequently much lower in price. 

The "Slider" or "Red-Bellied Terrapin," often used 
as a substitute for the Diamond-Back, is a small fresh- 
water tortoise. 



THYME: a garden herb largely cultivated for its fragrant tops and leaves, which 
are popular as a culinary seasoning. The best variety is the Lemon-scented. 

Thyme for drying should be cut when just commencing to blossom and should 
be slowly dried in the shade. It is sold in cans and bottles, or loose, in small bunches. 

TIERCE. See Measures in Appendix. 

TOBACCO. The origin of the word 
"tobacco" has been traced back through 
quite an interesting history. It starts 
with the name of a pipe which the early 
Spaniards found in Santo Domingo, and 
which was known as the "tobago." Later, 
this was corrupted to "tabaco." The 
Italians, Portuguese and English added 
an extra "c," and the English changed 
the "a" in the first syllable to "o"— but 
all clung to the same word. Germany, 
Denmark, Holland, Scandinavia and Rus- 
sia make it tobak, France tabac, Poland 
tahaka, and the Malays tambracco. The 
similarity renders it easy to get some- 
thing to smoke anywhere in the world 
without waiting to learn the language ! 

The introduction of tobacco into Eu- 
rope by early settlers in the Southern 
portion of what is now the United States, 
is so distinctly a matter of universal 
knowledge that it is unnecessary to dwell 
on it here. First used by the American 









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WOOD * UMDBKWOOD, 



A Tobacco plantation in Havana province, Cuba 




TOBACCO 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



637 



Indians and carried to Europe as a curiosity by the early discoverers of our coutinent, 
it is now cultivated in every part of the globe where the climate is sufficiently mild. 

The United States is by far the largest tobacco producing country and also the 
largest exporter of leaf tobacco. The States which rank first in quantity raised are, 
Kentucky — a long way in the lead; North Carolina and Virginia. Next come, in the 
order named, Wisconsin, Ohio, Tennessee, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South 
Carolina, Massachusetts, Missouri, West Virginia, Georgia and Florida. 

Other important producing countries are, in Europe — Germany, Holland, Salonica, 
Hungary and Russia; in Asia — China, Japan, India, Dutch East Indies, Philippines, 
Latakia and other parts of Asiatic Turkey, Persia and Syria ; in Africa — Algiers ; and 
various sections of South America. 

The United States and Belgium are 
the largest per capita consumers, each 
averaging about 51/2 pounds annually. 
Germany comes next with 31/2 pounds. 
France and England average 2 pounds. 

By the most widely approved method 
of cultivation, the young plants are ob- 
tained by sowing the seed in specially pre- 
pared beds of rich soil. In Virginia, 
which may be taken as an example, the 
sowing is usually performed during the 




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Sortinji- Tobacco 



first week in January. The plants are 
ready for setting out about the beginning 
of June. 

The fields require much careful at- 
tention — thorough weeding is essential 
and so is a watchful eye to prevent the 
ravages of numerous insect enemies. 
Much of the latter work is done in some 
sections by flocks of turkeys, maintained 
for that express purpose. The flower 
shoots also must be nipped off as soon as 
they commence to develop, as otherwise 
they would weaken the leaves. This pro- 
cess is, however, neglected in some countries, especially in Turkey and Greece, where 
small leaves are preferred, and where, in some cases, as in the celebrated Latakia 
tobacco, both buds and flowers are used 
together with the leaves. 

The "ripeness" of the plant is indi- 
cated by a peculiar spotted appearance 
of the leaves. The time generally chosen 
for cutting is mid-day, or when the sun 
is powerful and the morning and evening 
dews absent. Cutting is done by hand, 
and only the plants marked are taken. 

Some growers cut the plant in three 
sections — the three top leaves, making 

32 




JSlaking: tobacco binniic^ 



iiiUni>* Ijciorc l^alillg 



G38 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



usually the finest wrappers, in one piece, and the I'emainder of the stalk in two. Others 

take the leaves only, or the top leaves and tlie lower stalk separate. The leaves at this 

stage are green, fresh and odorless. 

The next process is the "curing" or "drying'' — sometimes in the sun, at others by 

"air drying" under cover — the latter process being the longer and requiring often from 

two to four months — generally first one 
and then the other. 

The leaves are next removed from the 
stalks and "sweated" in piles for a couple 
of days. Then comes the assorting— the 
bad leaves are rejected and the others 
are graded by size and appearance, tied 
up in bundles called "hands," and, if for 
cigars, packed imder great pressure in 
cases or bales and generally stored in 
dark, well ventilated warehouses for a 
year or more, to "ripen" by fermentation 
and further curing. If for smoking or 
chewing tobacco, the "hands" are pressed 
into hogsheads. 

Manufactured tobacco may be classed 




Kxaininins and baling Tobacco for shipment 




"Stripping" Tobacco — removing tlie stems and midribs 



under three heads — Smoking, Chewing 
and Snuff. Smoking is again divided into 
Cigars, Cigarettes and Loose Smoking 
Tobacco, and Cliemng into Fine Cut, 
Plug and Twist (for both smoking and 
chewing) — the tobacco for the last-named 
being twisted into "rolls" of numerous 
sizes and variously flavored. 

Cigar Tobacco is sub-divided into 
"Wrappers," the largest and finest leaves ; 
"Binders," the next in point of desira- 
bility, and "Fillers," a mixture of small 
leaves and lower grade large leaves. 

About 65% of the Fillers used in the United States is of domestic tobacco. 
Cuba supplies about 25%. The balance comes chiefly from Turkey and Germany. 

The very large proportion of 32% of all wrappers used in this country and more 
than 95% of all imported wrappers, consists of those from Sumatra, via Holland. The 
reason is found in the extreme care exercised in preparation — the fine uniform 
appearance of the leaves and their careful assortment by length and shade. Con- 
necticut and Florida lead in the production of domestic wrappers. 

Loose Smoking Tobacco, after curing and other preparation, is cut up in special 
machines and then "roasted" to attain the desired degree of mildness. It varies 
greatly in quality. 

Cheiving Tobacco was formerly sold principally in Fine-cut form, but of late years 
that style has been almost supplanted by Plug Tobacco as the result of the many improve- 
ments in its manufacture. The "plugs" of a few years ago and those of to-day are 



THE G U C E U " S ENCYCLOPEDIA 039 




totally different in character — the leading makers now employ the choicest material 
and have produced a great variety of pleasing combinations. 

In the manufacture of Plug, the chief processes are : (1) stemming, (2) sweeten- 
ing, (3) drying, {i) flavoring, (5) "lumping" and (6) stamping. 

The equipment of the sweetening department consists of a number of large cop- 
per kettles containing hot syrups, both plain and flavored with cloves, allspice, tonka 
beans, or other spices, licorice solutions, etc. The tobacco is dipped into these kettles 
and then squeezed through rollers to remove excess moisture. The drying which 
follows is performed by hanging in rooms heated by steam pipes. 

Retailing and Use of Tobacco. 

To the grocer, tobacco presents itself 
in two phases, (1) as an article o]i which 
a satisfactory profit can be made, and 
(2) as drawing and pleasing a profitable 
class of customers. It is, though, a com- 
mon mistake for the grocer to endeavor 
to obtain an excessive profit ou cigars 
and tobacco. He should be content with 
about 20% to 25%, and by careful pur- „, ^^. „^ „ ,■ , ^ 

' ■' ■'^ Wetting Tobacco that IS to be used for cigars 

chasing give his customers full value. 

The whole matter of the use of tobacco is very fairly summed up in the following 
remarks by a noted physician. "Before the full maturity of the system is attained, 
even the smallest amount of smoking is hurtful. Subsequently, the habit is, in most 
instances, only prejudicial when it is carried to excess. We cannot honestly say more 
against tobacco than can be urged against any other luxury. It is innocuous as com- 
pared with alcohol; it does infinitely less harm than opium; and it is in no sense worse 
than tea." 

See also special articles on Cigars, Pipes and Snuff. 

TODDY. In tropical countries, the word "Toddy" usually signifies the sap or juice 
of some variety of palm, drunk either fresh or as a fermented intoxicating beverage. 
In England and the United States, the term is more generally applied to a drink of 
brandy, or other spirits, and hot water, well sweetened. 

TOKAY, or Tokaji : a famous Hungarian wine, the best varieties of which are made 
from grapes ripened almost to raisins on vines growing in a limited section of the 
Hegyallya district in the vicinity of Tokay. It is sweet and very delicate in flavor, 
brownish-yellow when new, changing gradually to a distinctly greenish tint as it grows 
older. 

The choicest type is the Tokay Essentia, or "Essence," also known as Imperial 
Tokay, made from the drippings from the ripest vine-dried or "shriveled" grapes, 
placed in tubs with perforated bottoms, no pressure but the weight of the grapes being 
employed. It is of liqueur style, very sweet and of fine bouquet and flavor, but the 
quantity produced is so small that little reaches the general market. 

Next in rank is Tokay Ausbruch. made from the must of the ripe grapes left after 
the removal of the shriveled berries for the Essence or other purposes, together with 
the addition of a certain quantity of the dried berries, pres.sed to a pulp. This also 



640 

is highly valued, and in Europe enjoys a remarkable reputation for its tonic qualities 
— so eagerly are the best grades sought by medical agents and wealthy connoisseurs, 
that only a small percentage is left for the ordinary consumer. 

The lowest grade and ordinary commercial type is known locally as Tokay 
Mdslds. 

There is a great deal of imitation tokay on the market. Much of it is excellent 
in wine quality — but not deserving fancy tokay prices. 

TOLU: a fragrant, pale brown balsam, or gum, gathered from a tropical South 
American tree, which on distillation furnishes benzoic acid (see Benzoate of Soda). 
Blended with spirits, the gum has merit as an alleviation for colds, etc., and it is 
also sometimes used in confectionery, imparting a flavor resembling vanilla, for 
pastilles and in perfumery, etc. 

TOMATO: the fruit of an annual plant of the Nightshade family — the order which 
includes also the egg-plant and potato. It was for a long time considered unfit for food 
by the general public, but it is now highly esteemed as especially wholesome and is 
marketed in enormous and ever-increasing quantities and in numerous forms — fresh, 
canned, in catsup, etc. 

The origin of the tomato is still clouded in uncertainty, but botanists generally 
name South America as its home. It was probably cultivated in Mexico and Peru 
for many centuries prior to the advent of the Spaniards. Several varieties were 
known in England by the end of the sixteenth century, and Gerard, the surgeon and 
botanist, speaks of it in his "History of Plants," having himself introduced it as an 
exotic. Dodoens, the Netherlands herbalist, also mentions it as early as 1583 as a 
vegetable to be eaten with pepper, salt and oil. Its popular acceptance was, however, 
slow in arriving, for it is only within the last three generations that it has become a 
food item of general use. 

The United States is the greatest per capita consumer. Next, perhaps, comes 
Southern Italy, where it is used in the preparation of, or as an accompaniment to, 
nearly every dish. The Italians call it the "Golden Apple." It was also formerly known 
as the "Love Apple" in Prance, England and this country. 

In Northern European countries the consumption is largely of the canned prod- 
uct. The plant is grown in England, but sparingly, as it requires hot-beds in the spring 
and the fruit is consequently high priced. 

In this country, the fruit ripens in fields and gardens in various sections from 
June to November. The winter and spring demand is supplied both by the West 
Indies and the output of domestic hothouses. The growing of hothouse tomatoes has 
increased more than 500% during the last five years, due to the demand for a better 
quality fruit than that shipped from the tropics. The finest ever imported came a few 
years ago from Spain, but the expenses of transportation were not warranted by 
market prices. 

There are many kinds of tomatoes, ranging from the fancy, generally small, 
varieties known by their resemblance to other fruits — as the "Currant," acid in flavor 
and growing, currant-style, in long clusters; the "Cherry" or "Grape," borne in 
bunches; the "Pear," etc. — to the many sizes of the ordinary tomato, reaching the 
maximum in the huge "Beefsteaks" — which frequently weigh from two to three 
pounds each — and varying in color from deep red to yellow. The most generally 




TOMATOES 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA G-43 

desirable are those of medium size, smooth, round and of even color, with thick walls 
and small seed cavities. 

One of the most interesting of the numerous kindred fruits of the same general 
order is that known in many sections as the "Strawberry Tomato" and described 
under the title of Ground Cherry. 

Green, but firm and well grown, tomatoes, gathered just before frost, can 
be ripened in a dry cellar for winter use. They should be wiped dry and placed on 
racks, the latter preferably straw covered. Any specimens that show signs of decay 
during the ripening must be at once removed before the trouble spreads to others. 

Canned tomatoes are the most widely consumed of all canned vegetables, and this 
popularity is thoroughly deserved, as for many culinary purposes they are more con- 
venient than, and equally as good as, the fresh fruit. Their acidity is generally more 
developed than in the fresh fruit, but this is easily reduced by adding a small pinch 
of bicarbonate of sodium. When a "tinny" flavor is noticeable, it can be avoided by 
adding a little sliced onion during heating, the average proportion being about half 
a medium-sized mild onion to the contents of a three-pound can. The quantity named 
is not sufficient to give any onion taste to the tomatoes. 

TONGUE: is one of the most popular of meat delicacies. Beeves' or Beef tongues 
are generally understood when "tongue" is mentioned, but calf's, lamb's, sheep's and 
pig's tongues also come under the heading in the butcher business. Calf's tongue is 
usually sold with the head. Lamb's tongue is generally pickled. 

In purchasing, choose those which are thick and firm, with plenty of fat on the 
under-side. 

Canned tongues of the best brands are just as desirable as those bought and 
cooked fresh. The term "Lunch Tongues" generally signifies canned pigs' tongues. 
"Compressed" tongue is subjected to pressure before or during the canning process. 

Dealers should never sell a can of tongue — or of any meat or fish — during warm 
weather without reminding the buyer to cool it thoroughly before opening. 

For Tongue Sausage see sub-head in article on S.iusages. 

TONKA, or Tonqua, BEAN : the dark, aromatic seed of the fruit of Goumarouna 
odorato, a South American tree. The essential principle, known as Coumarin, is a 
white substance found in small crystals under the coat and between the lobes. Because 
of a similarity in aroma. Tonka Beans, or the extracted coumarin, are frequently 
employed in the manufacture of low grade or imitation vanilla extract. They are, 
though, heavier and coarser in flavor and their commercial value is less than a tenth 
of that of even minor grade vanilla beans. Their legitimate uses inclide the perfum- 
ing and flavoring of smoking and chewing tobacco. Placed in wardrobes and trunks, 
they impart a pleasing odor and preserve clothes from moths. Coumarin is also found 
in Woodruff, Sweet Clover and several other plants and is manufactured syntheti- 
cally in considerable quantities. 

TOOTHPICKS. The bulk of the common wood-splint toothpicks in general use are 
of domestic manufacture. White birch is considered the best for the purpose, but 
poplar and maple are also largely employed. In manufacture, the branches are first 
trimmed and the bark skinned off, the naked trunk being then run through a machine 
which slices it into long thin strips, or "veneers," of toothpick width and thickness. The 



644 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



veneers are fed into a second machine supplied with sharp, rotary knives, which snip 
them into toothpicks at the rate of hundreds of thousands an hour. 

The greater part of the "fancy" toothplclis 
— those of polished wood, reed and quills — are 
still imported from Europe and Japan, but their 
manufacture here is increasing. 

TORTILLA: a large round thin cake of popu- 
lar consumption in Mexico and numerous other 
countries. It is made by soaking corn grains 
until soft, then crushing them to a paste — gen- 
erally by working them with a roller or simi- 
lar instrument on a large stone, as in the accom- 
panying illustration — shaping into the desired 
size and cooking on iron or earthen plates. 



TOUS-LES-MOIS: the edible root of a kind 
of canna, which is sometimes used as a substitute 

for arrowroot. Xortilla making, Mexico 




TOWEL GOURD, or Loofah : a fruit resembling a large, long cucumber, grown 
in several of the Southern States and warm climes generally. When dried and freed 
from its hull and seeds, its network interior becomes the "loofah" of commerce, used 
as a rough sponge or flesh brush. The fibre is also employed for insoles, surgical 
bandage material, etc. 

TRADE-MARKS. Trade-marks deserve the earnest attention of the grocery trade. 
Their protection covers every proprietary article which it handles, and that means the 
grealter portion of the stocks. The frauds who try to impose upon the dealer, and, 
through him, upon his customers, consist very largely of trade-mark violators. The 
advertising of this age, which works so directly in creating a demand for a wide 
variety of articles, heretofore unknown or unappreciated, could not exist in any such 
volume if it were not for trade-mark rights, aud the protection which the law throws 
around them. 

Trade-marked goods are a great help to the dealer. Handsomely labeled, securely 
packed, quickly handled, readily listed and priced, widely advertised to the public, 
they have doubled and trebled the variety of the grocer's stock and the number of dishes 
on his customers' tables. Some old fogies sigh for the good old days when the public 
knew nothing, and the dealer, in his narrower lines, was enabled to impose on it what 
he would. Then, sugar loaves were cut, spices were ground and coffee roasted in 
the narrow limits and the thick darkness of the rear of the store. In those days they 
bound apprentices, and sold dried mummy as medicine! The modern gTocery. with its 
wonderful conveniences, its splendid stock and its easy control of the world's deli- 
cacies, is a most enjoyable contrast. 

Trade-mark properiies are almost entirely of modern creation. When merchants 
dealt in natural and unchanged products of the ground, there could be no trade-marks. 
As civilization advanced, and men prepared and preserved foods in a variety of ways, 
secret processes were resorted to, but they gave very small protection and necessarily 



THEGROCEE^SENCYCLOPEDIA 645 



restricted the possibility of wide sale. Printing was known as an art long before it 
was used to any extent in producing the distinctive labels which were a necessary step to 
general identification, and to the possibility of widespread sales of proprietary articles. 
The real development of trade-mark rights, trade-mark protection and trade-mark 
growth did not come until the latter part of the nineteenth century, when the traffic of 
steamships and railroads had belted the globe, and printing and its processes had made 
it possible to produce handsome, distinctive labels for the simplest articles. 

It was at this time that modern advertising took its first great strides, and that 
the struggle for better protection of the great properties which had grown up in 
proprietary articles forced courts and lawyers to consider, and practically create, a 
system of trade-mark law, one of the maxims of the law being that "wherever the 
law finds an injury, it is bound to find a remedy." 

Any injury to a trade-mark is an injury of a most widespread character. It 
assails truth, filches property, degrades trade, makes a tool of the dealer, deceives 
the public, lessens the confidence of the people, generally tends to the adulteration or 
reducing of the quality of the goods and unsettles honest values. All dealers should 
discountenance any attempt at imitation, or substitution, or the various pretenses 
allied thereto. 

The laws of trade-marks are in one way simple and in another way very intri- 
cate. They are rarely understood as they should be by the very owners of trade- 
marks of great value. To men of exact and clearly defined honesty their limits seem 
simple, but to the shifty dealer it is very hard to explain why Smith should be 
restrained from imitating Jones almost to the extent of impersonating him at the bank. 

Primarily, the trade-mark represents the individuality of its owner — stands for 
him as his surname does, defines his connection with his merchandise, indicates his 
responsibility to the world for its quality and value. If he would have his own name 
respected and protected, he must keep it clear of entanglement, and manfully defend it. 
Even the poorest men (if their poverty be limited to mind or money and not to 
morals ) are careful in this, and when men accumulate large properties or rise to large 
power, they are scrupulously jealous in this regard. Trade-mark owners, however, too 
frequently neglect to oppose infringement of their rights. Failing to give careful 
study to this valuable property, they make radical errors from which they could be 
saved by courage, more definite knowledge and a willingness to consult proper legal 
counsel. 

It is a simple but too often little understood principle that when a manufacturer 
ceases to have any interest in his own trade-mark (as, for instance, when leasing it to 
another without retaining any direct interest in it himself) and it is continued by 
others, they take his place before the community as the responsible persons behind 
the trade-mark, and his right in it lapses as theirs becomes established by custom. 
Indeed, a trade-mark cannot be legally transferred or its use licensed unless there goes 
with it the business or good- will which it embodies; for, unless there is transferred 
with the trade-mark that which makes the representation it conveys true in the hands 
of the person to whom it is transferred, it is only a license to lie, which the law will 
not tolerate. The transferee gets nothing, and the original owner has abandoned his 
trade-mark. 

An article cannot be trade-marked and patented and still hold both protections. 
Such an attempt at a double protection has not infrequently been made by over-careful 
manufacturers, or those who did not have proper counsel. When a man patents an 



fitt) THE GBOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

article, the name he gives to it becomes the name of that thing. When the patent 
expires, everyone may make the thing and call it by its name. 

A ti'ade-mark belonging to a partnership will generally belong equally to both 
partners upon dissolution, unless an agreement assigns it to one or the other. In 
case of death the survivor owns it absolutely, except where an arrangement of part- 
nership otherwise provides, or its value can be appraised as part of the estate. 

A trade-mark must be truthful, although the truth is sometimes regretfully 
slender. The law will not protect an article trade-marked as an "Oil of Almonds" 
when there is no oil of almonds in it, but the truth may be technically saved, as Wil- 
liam Dreydoppel used to say of his rival's soap: "Youst a pinch of borax in it, youst 
(iuougli to swear to" ; nor will the law protect a brand of "California Oil" if it can be 
shown that it has no connection with California. 

These few instances show that trade-mark law stands for truth, for personal 
responsibility, for an honest individuality and for exact dealing with the public and 
tlie trade ; but those who own, or intend to own, trade-mark property should seek the 
highest advice, as surely as they would take that of a banker if they were about to 
invest, or of a doctor if they were ill. 

TRADING. See article on Barter. 

TRAGACANTH: a gum, white or of red tint, obtained from numerous varieties 
of the Asiatic tragacanth plant. When soaked in water it swells to a thick mucilage 
resembling flour paste, and as such is employed in pharmacy (as an emollient for 
toilet creams, etc.), the textile industry, etc., and to make gum paste ornaments for 
cakes, being for the last-named purpose mixed with starch and sugar. 

TREACLE. See general article on Syrup. 

TREE TOMATO: a Jamaica fruit-vegetable, purplish-red and about the size of 
a small, oval-shaped tomato. It is eaten both as a fruit — raw when fully ripe, stewed 
with sugar, etc. — and also in any way suitable for tomatoes. 

TREPANG, or Beche de Mer: a general name for several kinds of tropical sea- 
sings, varying in length from six inches to two feet, enjoyed as food in China, the Philip- 
pines and other oriental countries. They are prepared by cleaning, boiling, smoking 
and drying, being especially popular in the form of a thick soup. 

TRICHINAE: are small parasites or worms, barely visible to the naked eye, which 
are found sometimes in pork, and which, if they enter the human system, breed 
rapidly, bore through the walls of the intestines and bury themselves in the muscles of 
the snfferer. They can exist in extraordinary numbers in the smallest compass — 
twenty millions or more have been estimated as existing in one diseased person. 

This parasite is more common among Germans than any other nationality, 
probably because of their habit of eating smoke-dried sausage and other preparations 
of pork which are only partly cooked. Neither pork nor pork products of any kind 
should ever be eaten in a raw or semi-cooked condition. Heavily salted meats are 
generally free from them, but the heat engendered in careful and complete cooking 
is tlie only sure preventive. 



THE gkocee's encyclopedia 647 

Furthermore, reliance cannot be placed in the process of cooking in the case of 
large joints, as the heat attained in the center is not always sufficiently great to kill 
the trichinae. Small pieces thoroughly broiled over a strong fire, are rendered entirely 
innocuous, because heat of high temperature permeates every portion, and small joints 
thoroughly boiled or baked are also safe, bat it is best to give a second cooking — as 
broiling, etc. — to portions cut from a large joint. 

When pork from an animal in an otherwise normally healthy condition has been 
thoroughly cooked, the presence of the destroyed trichinae does not in any way 
impair its flavor, digestibility or food value, for they exist in the flesh only in a 
dormant, sac-enclosed condition — they do not enjoy active existence or breed until they 
find themselves in the digestive organs of man, or other mammals. It is not any 
poisonous quality in the tiny bodies of the live trichinae as present in the pork when 
consumed that renders them dangerous to health — it is only the fact that in the diges- 
tive organs they awake to life and breed millions of others, and it is these millions 
which do damage by boring through the walls of the intestines and into the muscles of 
the victim to find a place in which to enclose themselves in tiny sacs or coats, there 
to sleep in apparent lifelessness, as did their progenitors. If the trichinae are pre- 
vented from awakening and breeding by being killed by the heat in cooking, they are 
no more objectionable than similar tiny parasites often found in the flesh of herbiv- 
orous animals. 

Trichinae are frequently found in many other omnivorous animals, but this has 
little interest from the standpoint of the ordinary individual, as the pig is the only 
member of this class which is an article of popular diet. 

TRIPE: is the fatty lining of the stomach of several food animals, prepared by 
thorough cleansing and boiling. It is easily digested and of agreeable flavor and is 
almost equally popular fresh and pickled. Beef tripe is the kind most generally used. 
It should be thick, white and fat — if dark and thin, the quality is poor. The "Honey- 
comb" part is considered the best, but this is principally a matter of individual 
opinion. ^ 

Calf's tripe is more tender than beef tripe, but only small quantities are marketed. 
Sheeps' stomachs are used in the preparation of Haggis (which see). Pigs' stomachs 
are utilized in Chitterlings (see Sausages). 

TROUT: a species of salmon found principally in fresh water. The chief American 
types are the Common Brook or Speckled {see Color Page opposite 540), Lake or 
Mackinaw, Dolly Varden, Rainbow and Rocky Mountain. The three generally 
accepted classiflcations of the Eastern markets are the "English," in season from 
January to March; the "American," January to the middle of July; and the "Brook," 
or Speckled Trout, April to August. "Mountain Trout" is the title applied to the gen- 
uine loild Brook Trout, the most highly esteemed by connoisseurs. The tint of the 
flesh varies from pink, considered the choicest, to white. The pink is generally that 
of the wild fish, the liver diet being perhaps responsible for the white meat of those 
"raised." 

The varieties which the Common Brook or Speckled Trout exhibit in tints and 
spots has led to the supposition that there are several distinct species. This is largely 
incorrect, as trout transferred from one locality to another soon change their colors. 
The Brook Trout is an especially voracious creflture and affords great sport to the 



64S 



THE grocery's encyclopedia 



angler who fishes with a fly. There is a fair demand in some sections for canned brook 
tront. 

The Lake Trout, or "Mackinaw Trout," is a large fish often attaining a weight of 
50 to 60 pounds and of fine flavor, caught in the Great American Lakes. Considerable 
quantities are salted and sold in brine by the barrel. 

Salmon Trout is a name best reserved for the Steelhead Salmon, but it is also 
variously applied in some sections to several members of the trout family proper — 
especially to the Lake, the Dolly Varden and the Rocky Mountain. 

TROYES. See general article on Cheese. 

TRUCK: a term used in the Middle States to designate all vegetables and fruits. 
A "truck farm" is one on which garden vegetables or fruits are raised. 

TRUFFLES. The truffle, a kind of fungus, may justly be described as one of the 
most curious and least understood articles of food. We know that it grows in clusters 
a few inches under the ground— something like a potato, but without roots or upper 
parts of any description — but the secret of its production has never yet been fully ascer- 
tained, though it has been eaten and enjoyed for centuries. Some types bring very 
high prices — up to four dollars or more a pound — yet attempts to grow them commer- 
cially have never proved successful. 

The most famous variety is the Perigord Truffle, which takes its name from the 
former French Province of Perigord, the greater part of which is included in the pres- 
ent Department of Dordogne. Its high reputation is due to its especially delicate 
aroma and its uniformly good quality and regularity of appearance. It varies in size 
from that of a walnut to a medium size potato, is round shaped, with a rough warty 
exterior, and inside is of a blackish grey or black, according to age, marbled with fine 
white veins. It grows most freely in forests of Chene Nain (a dwarf oak), beech and 
some other trees ; where the soil is chalky or clayey, light in composition and compara- 
tively free from stones, and preferably on sloping ground. For a good crop, warmth 
and plenty of rain are essential. 

Truffles so freely absorb the nutriment of the soil that nothing except the trees 
which give them shade is able to grow in the vicinity, so one recognizes a Truffiere or 
Truffle-ground by its bare and generally somewhat cracked surface. As, however, the 




P6rigord truffles 




TrUFFLKS with lliAIM I) IIOGS. 



SoRTINt; .\M) rriTlNH-LP IN linlll.l.S ASll CaN> 



(550 THE grocery's encyclopedia 

truffles themselves show no sign above the ground, they are generally located by trained 
dogs and hogs, held in leash, who find them by the peculiar aromatic odor of the 
mature specimens, ascending through the loose soil above them. The harvest takes 
place in winter and lasts for three or four months. 

Various kinds of Black Truffles are found in other parts of France, especially in 
the Dauphin6 District; Germany, Spain, England, California and other parts of the 
world, but they are classed as of lesser value. 

The White Truffle is a minor German and English variety, which grows half above 
ground, is of whitish-red tint and generally of the size of a large walnut. 

The Italian Truffle, of somewhat different type, is brownish outside and liver- 
colored or yellowish within. It is generally of about the same size as the other kinds, 
but occasionally attains to much greater proportions, up to masses of from 10 to 12 
pounds. It has, however, comparatively little flavor. 

The flesh of all varieties is meaty rather than vegetable in character. 

The preparation of truffles for the market consists in freeing them from the earth 
which clings to them, washing them with special brushes, grading them by size and 
quality and, generally, putting them in cans, boxes, glass jars or bottles, etc., for 
the "cooking" necessary for their preservation. Long experience and great care 
are required to preserve truffles without losing or impairing their delicate qualities. 

The most highly rated are those which are the largest, roundest, blackest and 
most highly perfumed, and marketed with the skins removed ( Peeled Truffles ) . The 
next in grade are those which have been simply brushed {Brushed Truffles), and then 
the pieces and "Parings." 

Truffles are used chiefly for garnishing and dressing. The choicest qualities are 
very expensive, but the Parings, the residue from the preparation of Peeled Truffles, 
are sold at comparatively low prices and will answer all ordinary requirements. 

If only a few truffles are taken from a freshly opened can or jar, the remainder 
should be covered with sherry or other white wine, and the can itself with greased 
card or paper so as to avoid contact with the air. This is practising true economy, for 
the truffles are not so liable to spoil, and the wine can be afterwards used in the prepa- 
ration of sauces. If the opened box is to be kept for a considerable time, the advice of 
a well-known chef is to cover them with boiling bacon fat, or fat of poultry. As, hoAv- 
ever, none of these methods is absolutely sure to preserve the aroma, etc., it is prefer- 
able to purchase in quantities to suit one's requirements, so that the entire contents 
of a can or box are consumed shortly after opening. This is generally possible, as 
truffles are put up in cans or boxes of many sizes, the smallest being very small indeed. 

TUNA (Cactus). See article on Prickly Pear. 

TUNNY FISH, Thon Marine, etc., the Pacific Coast "Tuna" : a very large fish found 

in the Mediterranean, and along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts 
\. of North America. It often attains a length of from twelve to 
^- fifteen feet and a weight of one thousand pounds and up- 
y ward. It is generally caught in nets arranged in funnel-form, 

the fish entering the wide mouth and being gradually driven to the narrow end, to 
be there killed by lances and harpoons. It is pearly black or dark blue above, with 
silvery sides and white or silver-spotted dusky on the under-parts. The flesh is con- 
sidered a delicacy and is eaten both fresh and preserved, in cans and otherwise, in salt 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 



651 



and oil. If the finer meat in the imported cans is thoroughly chilled before opening 
and then cut in dice for use in salads, it easily passes for chicken. 

The Tunny also yields a considerable quantity of oil, twenty gallons being some- 
times obtained from a single fish by boiling the head and belly. 



TURBOT: a large, fleshy, English salt-water flat-fish in season from January to 
March. It resembles our chicken halibut, but is rounder and lighter in appearance. 
The skin is of gelatinous character, dark and marked with bony spots on the upper part, 
and white below. The flesh is white and delicate, tending, however, to darker, and 
being considered more choice, under the upper skin. Some specimens reach thirty to 
forty pounds in weight. A limited quantity is annually imported. 
What is called "American turbot" is generally Chicken Halibut. 

TURKEYS. The turkey is a native of North America, and wild birds are still found 
in some sections. It has been domesticated here and in Europe for more than three 
hundred years. It is distinguished by its bare bead, wattled neck, short curved bill, 
handsome plumage and large size — the male being further marked by the conical flesli 
caruncle surmounting the bill, the tuft of long hair hanging from the base of the neck 
and the broad rounded tail, at times erected and spread like a fan as lie struts about 
with plumage puffed out and wings rubbing on the ground, uttering his loud "gobble." 

The two principal varieties of the wild turkey are the North American, the 
original species of the Eastern United States, whose plumage is a blending of black, 
bronze and coppery gold, and the Mexi- 
can, of blacker color shaded with bronze 
and with feathers tipped with white. 
There is a third important wild type — the 
most beautiful of all — known as the 
OceUated or Honduras, a native of Cen- 
tral America, but it has never been suc- 
cessfully bred in more northern countries. 
The wild turkey is by far the largest of 
all American game birds. 

All our domestic turkeys are de- 
scended from the wild North American 
and Mexican, principally from the 
former, and it has been found advan- 
tageous to cross the domestic with the 
wild bird from time to time to strengthen 
the breed, the size being thus increased 
and the flavor improved. European tur- 
keys are descended chiefly from the Mexi- 
can bird. 

The six standard American domestic 
varieties are the Bronze, Narragansett, 
Buff, Slate, White and Black. Of these, 
the first two are the best known. 

The Bronze Turkey is the largest and most handsome type. Its weight for the 
market ranges as high as thirty-six pounds, and some older farm birds have exceeded 




A prize Bronze Turkcj- cock 



652 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



The female has the same blaok-brouze coloring as the male, but in m6re 



forty pounds, 
subdued tints. 

The Xan-agaittieft, next in size, is distinguished by the 
plumage, produced by the grey Bands tipping its black feathers. 



greyish effect of its 
The female is of 



similar but lighter coloring. 

The Buff Turliey is generally of a light chestnut, mixed with white and darker 
red or brown. The iilaie is of ashy blue, with black spots or markings. The White is, 
in pure breeds, entirely white, except for the black beard on the breast. The Black 
is nearly as dark in plumage as the name suggests. All of these varieties average from 
ten to twenty-five pounds in full adult weight. 

Spring turkeys are generally in the market from August to 
November. Tlie older birds are most abundant during the six 
months from September to February. 

A young turkey, to be desirable, should be plump and fat, and 
the end of the breast bone should bend easily. Many people are 
of the opinion that the flesh of the young male is better flavored 
than that of the female. 

Very large turkeys are handsome and showy on the poultry 
counter, but for general family trade and use, those of medium, or 
rather small, size are usually the most convenient. 

TURMERIC: is the yellow root-stock of a plant of the ginger 
family, marketed both in root form and as a powder. It is tlie 
principal ingredient in curry powders and is also used for mixing 
with mustard and other spices. Its yellow color, after extraction 
known as Curcuma Oil and Curcumin, is employed as a dye-stuff, in 
chemistry, etc. 




Turmeric 



TURNIP: the root of a plant largely grown in every temperate 
climate. It ranges from the size of an orange to forty pounds in 
weight, and from varieties which are popular as a table vegetable, either separate or 
mixed with others in soups and stews, to types that are grown exclusively for feeding 
cattle. The most delicate flesh is found in medium-sized white turnips of good strain, 
but many people consider such roots insipid, and prefer the more strongly flavored 
yellow types. They should always be firm to the touch when purchased. The season 
usually commences in June. 

Young turnip tops generally make good "greens." The tops of sprouted white 
turnips are excellent for salads, needing hardly any vinegar. 

TURNIP-ROOTED CABBAGE. See Swedish Turnip. 



TURPENTINE: is made chiefly from the gum of the Longleaf Pine, the principal 
sources of supply being the states bordering on the South Atlantic and the Gulf 
States to eastern Texas. By the Cup-and-gutter System, which has in most sections 
taken the place of the wasteful Box System, the sap from the "chipped" surface of 
the tree is conducted by the gutter strips into earthen cups suspended from nails 
driven into the trunk. In the old Box System, the receptacle for the sap was obtained 
by chopping out a "box" in the lower part of the trunk, the result being the ultimate 



T H 10 G R O C i: R ' S K N C Y C L I' E D I A 



053 



desti'uetiou of an almost incred- 
ible mnnber of trees. The sap 
distilled gives "turpentine," or 
Oil or Spirits of Turpentine, the 
solid residue being Kosin. 

TURTLE: a marine reptile 
much esteemed for its meat, 
which is used in the form of 
steaks, stews, soups, etc. The 
(ireeu Turtle leads all other va- 
rieties in the market, and is sold 
alive, dried and canned. Only 
the "cow" is generally sought, 
the flesh of the bull turtle being 
too coarse to be especially de- 
sirable. The majority of those 
brought alive to the Eastern 
markets come from Florida, 
Cuba and the British West In- 
dies, the large South American 
supply going chiefly to Europe. 

The Green Turtle has been 
known to grow to a weight of 
700 pounds or larger, but these 
very big specimens are seldom 
handled commercially. The 
average market weight ranges 
from 50 to 300 pounds, those 
between the two extremes being 
generally preferred, being con- 
sidered choicer in flesh as well 
as much easier to handle. Only 
about one-quarter of this weight is, however, generally serviceable — the intestines, 
blood, shell, etc., accounting for the greater part of the bulk. 

For shipment, the turtle's flippers are tied together and it is placed on its back. 
This position is essential to keep it in good condition — if it were not tied, it would 
speedily exhaust itself by continually thrashing about, and if it were laid on its 
stomach on a hard surface, it would suffer from the weight on, and friction of, the 
under shield, which consists only of a thick skin. No attempt is made to feed it eu 
route, as under ordinary conditions of transportation it will not eat; but this is no 
hardship, as Green Turtles can easily go for six weeks without food, and for three 
weeks or more without suffering any diminution of weight. 

For land transportation in culd weather, tlie turtle is usually sewed into burlap 
bags lined with excelsior or dried seaweed, only the head being left out. It is also in 
some cases crated for further protection. 

If to be held for any length of time after receipt, turtles are loosed and kept in a 
dark, warm place — preferably, if the weather is warm, where it is possible to cover part 




Cups and Gutters used for collecting Crude Turpentine — the tree shown is 

an exceptionally productive example, a single "Cup" beinfr 

sufficient in most cases 



654 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




Turtles on a "crawl,'' Kingston, Jamaica 

of the floor with a few inches of salt water. In some localities they are kept in "coops" 
built under docks, etc. 

Calipash is the flesh which belongs to the upper shield — it is fatty and gelatinous 
in composition and of a dull green tint. OaUpee is the lighter yellowish meat of the 
lower shield. 

For fine soup, only the Ca,lipash and Calipee are used — this, when properly pre- 
pared, being mixed with ordinary soup stock to make the "Turtle Soup" of the restau- 
rant and club. "Turtle Steaks" are cut from the shoulders and flippers. 

Canned Green Turtle, put up in cans and jars, may be either "mixed meat" — pieces 
of Calipash, Calipee and steak — or "clear green" (Calipash only), etc. 

Green Turtle Oil is frequently employed as a liniment. 

The full-grown turtle may be classed with animals such as the elephant and the 
higher carnivora, in that it need fear no enemy but man. When once its upper shell 
has attained its armor-like strength, it is, under ordinary circumstances, safe from the 
attack of any other living creature. It is furthermore so gifted by nature as to be 
almost independent of external conditions — it can apparently live with equal ease under 
water and on land, wdth light or without it, and, as already noted, for weeks at a time 
without food. 

Logger Heads and Snappers are cheaper varieties of turtle much used in soups. 
The Logger Head grows to a large size. The Snapper generally weighs from 10 to 15 
pounds, though sometimes reaching 50 pounds or more. 

TWINE. See Rope. 



UDO: a Japanese plant recently introduced into the United States. The most 
acceptable method of preparation is to slice the shoots very thin, stand in ice water 




CREEN TURTLE 



THE GROCEB^S ENCYCLOPKUIA 657 

for some time and serve with French dressing. They have a fresh, agreeable flavor and 
the crispuess of young celery. Their value is enhanced by the fact that they can be 
stored for winter use. In Japan, the stalks are eaten both raw and cooked. 

ULLAGE: the quantity that a cask or other package of liquid lacks of being full — 
i. e., the empty portion of a cask above the liquid which it contains. 

UNLEAVENED BREAD. See sub-head in article on Bread. 

USQUEBAUGH. See introductory paragraphs of article on Whisky. 

VACHERIN — a la main and fondu. See article on Cheese. 

VALENCIAS. See under first sub-head in general article on Raisins. 

VANILLA. The true vanilla bean from which genuine Vanilla Extract is made, is 
the dried pod of the Vanilla plant, a climbing vine of the orchid family. The best 
beans are those from the cultivated, flat-leaved vanilla vine, found at its highest excel- 
lence in certain valleys near the eastern coast of Mexico, the most noted of all being 
the wonderful Valley of Papantla, in the State of Vera Cruz, a depression of more 
than six thousand feet and one of the richest spots on the face of the globe. 

In its wild state, the vanilla orchid attaches itself to anything at hand — rocks, 
shrubs and trees — intertwining its long fleshy stems and tapering leaves, growing 
very freely under favorable conditions but producing fruit that is rank and inferior in 
flavor. Under cultivation, it is trained over trellis- work or around trees (see Color 
Page) . The flowers resemble the tuberose in appearance, color and fragrance, and from 
each blossom springs a little pod, which grows rapidly until, if it reaches maturity, it 
looks like a cross between a big bean and a thin banana. 

Vanilla picking begins in November and continues with increasing importance 
through December and January, the pods being gathered before they are fully ripe. 

The green beans when gathered weigh from 50 to 60 pounds per thousand, but 
dwindle in the process of curing, so that their weight finally ranges from 10 to 12 
pounds per thousand, and their size has shrunk from a circumference of one to two 
inches to an attenuated pod not much larger than a pipe stem. 

The beans are first "sweated" and cured in special ovens — these having largely 
taken the place of the former method of sweating between blankets laid in the sun. 
Then comes a gradual browning by exposure to the sun until the pods attain a rich 
chocolate color, bordering at times on black, and a final drying under cover for twenty 
to forty days. During all this time the beans are constantly inspected, each pod being 
given individual attention to see that it receives just the right curing, being removed 
or further treated, as may be necessary. 

The dried beans — long and slender in shape, soapy or waxy to the touch and highly 
aromatic — are put up in bundles of twelve to eighteen ounces each and pressed close, 
the ends being rounded by turning the tops inward. The very choicest are held for 
another month or two and are then packed in cans and shipped in cedarwood cases. 

The inferior beans — those of poor size or quality — are cut into pieces and sold at 
one-half to two-thirds the price of the best grades. They are known in trade circles 
as "Cuts." Those which have split during the curing process are sold as "Splits." 

33 



658 



THE GROCBE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



After storage for a short time, the beans geuerally show a white frosty coating 
of vanillin crystals. Neither the extent of the frosting nor the percentage of vanillin, 
the active principle of the bean, is however a test of quality, as it is the peculiar com- 
bination of the vanillin with other flavors and odors which gives such high value to the 
Mexican beans — in vanillin itself they do not, as a rule, show as much as the cheaper 
East Indian varieties. 

After the Mexican beans come the three following classes, named in the order of 
their commercial value : Bourhon, from the French East Indian Islands of Bourbon, 
or Eeunion, Comores, Madagascar and Seychelles; South American, from the French 
West Indies, and Tahiti, or wild Vanilla Beans, from the French group of Society 
Islands, Pacific Ocean. They are shorter than the Mexican and the lower grades a 
great deal cheaper. The Tahiti hardly deserves the name, as its flavor resembles prune 
Juice rather than Vanilla, and its fragrance, though indisputable, is rather that of 
heliotrope. 

In making Vanilla Extract, the beans are cut fine and immersed in a mixture 
of grain alcohol and water. For the ordinary extract, the liquid is poured off a few 
days later and bottled, but a few manufacturers of the highest grade product allow it 
to remain in the casks for months and use the same casks for years, on the theory that 
this process gives a superior aroma. Many extracts also contain small percentages of 
sugar and glvcerine. 




PHOTO BV *MEKICAN TttADISfl CO 



Bunching Vanilla Beans in a Mexican packing house 




VANILLA (Orchid and Bean) 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



661 



The best vanilla extracts are 
made from high-grade Mexican 
beans. Medium grades come from 
lower quality Mexican beans, 
Mexican "Cuts," etc., and the other 
varieties of true vanilla beans, or 
their blends with Mexican beans. 
Low grade and imitation products 
are manufactured from Tahiti 
beans, artificial vanillin, coumarin 
(see Tonka Bean), etc. Eugenol, 
a synthetic product containing the 
flavoring principles of Oil of 
Cloves, is the source of the bulk 
of the artificial vanillin used. 

The vanilla bean is also sold 
to a small extent, whole and pow- 
dered — the whole bean separately 
in glass tubes and the powder in 
cans or bottles — but a, good ex- 
tract is more serviceable for the 
average consumer. 

It is poor policy to either sell or buy cheap or imitation extracts, 
are infinitely superior in flavor and aroma and a little goes as far as 
adulterated kind. 




Mexican. Bourhon and Tahiti Vanilla Be;i 



.lie genuine 
. lot of the 



VARNISH. The chief ingredient of the best varnish is gum copal, a substance 
exuded from the copal tree, which is found in Mexico, Africa, Brazil, New Zealand, 
India and the East Indies. The East Indies and New Zealand are the principal sources 
of the United States supply. It resembles amber — which is superior to it, but is too 
expensive for use in ordinary commercial varnishes. 

An interesting fact is that the fresh gum is not the high-grade gum copal of com- 
mBrce — it is, on the contrary, rated as decidedly inferior. The most highly con- 
sidered is the fossilized gum that exuded from trees a thousand years or more ago and 
has since remained buried in the earth. It is found by probing the soil with sharp- 
pointed instruments made for the purpose. Its price ranges from |200 a ton up, and 
the annual importations from ten to thirteen thousand tons. It is said that the ship- 
ments from New Zealand during the last quarter of a century have amounted to more 
than the trees now growing there could supply in ten thousand years. 

Linseed oil and turpentine are, after gum copal, the principal varnish components. 
To unite these elements requires elaborate apparatus to melt the copal gum, and great 
skill in the entire manufacture. 

Other varnishes are made by combining various gums or resins, as cowrie, or 
"kauri," and dammar, or their combinations with oil, in any one of a number of sol- 
vents — alcohol (both grain and wood), benzine, carbon bisulphide, etc. Among the 
coloring agents used are annatto, indigo and saffron. 

Varnishes are variously classified, (1) by the gum component, (2) by the solvent, 
(3) by the chief uses. "Spirit" varnishes are those which are quick drying. 



G62 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



VEAL : is the dressed carcass of a calf. It requires close attention on the part of the 
retailer, as it is much more difficult to keep than beef. "Hog-dressed" veal is the car- 
cass left in its hide after being trimmed and cleaned — in that form it best retains its 
moisture and flavor. 

The carcass is generally dressed and cnt in accordance with one or other of the 
diagrams below, but local customs vary greatly. Diagram 7 is a popular Eastern 
method ; Diagrams 11 and III are adapted from a bulletin of the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. The Chuck (Diagram III) is sometimes cut so as to include part of that 
designated in the same diagram as Shoulder, thus following more nearly the method 
of sub-dividing beef. In many localities, the fore and hind shanks are known as the 
"Knuckles." See also Color Page, opposite. 

The flesh should be pink and firm. If it is bluish or flabby, it should not be 
accepted. It should always be eaten fresh, as a poisonous principle is generated in 
it if improperly kept. It also requires to be well cooked to fully develop its nutritive 
qualities. 

The most desirable veal is that of calves from four to six weeks old and known as 
"milk-veal." After six weeks, the calf is fed on other foods and its flesh gradually 
becomes darker and less juicy. 

"Bob veal," that from calves under four weeks old, should never be eaten, as it 
is unfit for food. Stringent laws have been passed forbidding its sale. 

The finest veal in the world is that grown in Switzerland and Holstein, Germany. 
The reason is found not only in the high breed of cattle, but also in the feeding of the 
young calf — it is, for example, not unusual for raw eggs to be included in its diet! 







DIAGRAM I. 





DIAGRAM 


II. 




Diagram I. 






Diagrams II akd 


1. Neck Piece 






1. 


Neck 


3. Shoulder 






2. 


Chuck 


3. Ribs or Rack 






3. 


Shoulder 


■I. Breast 






4. 


Fore Shank 


5. Loin 






3. 


Breast 


6. Leg 






6. 


Ribs 


Forequai-ter—i, 
Hindquarter — 5, 


2. 3, 
6 


4 


7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 


Loin 

Flank 

Leg 

Hind Shank 




DIAGRAM III. 




(1) Rack 
(3) Loin 



VEAL 



(21 LeS 

(4) Shoulder 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 665 

VEGETABLES. The average American liousewife is gradually increasing her use of 
vegetables — to the advautage of the general health of the community — but there is 
room for still greater appreciation of them as part of the every-day diet. In addition 
to their service boiled, baked or fried to accompany the meat, a delightful variety is 
obtained by their free use in soups, omelettes, salads, etc. 

In making soup, some tender young vegetables, such as very small carrots and tur- 
nips, may advantageously be added whole, both leaves and roots, and cooked in it. 
Others, such as green peas, cauliflower in small sprigs, lima beans and fancy cut mixed 
vegetables, are best cooked separately in a very little water and added shortly before 
serving. As "vegetables," many pleasing dishes can be made by mixing two or more 
kinds, either during cooking or before serving, according to circumstances. Succotash, 
a mixture of sweet corn and lima beans, is a popular example of this idea, but it is only 
one of numerous combinations agreeable to the palate — among them, carrots and peas, 
string beans and lima beans, corn and tomatoes, tomatoes and okra, etc. 

The tops of beets, turnips, radishes, etc., should always be saved. Thoroughly 
washed, they can be used as greens, if young, or added to soups, if more mature. 

Baking, for vegetables such as potatoes used principally for separate service, is 
the most satisfactory method of cooking from the standpoint of food values, as little if 
any food component is lost in the process — the only diminution being in the quantity 
of water by evaporation. In boiling, there is always a certain Iqss into the water — 
hence the practical advantage of cooking suitable kinds in broths and soups. 

Tubers, roots and all green vegetables should be firm and crisp before cooking. 
Wilted vegetables may generally be freshened by soaking in cold water — the time 
necessary depends on their age, varying from a few minutes to several hours. 

"Head" vegetables, such as cabbage and lettuce, should be soaked before using, 
head downward, in cold salted water containing a little vinegar. This will draw out 
any worms, caterpillars, etc. 

All vegetables, except dried peas, beans and similar products, should be placed iu 
boiling water. If the water is to be thrown away afterwards, it should, in a majority 
of cases, be maintained at the boiling point all the time so that as little as possible of 
the food value escapes. Rapid boiling is suitable for most varieties, but it should be 
more gentle for cauliflower and young tubers, to avoid breaking them, and should be 
reduced to a simmer for shelled peas and beans. Winter vegetables — potatoes, beets, 
etc. — need considerably longer cooking than the same kind in summer, in order to 
bring out their full merits. 

It is advantageous to add a pinch of soda to the water used for cooking green 
vegetables. This facilitates the cooking by softening the Avater and helps to retain 
the green color. 

The food values of vegetables vary greatly, from some which are highly nutritious 
to others whose principal — and very important — service is the assistance their moist 
bulk gives to the digestive organs. The characteristics of all the best known varieties 
are discussed in separate articles under their respective headings. 

Retailers who handle vegetables and fruits are sometimes termed "green grocers." 
Grocers, generally, have discovered the profit to be derived from the addition of green 
goods to their selling lines, and the public that they can often purchase fruits and fresli 
vegetables from the grocer at a cheaper rate than from the fruit merchant. It 
requires, though, a good deal of care and attention to handle green stock profitably and 
satisfactorily, and a grocer who is not in a position to devote a proper share of both 



G66 THE grocer's encyclopedia 

to it , had better confine his energies to staple goods. It is important to have 
the earliest supplies as soon as Bermuda, Florida or other sections send them 
in. Equally so is it, generally, to handle only the best — sound, handsome fruits and 
fine fresh vegetables — even if a good, round price is necessary. Leave trash lots or 
dead-ripe stock for hucksters and jelly-makers. 

The stock should always be lighter than the demand — in which it differs from the 
balance of the grocer's stock. Late enquiries for perishable goods are better unfilled 
than prepared for, since the latter means in most cases that the grocer will be still 
carrying part of his supply when he closes, and will have deteriorated stock on his 
hands with which to commence business next day. 

A large ice chest, suitably divided, is a desirable aid to the handling of fruits 
and berries. 

Many merchants keep their green vegetables fresh and crisp by occasionally spray- 
ing them with water. Judgment and experience must be exercised in so doing, or 
the result is liable to be the reverse of satisfactory. Berries will soften and often mold 
if so moistened; tomatoes also wiir soften; string and wax beans will grow tough if 
applications are frequent, and white wax beans will show rust marks where the water 
dries on them. Radishes will take a lot of water and be the better for it, but their 
tops are liable to rot unless care is exercised. On the other hand, mint, spinach, let- 
tuce and similar vegetables will generally improve with sprinkling and, if they have 
become dry, by soaking in water. 

Green peas never need sprinkling, but they require a cool place, as heat dries and 
bleaches them. 

Beets need very little water — they will ordinarily keep green and fresh for sev- 
eral days. 

All vegetables, except those for immediate sale, should be stored in a dark, dry 
place of cool, even temperature. 

Dried or Eraporated Vegetables (see Cojipressed Vegetables) are now made in 
considerable quantities, but the principal consumption is in mining regions. 

VEGETABLE GELATINE or Isinglass. See Kantbn. 

VEGETABLE MARROW: a kind of squash, eaten as a 
vegetable, which is very popular in England, but is not 
often seen here. The true English type is, when full grown, 
generally about nine inches long and four inches in diame- 
ter, with green to yellow rind and light-colored flesh. The 
Italian variety reaches a length of about twenty inches, 
with mottled, dark-green rind and orange flesh. vegetable Marrow 

VELOUTE {"Velvety") : is rich chicken and veal broth, thickened and strained 
until of smooth appearance. It is the principal "white" sauce, as Espagnole is the 
chief "brown" sauce. 

VENISON: the flesh of all kinds of deer. That of plump, forest-fed animals is con- 
sidered the choicest. Stall-fed venison is usually poor and coarse. The buck is gen- 
erally best from May to September, and the doe from September to December. The 
animal should be at least five vears old. 




THE GUOCER^S KNOYCLOPEDIA 



667 



The meat is improved by moderate hanging, but care must be 
taken to see that it is not so old as to be stale. The vein in the neck 
should be bluish, not green or yellow, and there should be no offen- 
sive smell under the kidneys. Either of these defects indicates stale- 
ness. The retailer's wisest policy is to buy it as fresh as possible. On 
receipt. It should be wiped dry, dusted with a floury cloth and hung, 
cut-end up, in a cool, airy place. If to be kept for any considerable 
length of time, it is advisable to dust with powdered ginger instead of 
flour. If "musty" when purchased, it should be immediately washed 
with lukewarm water, or lukewarm milk and water, wiped dry and 
dusted with powdered ginger. 

The accompanying diagram illustrates the generally accepted 
method of cutting up a side of venison : 1 — Leg; 2— Loin; 3 and 4 — 
Neck; 5 — Breast; 6 — Shoulder. 

A "haunch" of venison consists of the hindquarters — the leg and 
loin (Nos. 1 and 2). The best neckpiece is No. 4. The head and feet 
make excellent soup. 

VERMICELLI. See article on Macaroni. 

VERJUICE: the juice of unripe fruits, especially grapes and crab 
apples, either separate or together. It was in olden times considered 
a pleasant beverage, but is now used only in cooking. 

VERMOUTH: a light wine, slightly fortified and sweetened and 
aromatized by the addition of herb extracts. It is drunk as a light 
liqueur wine and used in the making of cocktails and other "mixed 
drinks." Both French and Italian vermouths are sold in consider- 
able quantities in this country, but the Italian is the original and considered the 
choicer. The greater part of the commercial supply of Italian Vermouth comes from 
Turin, but the very finest is that from the Island of Elba. Hungarian Vermouth 
is obtained by steeping spices and worm word (absinthium) in old wine. 




VICHY. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

VIENNA BREAD. See sub-head and Color lUnstration in article on Bread. 



VINEGAR: may be briefly described as 
a low percentage dilute natural acid— 
generally acetic acid. It is obtained by 
the conversion of the alcohol contained 
in a liquid — wine, cider, beer, etc. — into 
acid as the result of the activity of a class 
of acid-producing bacteria. The cloudy, 
stringy-looking matter in the bottom of 
acetifying casks is formed by the multi- 
plication of these bacteria and is hence 
known as the "Mother of Vinegar." 




M4,0U0 liU'L-.s uf wiiic lor Luincr.^iuu iliLu viiiujra!", in a .siu^^ic 
reservoir-train at Ori6ans, France 



(i(i8 



THE GKOCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Wine Vinegar is made from either red or white wines. It is red when obtained 
I'l-oiii the former, and light yellow or golden if from the latter — which give the choicer 
products. 

Malt or Beer Vinegar, from barley malt or beer, is of brownish hue and smells 
rather like sour beer. It is also known as "British Vinegar," because it is generally 
used in England for pickles. 

Cider Vinegar is brownish-yellow, with an odor suggesting apples. 

The comparative merits of these three types is a matter of individual taste. 
(Quality is subject both to age and to the particular flavor of each lot. 

White Vinegar, or "Spirit Vinegar," which is especially favored for pickling, is 
made from dilute whisky. 

Under various titles, commercial vinegars are also obtained from beet sugar and 
soi-ghuiu molasses, sweet wastes of various other descriptions, sour ales, beers, etc, 
iind numerous chemical dilutions. 

Tlie sale of straight vinegar is supplemented by a considerable demand for 
specially flavored types, chief among them being Tarragon Vinegar, Chili Vinegar, Shal- 
lot (Escliallot) Vinegar and Garlic Vinegar. 

Fruit Vinegars, as Raspberry Vinegar, Black Currant Vinegar, etc., are made by 
steeping fruit in vinegar. They constitute a separate class, being used chiefly to make 
summer beverages (see Raspberry Vinegae). 

There is a steadily increasing demand for bottled or "package vinegar" put up by 
well-known firms, attributable in part to the fact that it is so very easy to adulterate 
vinegar dispensed in bulk. 

Wine Vinegar is generally made by allowing the wine to rest on lees for some time, 
followed by filtering and exposure in open casks. 

Cider Vinegar was formerly obtained by allowing the barrels of cider to stand with 
open bungs in a warm cellar, but this is a long process and is now seldom employed 
commercially. Instead, the cider is allowed to percolate slowly through "generators," 
perforated casks filled with shavings or twigs saturated with old vinegar. By this pro- 
cess, used also in the making of malt and spirit vinegar, the product is ready for use in 
two or three days. 

^riie tiny vinegar worms or "eels" sometimes found in vinegar are not in any way 
detrimental, but the gelatinous membranous matter found at the bottom of the bottle 
of home-made vinegar is generally of different character — it is a parasitic •ii-owth feed- 
ing on the components of the liquid, and eventually robbing it of much of its strength. 

If all conditions are just right- — if the proper temperature is obtainable and can 
be kept at the proper point without substantial fluctuation, etc. — it is possible to make 
good vinegar at home from wine, beer, etc., but the chances are very much against a 
product that can be compared with that 
put up by a flrst-class mnnnfacturer. 

Vinegar needs a good deal of care to 
keep it in the best condition. Exposure 
to the air, too strong light, or severe cold 
will cause it to deteriorate. 

VIOLET EXTRACT: essential oil of 
violets (see Perfumery) in an alcoholic 
solution. 

119,000 litres of alcoliol for vinesar manufacture. Orleans, France 




6613 

VIOLET SUGAR: white Cut, or "lump," sugar containing violet extract and an 
occasional petal, the cubes or dominoes wrapped in waxed paper to preserve the aroma. 
An article suitable for very fancy service. Violet Syrup is of similar character. 

VIRGINIAN COLIN: another name for the Virginian or American Quail. See 
article on Quails. 

VITTEL. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

VODKA: a fiery Russian whisky distilled generally from rye, but sometimes from 
barley or other grains and potatoes. 

VOLATILE OILS. See Essential Oils. 

WAGON: one of the grocer's indispensable aids, and if poor in material or make, 
one of his greatest troubles! Every merchant should realize the advertising possi- 
bilities of a handsome delivery wagon. It should be borne in mind that the delivery 
wagon is the public representative of a retail business, continually in the public eye, 
traversing all streets and stopping at all sorts of houses. It pays a high-class business 
house to see that it is creditably represented in this respect. It is not enough that 
vehicles should be serviceable — they should also be handsome and correctly represent 
the spirit that animates the store. No one likes to have a shabby delivery wagon stop 
in front of the door. Other things being equal, a lady will patronize the house which 
she knows will deliver her purchases to her in good style. Furthermore, fine delivery 
wagons are, after all, just as cheap in the long run, for they last longer and cost less 
for repairs. 

WALNUTS: the nut- fruit of a large tree extensively cultivated in many parts of 
the world. The California orchards now supply nearly half of the total United States 
consumption. France furnishes about three-quarters of the walnuts imported, 
between twenty and thirty million pounds a year, the bulk of the balance coming 
from Italy, with lesser quantities from Chile, Turkey, Austria, etc. 

French Walnuts are generally known as Grenohles, sub-divided into two prin- 
cipal grades, pure "Mayettes" and Commercials, the latter including Marlots, Cornes, 
Lots, Cahors, etc. The best Italian are those known as Sorrentos. 

The type always understood commercially under the general name of "walnut" is 
that formerly known here as the "English Walnut." The California orchards have 
been developed from imported stock of that variety'. 

The two principal varieties of native American walnuts are the Black, which 
offers nut-meat excellent in quality but contained in woody receptacles so strong that 
nut-picks are required to extract it, and the American "White Walnut," which is more 
generally known as the Butternut and which is even more toughly coated. 

If catering to good class trade, one should select medium-large nuts, of uniform 
size — this adds greatly to their attractiveness — and thin, smooth, light-colored shells 
of nice shiny appearance. The stock must always be kept in a cool dry place and pro- 
tected from rats. 

The green nuts, gathered before the inner shells harden, make excellent pickles. 
The kernels are also pressed for oil ; the husks and the juice of the green fruits are 



070 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

used in the manufacture of hair and other dyes, and the bruised leaves have an 
aromatic odor which drives aAvay moths. 

See also Color Page facing 410 and articles on Butternuts and Nuts. 

WALNUT OIL: an edible oil which in Germany and Switzerland takes the place 
held by olive oil in France and Italy. It is also sold here, principally in German 
delicatessen stores. If of good quality, it possesses a delicate, nutty flavor. 

WASABI: a Japanese plant, whose root is grated for use like American horse- 
radish. It has an agreeably sharp taste. Efforts are being made to propagate the 
plant here. 

WASHING PREPARATIONS. Under this head may be classed every article sold 
to take the place of soap. Washing Crystals are simply anhydrous carbonate of soda, 
sometimes rendered caustic by the addition of lime. Washing Fluids are generally 
based on similar material, with the addition of ammonia or borax. Some prepara- 
tions are merely mixtures of soap, water and ammonia, being then best described as 
ammoniated soft-soap. See also Soap-pOivders, etc., in article on Soap. 

WASHING SODA. See general article on Soda. 

WATER: in some form is essential to all forms of animal, and nearly all kinds of 
vegetable, life. Its consumption in liberal quantities is especially necessary to civil- 
ized communities because of the generally dry character of the bulk of their diet — 
the human body requires an average of nearly 75% water, whereas bread, for example, 
has only about 35% and bacon 20% liquid in its composition. See general article 
on Food Values. 

The greater part of the world's water supply is obtained from the ocean — the 
water being drawn up by the sun as vapor and later falling condensed and free from 
salt, as rain or snow, to feed the rivers and lakes. 

Ocean water in its natural condition averages about 31/2% saline — of which about 
three-fourths is common salt. The salt can be removed by distillation, and several 
South American towns have temporarily obtained their entire fresh-water supply in 
that manner. 

Pure water is a combination, by volume, of two parts of hydrogen and one part of 
oxygen. By weight, the proportion is two parts of hydrogen to sixteen parts of 
oxygen. 

Chemically pure water is obtainable only by careful filtration and distillation. 
The purest water naturally obtainable is (1) rain-water in places remote from regular 
human habitation, taken after the rain has been falling sufliciently long to 
clear the atmosphere; and (2) that obtained by melting snow that has fallen in the 
polar regions. Nearly as close to perfection is the water in some mountain lakes — 
when resulting from melting snow and resting on impermeable rocks. 

Such water — and all other in which the proportion of mineral matter is less than 
eight grains to the gallon — is known generally as "soft water," in contrast to "hard 
water," which implies a mineral content of eight to ten, and more, grains to the gal- 
lon. Water from rivers running over calcareous and clayey rocks often averages 
fifteen to twenty grains to the gfillon. 



THE grocek's encyclopedia 671 

The foreign matter in "soft water" is partly organic — animal and vegetable — and 
partly mineral — silica and salts of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, etc. 

The mineral matter in "hard waters" varies greatly, but carbonate of lime gen- 
erally predominates. 

Water becomes solid, Ice, at 32° Fahr., and is converted into steam at 212° Fahr., 
boiling point. 

The mineral matter found in the average water supply is not in any way detri- 
mental to health — on the contrary, it is frequently a real benefit to the consumer. The 
"pure water" that every communitj^ should provide for itself is not necessarily chemi- 
cally pure water, but water uncontaminated by sewage of any description or in any 
form, for such contamination is one of the most serious menaces to health. 

Spring Water is frequently regarded as the highest type of "pure water" because 
of its ordinarily bright and more or less sparkling appearance. This appearance is, 
however, generally the result of its hardness — i. e.. the mineral ingredients it has 
absorbed in its passage through the rocks. In cases where the mineral ingredients are 
in sufficiently large proportions to be of distinct medicinal value, the spring water is 
classed as a "mineral water" (see article on Mineral Waters). 

Distilled Water is "ordinary water" filtered, boiled in vacuum boilers to remove vola- 
tile organic matter, converted into steam in stills (see Distillation) and finally con- 
densed. If these processes are conducted with proper care, the water obtained is free 
from all germs or bacteria. It must be remembered, however, 
that it remains pure only so long as it is kept from contact \ 

with the atmosphere, as in syphons, corked bottles, etc. 



WATER CHESTNUT: the kernel of the fruit of an aqua- 
tic plant. When boiled, it is floury and very pleasing to the 
palate. 




\V:\Ur CliLvstaut 




WATER-CRESS : an aquatic plant of pungent, salty and rather bitter flavor, which 

rf\ S^i is especially popular as a spring salad. It grows wild in many 

\ ' ' parts, flourishing best in running waters with sandy bottoms. 

M4. » Under cultivation it is generally raised in wide shallow ditches 

^"- of slowly moving water. 

^^ ^ '.- Water-cress offers itself as a pleasant means of providing the 

■ ' blood with a good supply of natural salts, potash and acids, for 

it is more generally endowed with such matters than any other 

vegetable of general consumption, excepting only spinach. 

Water-cress 

WATERMELONS. See general article on Melons. 

WAX. The title wax was formerly confined to Beeswax (which see), but it is now 
applied to many other substances of similar composition or characteristics. For 
household purposes, beeswax has been almost entirely superseded by Paraffin ( which 
see) or "Paraffin Wax" because of its much lower cost. 

Vegetable Wax, or Vegetable Tallow, is found as a coating on many plants and 
fruits, on the leaves of rye, lilies, etc., but in only a comparatively few cases in quan- 
tities sufficient for commercial purposes. Among the most noteworthy commercial 



G72 



THE GROCEE-^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



examples are the Myrtle Wax — also called "Bayberry," "Candleberry" and "Tallow 
Shrub" — of this country and several bushes native to China and Japan, one of which, 
known as the Chinese Tallow Tree, has been naturalized in the Southern States. 

The berries of the Myrtle Wax are about the size of peppercorns, and when ripe 
are covered with a greenish yellow wax which is collected by boiling the berries and 
skimming it off as it floats on the surface of the liquid. A bushel of berries will yield 
from four to five pounds. The product, after remelting and refining, is chiefiy used for 
candles, which burn slowly with little smoke and emit an agreeable balsamic odor, 
but fail to give a brilliant light. An excellent scented fancy soap is also made from it. 

The Chinese Tallow Tree bears capsules containing three roundish seeds covered 
with fine white wax. The capsules and seeds are generally crushed and boiled, the fat 
then being skimmed off as it rises. The refined product makes fancy candles which 
are brilliantly white. Wax and linseed oil are frequently added to obtain the correct 
consistence. 

WAXED PAPER, or Paraffin Paper: is paper coated with refined Par.\ffin 
(which see). It is odorless and tasteless when properly made. It is employed in pack- 
ing dates, raisins, candy, etc., and to wrap butter, lard, cheese and other foods, as it 
serves to keep moisture in — and out — and is cheap, convenient and cleanly. It is manu- 
factured both in rolls and sheets and as a lining for paper bags. Small rolls at five 
cents and ten cents each are now retailed for household use, for wrapping meats, etc., 
keeping them fresh and moist and protecting them from the odors of other articles. 

Vegetable Parchment Paper, treated with sulphuric acid so as to render it imper- 
vious to moisture, is also largely employed for the same purposes. The best qualities 
can be soaked in water and washed out without losing their virtue. Manv careful 
housewives who receive butter, etc., wrapped in this special paper, save it for household 
uses after the consumption of the articles originally contained. 



WEAKFISH: a fish resembling a trout found along the Northern Atlantic coast and 
in season from the middle of May to the end of October. It takes its name from tlie 
tenderness of its mouth. The Common Weakfish (see Color Page opposite 540) is 
silvery with dark, wavy marks. Other kinds include the Hjiotted, -=^ 
named from its black spots, and the White. Their weight varies 
with the depth of the water in which they are caught — those from 
near shore often weigh as little as half a pound, others from deep 
water reach as high as ten pounds. ' 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. See Tables in Appendix. 

WELSH ONION, or Cibol: a member of the onion family 
which is grown principally for its leaves, of mild onion flavor, 
employed for seasoning, etc. 

Welsh Onions 

WELSH RABBIT, or "Rarebit" : is made of dry cheese, melted with a little old 
ale and poured over slices of hot buttered toast. Seasoning and other ingredients, as 
sauces, etc., are added according to individual taste. 

Many argumentative Avars have been waged on the question of whether "rabbit" or 
"rarebit" is the correct word. Modern dictionaries give the preference to the former, 




THE grocer's encyclopedia 673 



but "rarebit" still has a great many energetic defenders. The term is probably a 
jocular hit at the Welsh, as in New England a salt cod is styled a poor man's "turkey." 

WEEVIL: a tiny brown wingless beetle, the greatest pest of stored grain. Among the 
numerous varieties are the corn-weevil, grain-weevil, nut-weevil and rice-weevil. They 
are liable to be found in any cereal product, package or bulk, kept on hand for a long 
time, especially if the surroundings are not clean. 

Absolute cleanliness and a stock that is "turned over" at frequent intervals are the 
only practical preventives. Because of the possibility of this pest invading them, 
it does not pay to buy cereals in large quantities. 

WESTPHALIA CHEESE. See sub-head in article on Cheese. 

WESTPHALIA HAM. See Ham. 

WHALE OIL: is obtained principally from two species of whale — the Sperm Whale 
and the liiglit Whale. The former, or Cacholot, known also as the Spermaceti whale, 
inhabits nearly all seas and has a wide geographical range. It varies from sixty to 
seventy feet in length and will yield from six thousand to seven thousand gallons 
of oil. The finest is that taken from the great reservoir in the head and is distinguished 
by the specific title of "Sperm Oil." 

The Eight, or Greenland, Whale, yields the largest proportion of common whale 
oil, usually designated as "train oil," a term supposed to be a corruption of "drain," 
from the oil being drained out of the blubber. "Blubber" is the thick layer of fat 
immediately under the skin. 

After the whale has been harpooned, lanced and killed, it is towed by boats to the 
ship and made fast to the ship's chains. The process of "flensing," or stripping off, 
the blubber is then undertaken by some of the crew who, provided with iron spikes 
in their boots to prevent slipping, descend upon the carcass, remove the blanket of 
skin in broad strips about thirty feet long and then, with "Blubber Spades," cut 
the fat into huge cubical pieces of half a ton or a ton weight. These are hoisted to 
the deck as cut, the process being continued until the entire mass, amounting to 
twenty or thirty tons, has been secured. In the meanwhile, others of the crew have 
explored the whale's mouth and secured the baleen or whalebone. The remainder of 
the carcass is then flung adrift. 

The blubber is next cut into small pieces and the tissue is separated from it by 
heating in a large pot and then straining, the scraps from one pot and the whaleskin 
serving as fuel for another, the product being finally stored in casks to be brought 
home and boiled for oil. A ton of blubber will give about two hundred gallons of 
oil. A whale will often yield four thousand dollars' worth of blubber and whalebone. 

Whale fishing no longer holds the important commercial position of former days. 
One reason is found in the scarcity of the big fish. Another, and the most impor- 
tant, is the large commercial use of substitutes for whalebone and whale-oil. The 
whale firms of New Bedford, Mass., are still the most prominent in the industry, but 
their fleets have shrunk in size and they now use San Francisco and Hawaii as refit- 
ting ports, shipping the bulk of their catch by rail across the continent. 

Imported whale oil comes principally from Newfoundland, Labrador and Canada, 
supplemented by considerable quantities from Norway and Japan. 



674 THE GEOCEB-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

WHEAT (see Color Page opposite 676). The pre-eminence of wheat, in other than 
Asiatic countries, is attributable chiefly to the fact that, in the universally desired form 
of bread, it is more generally acceptable than any other grain. Its superiority in that 
respect is due to its comparatively large content of gliadin (see Gluten). 

AVheat has been cultivated since the earliest ages — it was the main crop even in 
the days of ancient Egypt and Palestine. To-day, tlie United States produces and 
consumes greater quantities than any other country in the world. Kussia stands 
next in the list of producers. The plant is an annual or biennial, flourishing in sub- 
tropical regions yet capable of enduring the unusually severe winters so often experi- 
enced in Northern Europe and the northwestern part of this continent. It requires, 
however, a mean temperature of at least 55° Fahr. for three or four mouths of the year. 

Owing to the different climates in which it is produced, the cultivated varieties 
are very numerous and new kinds are continually presenting themselves, many of 
which are held in high estimation in certain districts. The chief types are known 
as Hard, Semi-Hard and Soft, Red, White and Durum, or "Macaroni," with sub-di- 
visions into Bearded and Unbearded. The "hardness" and "softness" depend on (1) 
the variety, (2) the length of time taken to reach maturity, and (3) the amount of 
gluten developed. Any kind may be Spring or Winter, according to the sowing time. 

The grain consists of a starchy kernel, composed of minute cells containing the 
glutenous proteids and the starch granules, wrapped in five coats or layers, which 
constitute the Bran. The three thin outside layers are called the "skin" ; the fourth, 
known as the "testa," contains the greater part of the coloring matter of the bran. 
These four outer coats together constitute about 5% of the weight of the whole 
grain. The fifth inner and thickest coat (constituting about 8% of the weight of the 
whole grain) is known as the "cereal" or "aleurone" layer. The varying proportions 
in which the bran is included in the flour represent the differences in Graham, 
Whole Wheat and other similar breads (see Breads). 

A good milling wheat will yield from 75% to 80% of fine flour, of which perhaps 
three-fourths will be Patent and the remainder of lower grades. 

Because of its importance for food purposes, wheat has attained great prominence 
in the political and commercial worlds. In the former, it has even held the reins of 
power, created parties, developed partisanship and decided the issues of parliamen- 
tary or congressional strife. In the latter, it has proved an attractive source of specu- 
lation and an objective point for flnancial ambition. It has been the compeer of gold 
in the race for gain, and has given and removed fortunes in a day. The principal 
produce exchanges throughout the civilized world resound with the noisy clamor of 
"bulls" and "bears," as the fluctuating prices of the grain are clicked by the telegraph 
and confusedly echoed among the excited throng. Corners have been created and ruin 
forced almost in the twinkling of an eye by the capricious determination of a favored 
few struggling for the sole possession of this precious grain. Too plain language 
cannot be used against this pernicious practice and it is devoutly to be hoped that 
proper legislation upon the subject may yet remedy the evil. 

Rolled Wheat is milled in much the same way as Rolled Oats (see Oatmeal). 

Craeked Wheat corresponds to old-fashioned Oatmeal. 

Puffed Wheat is prepared in the same way as Puffed Rice (see article on Rice). 

WHEY: is the product remaining after the removal of fat, casein, etc., from milk 
in cheese-making. It is a pale yellow liquid, consisting chiefly of water and milk-sugar. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 675 

WHISKY: as the word is generally understood to-day, is spirit of potable strength 
obtained by distillation from the fermented solutions of various grains — rye, corn, 
barley, wheat, etc. — as brandy is of fruits, principally of wine, i. e.,. grapes. An 
important exception to this generalization is that grain spirit flavored with juniper 
berries is the product known as Gin (which see). 

The word "Whisky" is derived from an old Irish and Scotch word Usquebaugh 
(pronounced "Whisky-bay" I , derived from the Gaelic TJisge, meaning "water," and 
Beatha meaning "(of) life." The same idea is conveyed in the French name for 
Brandy — Eaii de Vie, w^hich also signifies "water of life." The title Usquebaugh 
was further applied in Ireland to a drink prepared by digesting raisins, etc., in spirit. 

The different varieties of American Whisky are due primarily to ( 1 ) the different 
grains used or the different combinations of grains, and (2) the degree to which dis- 
tillation is carried. 

To properly explain the difference between "Straight," "Blended" and "Redis- 
tilled" whiskies, one must use the distillery phrases of "High Wines" and "Neutral 
Spirits." 

The first distillation from the old pot-still is known as "Low Wines," and consists 
of a liquid containing about two-thirds water and one-third alcohol, together with 
various undesirable grain ingredients. Low Wines redistilled — once, twice or sev- 
eral times, according to the distillery equipment or policy and the degree of refinement 
desired — produce "High Wines," a much stronger product and with the "impurities" 
considerably reduced. In general modern manufacture, these distillations are made 
by a single continuous process — the Low Wines, while still in vapor form, passing into 
additional "chambers" and there being redistilled into High Wines. This High Wines, 
when water is added to reduce it to potable strength, is new Straight Whisky. It is 
at this stage a harsh, unpalatable product because of the congeneric substances ("fusel 
oil") contained, but aging in wood for three or four years overcomes this defect. 

If, instead of condensing the vapors which form High Wines, they are passed 
through other chambers until practically all the congeneric substances have been 
eliminated or "neutralized," the result is "Neutral Spirits." 

"Rectified Spirits," "Redistilled Spirits," etc., are essentially the same as Neutral 
Spirits. 

Blended Whisky is sometimes a blend of two or more varieties of High Wines 
reduced to potable strength, but is generally a mixture of High Wines and Neutral 
Spirits. The High Wines is used for the character it imparts to the blend, and the 
Neutral Spirits to modify the harshness of the new High Wines. 

Redistilled Whisky is Neutral Spirits reduced to potable strength, flavored and 
colored, either by aging in wood or by the addition of caramel coloring and fruit- 
juice flavoring, etc. 

Compound, Whiski/ is a mixture of any kind of whisky with distillates from other 
sources, as molasses, etc. 

Other terms descriptive of American Whisky are : 

Rye Whisky : in which Rye is the predominating grain. 

Bourion Whisky (so-called because first made in Bourbon County, Ky.), in which 
corn (maize) is the predominating grain. 

Corn Whisky: in which corn is the only grain used except the Malt employed for 
diastatic purposes. 

Malt Whisky : principally or entirely from malted grain. 



676 THE GROCEK^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Straight Whisky may be either Rye, Bourbon, Corn or Malt. 

Blended Whisky may be either Rye, Bourbon, Malt or Corn "High Wines" — or all 
four — blended with each other or with "Neutral Spirits" and reduced to potable 
strength. 

Whisky "aged in wood" is that in which the distinctive color and flavor are due 
either wholly or in part to the extractive matters from the barrels in which it is allowed 
to rest — instead of these two characteristics being otherwise produced. High class 
Blended and all Straight whiskies are so aged to a greater or less extent. 

The use of Neutral Spirits is resorted to in the manufacture of a majority of popu 
lar price whiskies, because it decreases the cost of producing a marketable liquor. 
The unpleasant smell and taste of new Straight Whisky entirely disappear if it is 
stored for some years in wood casks, being succeeded by the amber hue and rich flavor 
so agreeable to connoisseurs — the "fusel oil' is still present, but it lias lost the charac- 
teristics which render it objectionable to nostrils and palate — but to wait several years 
before marketing a product of this volatile character is to greatly enhance its expense 
by the loss in volume incurred and by tying up capital for that length of time. By blend- 
ing with a sufficient quantity of Neutral Spirits, the fusel oil taste and smell are at once 
considerably modified. The next step is the addition of caramel (burnt sugar), which 
gives the desired color. By these methods a whisky, acceptable for ordinary purposes 
and equally wholesome when the product of reputable manufacturers, can be marketed 
with much less delay. 

In some cases, prune and other fruit juices are added in small quantities to give 
"mellowness" and flavor. 

Blending is also employed in the manufacture of some expensive American 
whiskies, which are "aged" just as long and at the same trouble and expense as for 
the best Straight Whisky. The reason, then, is the belief of the manufacturers that 
greater palatability is thus secured. 

The special color and flavor which distinguish American Whisky were originally, 
and still are largely, due to the use of caramel — and frequently of fruit juices. The 
same color found in the whisky "aged in wood" to which no caramel or other substance 
is added, is attributable to the present American custom of using new barrels to store 
whisky and charring the insides of the barrels to prevent it from acquiring a "woody 
taste." N^w uncolored whisky as it first goes into the barrels looks like water, but as 
the liquor acts on the tannin of the layer under the charred surface of the wood, it 
changes gradually to very light amber, then to straw color and lastly to a rich amber. 

In English, Scotch and Irish whiskies, barley, oats and malt (in varying propor- 
tions — some almost entirely of malt) are the dominating factors. In Scotland, the 
liquor is generally stored in sherry casks. The "smoky" flavor characteristic of Scotch 
and Irish whisky was originally caused by the use of peat or turf as fuel for drying 
the malt, and the force of public habit has resulted in its being continued under more 
elaborate methods. The best Scotch Whiskiesvare obtained by blending high-flavored 
raw whisky with very mild-flavored redistilled whisky and then thoroughly aging. 

The five principal stages in the manufacture of whisky are (1) preparing the 
grain, (2) "mashing," and adding the malt to convert the starch into fermentable 
sugar, (3) fermentation, to convert the sugar into alcohol, (4) distillation to separate 
the alcohol from the water and solid matter, and (5) aging. 

In addition to the "character" grain — -rye for Rye Whisky and corn for Bourbon, 
etc. — ground barley malt (or in some rye whiskies, rye malt) is used, in American 




\^HEAT 



OATS 



RYE 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 679 



manufacture, in an average proportion of 10% to 20fo, occasionally to as high as 25%, 
according to individual or local custom. 

The preparation of the grain means, in a first-class modern distillery, its careful 
selection (for damaged grain will spoil the flavor of the whisky), thorough "brush- 
ing" and cleansing and, finally, grinding into meal. It is then ready for the "mash" 
tubs. 

A mash tub is generally a wooden or metal receptacle of large size, with apertures 
for the admission of steam, copper coils for the circulation of cold water and a power- 
driven contrivance (generally called a "rake") to agitate the contents, but in a few 
distilleries small hand mash tubs and hand paddling are still employed, the distillers 
denying the advantages of improved equipment. 

The tub is half full of water at a temperature of from 140° to 170° Fahr., when 
the meal is gradually added and well mixed in. The heat is then slowly increased to 
the boiling point, and the mass — which is nothing more nor less than a gigantic 
grain "pudding," and has thickened to that consistence — is said to be "scalded" or 
"cooked." Cold water is added, through the copper coils referred to, until the tem- 
perature is reduced to 150° Fahr. or lower, and then the ground malt and an addi- 
tional 5% or 10% of fresh rye or other meal are mixed in. 

Soon after the malt has been worked into the "pudding," the mass begins to soften 
until it is sufficiently liquid to pass off through a trough or pipe into a wooden tank 
known as the "fermenter." 

When the fermenter is a little more than half full of the "pudding" liquid, 
strained spent beer from a previous distillation is added until the tank is nearly full. 
This spent beer, familiarly known as "slop" among distillery laborers, is a thin acid 
liquor, rife with yeast cells and containing some unconverted starch. 

The next move in the Sweet Mash process is the addition of some carefully pre- 
pared yeast, and then the whole is left to ferment. The yeast is generally the special 
secret of each distiller — on its merits and the skill shown at this point, depends much 
of the quality and value of the product. In some distilleries, prepared yeast is used 
to the entire exclusion of the "spent beer" addition. By the Sour Mash process, on the 
other hand, no yeast is used, reliance being placed entirely on the action of the spent 
beer. 

In a few hours the mixture begins to bubble, the agitation increasing in violence 
with the continuous formation and escape of carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas). The 
fermentation produces two main factors, alcohol and carbon-dioxide — the former 
remains in the liquid, but the latter forces its way out. 

The transformed liquid consists chiefly of crude alcohol and water, with numerous 
minor miscellaneous ingredients, and is known in distiller's parlance as "beer;" but it 
is not a drinkable beverage 

The Sour Mash process requires more time for fermentation than the Sweet Mash 
and does not yield as high an alcoholic percentage, but it gives the product more of 
the grain flavor. 

The fourth stage employs the universal principle of Distillation (which see) to 
separate the alcohol from a large part of the water, leaving also the solids and cer- 
tain deleterious ingredients behind. The exact processes vary in different localities 
and establishments and with the grade of whisky manufactured — infinite pains being 
taken in the making of finer types, as by double and triple distillation and the use of 
innumerable chambered stills placed one on top of the other so as to resemble a 

34 



680 THE GEOCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 

"column" — but whatever the A^ariatious, the product carried over is "whisky," or can 
be made so by the addition of water to reduce it to potable strength. 

Straight Whisky is stored in the distillerj' bonded warehouses; Blended Whisky 
in "free" warehouses. 

The filled barrels of Straight Whisky remain in the warehouses under the control 
of gOA'ernment officers as long as the manufacturer or other owner desires, being sub- 
ject to withdrawal at any time on payment of the government charges. The full 
"bonded" period is eight years, at the end of which time the payment of the tax is com- 
pulsory. 

Whisky as marketed generally contains about 50% alcohol by volume. The stand- 
ard of alcoholic strength in spirituous liquors is termed Proof (which see) . If less than 
80° Proof, the degrees of Proof must be stated on the label. 

WHITEBAIT: a small sih^ery-white fish, very popular in England and on the Con- 
tinent, which is found in abundance in the Thames Estuary and other British waters, 
during the spring and summer, being considered at its best in July and the first half 
of August. It is classed by some authorities as a separate variety, Chi pea Alha. of the 
Clupeoid family — which includes also the shad, herring, pilchard and sprat — but it is 
more generally regarded as the young of the sprat and herring, often mixed probably 
with those of the pilchard and shad. It is most esteemed when from tAvo to three 
inches long, although it is sometimes served at a length of from four to five inches. It is 
usually fried crisp, and is so tender that both bones and skin are eaten with the flesh. 

WHITEFISH: a delicate-flavored fish of very light silvery color caught chiefly in 
the Great Lakes. It is in season from November to the early 
summer and reaches an average Aveight of two to six pounds. 
^ ^ There are numerous varieties, differing somewhat in characteris- 
tics and known locally by divers titles. 

Whitcfish 

WHITE ROCK. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

WHITE SAPOTA, or Sapota Chico: a greenish-yellow Mexican fruit about the 
size of a small apple. In flavor it resembles the peach, but it is not considered AA'hole- 
some and the seeds are poisonous. The seeds and bark are locally incinerated and pul- 
verized for medicinal purposes. In spite of the similarity of its colloquial titles, it 
does not belong to the Sapodilla family. 

WHITE SULPHUR SPRINGS. See sub-head in article on table and medicinal 

MixKRAL Waters. 

WHITEWASH: is slacked quicklime reduced to the consistence of milk by dilu- 
tion with AAatev. A very fine qualitA' can be made by boiling a little starch, salting it 
Avell, pourins,- the mixture into the slacked lime Avhile it is still Avarm and finally adding 
a fcAv drops of Liquid Blue to remove the yellow tint and give it a pure Avhite lustre. 

WHITING; is made from chalk — which is an impure carbonate of lime. It is pre- 
pared by oriudinf>- and then Avashing the chalk so as to separate the coarser particles 
from the finer, the latter beino' collected in masses and dried. 




THE G R C E K - S ENCYCLOPEDIA 681 



Wliiting is extensively used for size, in the manufacture of paint, putty, linoleum, 
calcimine, etc.; as a household article for cleaning metals and plate, and medicinally 
as an antidote in cases of poisoning with mineral acids. 

Paris White, a finer grade, is made from English cliff stone, which is chemically 
the same as chalk. 

WHITING, or Silver Hake (see Color Page opposite 240) : a fish found on the North- 
ern Atlantic coast. It reaches a weight of three or four pounds and is in season from 
September 1 to January 31. The name "whiting" is locally, but incorrectly, applied 
to many other fish. 

WHOLESALERS AND JOBBERS. So many dealers style themselves "whole- 
salers," and at the same time cater to private family trade, that it is worth while to 
consider the real meaning of the term. A wholesale dealer is, properly, one who 
never thinks of dividing a parcel of goods into smaller quantities than the original 
package or case marketed by the manufacturer or importer. The desirability of check- 
ing retail sales on the part of "Wholesalers" and Jobbers, who, after stocking the 
retailer to his fullest capacity, undersell him to his best customers, has long been felt 
by the trade. Wherever Retail Grocers' Associations exist, they have acted promptly 
and effectively in the matter. 

WHORTLEBERRY. See Huckleberry. 

WIENERWURST. See sub-head in article on Sausages. 

WIESBADEN. See article on table and medicinal Mineral Waters. 

WILTSHIRE. See sub-head in article on Cheese. 

WINDOW DISPLAYS. As a business-bringing medium the important value of a 
well-dressed show window is now so generally accepted that further supporting argument 
is quite unnecessary, therefore a discussion of this subject can be confined entirely to 
those principles and. methods generally recognized as most essential for successful 
gi'ocery store displays. 

Of first consideration is the window itself. Its construction should be such as to 
supply it with plenty of light during the day, and for evening use there should be 
installed a sufficient number of properly placed lights to provide a brilliant window, 
but not a glaring one. Merchants the country over, whether in small towns or in the 
largest cities, are rapidly learning the value of light for evening displays. It has 
many times been demonstrated that through more brilliant lighting the stores on a 
street of moderate popularity can attract to themselves a large volume of the trade 
held by the merchants on the town's principal shopping thoroughfare. Whether a 
store keeps open late or not, evening window displays are in most cases highly val- 
uable, as they afford many busy people an opportunity of viewing things which may 
appeal to them as immediate necessities or for future purchase, but which they would 
never have seen had it not been for the evening display. 

There are three big advantages in having the rear, top and sides of a window 
completely enclosed. Such construction keeps displayed goods from injury through 



682 THE GROCER-'S ENCl'CLOPEUIA 

dust; offers an opportunity for arranging attractive backgrounds; and enables the 
enclosure to be so ventilated that during the winter no frost can form to obscure the 
display. Such ventilation keeps the temperature on both sides of the window practi- 
cally the same and thus prevents all condensation of moisture. It is also desirable to 
have the floor of a window raised about four inches, as such elevation gives added 
prominence to displays. 

It should be borne in mind that in a window, as on the stage, the most conspicuous 
position is directly in the center; therefore, in arranging goods the most important 
mass or object should have this prominent location. The extreme sides are best 
adapted for the two masses next in weight to the centerpiece, and then all minor 
objects may be grouped between these three bodies. Displays should be kept well 
away from the window glass, as often an effect, otherwise splendid, is spoiled by 
thrusting it too close to the observer. 

Most enclosed windows are provided with a permanent wooden background usually 
panelled and either finished in a natural wood effect or painted. In the matter of 
color it is advisable to avoid pure black or white; the former gives to most goods a 
dingy appearance and the latter affords too little contrast for such merchandise as is 
generally displayed. Most natural wood effects are good, as are also greys and greens. 
When backgrounds for special displays are required, an almost unlimited variety of 
colors and arrangements may be effected by the use of cheese cloth. This is also the 
best and cheapest of all materials for covering stands, pillars and other window fix- 
tures. Even the most costly fabric cannot take the place of this inexpensive cloth; 
most goods would appear cheap if displayed on such obviously expensive materials as 
velvet or satin, but cheese cloth, while presenting a general attractiveness, is unobtru- 
sive when closely approached and does not dispute for attention with the goods it 
helps display. 

A variety of window fixtures, such as graduated shelves or stands, pillars, pedes- 
tals, arches, etc., can be either easily made or cheaply bought. If made they should, 
for greater strength, be put together with screws rather than nails. Should they be 
purchased it is well to consider whether or not you intend using them covered or 
uncovered. If your window is finished in oak or mahogany it is advisable to get the 
more costly hardwood fixtures to harmonize with your window finish; you may then 
use them covered or not, as the occasion requires. Many pleasing effects can be 
obtained by the use of screens and arches of cloth-covered or gilded lattice work. 
The stencil is also a useful and rapid method of securing attractive decorative 
results. Small artificial palms can often be of service as graceful wings to the window 
stage, in fact, they are very useful adjuncts to a supply of window fixtures. 

Simplicity is the best principle to follow in window dressing. The general 
inclination is to crowd a window until it offers nothing but confusion to the 
passer-by. It should always be remembered that the first mission of a window is "to 
sell goods," and a crowded window has about the same chance of making sales as 
would a clerk who offered a customer a dozen different objects in every sentence. The 
circular arrangement of goods is usually more graceful and effective than cornered 
grouping and to this end only curved fixtures should be secured. There are, of 
course, many striking displays to be had from square and triangular forms, but in the 
circular method there is greater safety from possible discord. 

A "mixed" window containing goods of various grades and sorts not in harmony 
should generally be avoided. Goods for displays can be divided into two classes : New 



THE grocee's encyclopedia 683 

and seasonable goods, which find a ready sale because of their novelty or timeliness, and 
slow-selling goods, which must be moved by the expedient of bargain prices. The sell- 
ing value of a window is almost invariably increased by a display of prices — merely 
prices, not necessarily "cut" prices. Prices have an educational effect directly bearing 
upon a larger sale of grocery luxuries. There are hundreds of commodities in the 
grocer's stock which many people never consider purchasing, simply because they are 
under an impression that these goods are much beyond their means. 

The grocer's stock offers an immense variety of commodities from which to draw 
material for attractive displays. The idea of arranging in the window a group of 
various spices with a world map as a background and then running a slender ribbon 
from each pile of spice to the point on the map from which that spice came, is always 
sure to attract profitable attention. This scheme can also be used for other imported 
articles, and whenever photographs of scenes in foreign fields, markets and manufac- 
tories can be obtained they should always be considered as valuable window material, 
especially in these "map" displays. 

All goods, particularly foreign products, which are put up in fancy or unusual cans, 
boxes, jars and bottles, possess much interest to the public. Small packing cases or 
casks having foreign labels, seals and other quaint marks can be used to advantage. 
A good idea for attracting attention to imported goods would be to arrange a number 
of pyramids, each composed of products from a certain country, and then to surmount 
each group with a small flag of the nation furnishing those commodities. 

Eare and curious fruits are excellent attractions, and if a grocer does not make a 
specialty of fine fruits he can secure from the nearest importer of such goods quite a 
variety of uncommon tropical fruits. Such articles should not be considered as stock 
to be sold, as they well pay for themselves in the attention which they secure for the 
store. Displays of this nature should always occupy a prominent position, and care 
should be taken to set them off to the best possible advantage. The leaves of such fruits 
should be obtained when possible, and if the wrappings are unusual in appearance 
they should also be exhibited. 

Displays composed entirely of one particular brand of packaged goods are always 
striking. A window filled with a certain soap, cereal or starch impresses observers 
with the abundance of that article and the extensive demand that must, in conse- 
quence, exist for it, and to convince people of a commodity's popularity is to accomplish 
the largest part of yoiir sales work on it. 

Many concerns send out made-up displays showing their goods as they appear in 
various stages of manufacture, and these can generally be used to advantage. Most 
manufacturers are generous in supplying their trade with such material for displays as 
may assist in the sale of the goods they make, and while a merchant should practice 
discrimination in choosing from this material for his window he should by no means 
neglect it. 

Window displays should be seasonable. There isn't much "pulling" quality in a 
mid-summer display of fur overcoats, and it should no more be expected that a windoAv 
full of plum puddings will appeal to many people in July. For a summer display 
of packaged cereals, flaked corn or puffed grains of some sort should be chosen rather 
than rolled oats or other heavy breakfast foods. 

"^leohanical" displays — those having action due to special mechanism- — are very 
effective if their obvious purpose is to show the quality or method in manufacture of 
some particular article of stock. But it should never be lost sight of that a display 



684 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

must attract attention to the goods for sale and not merely to some interesting, ' but 
irrelevant, device. Electric fans can be used to advantage in giving action to flags or 
draperies and can usually be so placed as to be either entirely out of sight or quite 
inconspicuous. 

"Illusion" windows and bizarre exhibitions of all kinds surely attract a crowd, but 
the crowd is there to see the show and not your goods. The value of most such dis- 
plays is always questionable, and unless these exhibitions have some direct bearing 
upon what you have for sale nothing is lost by avoiding them. Electric illumination 
effects can usually be depended upon to get attention at night, and if well designed and 
arranged they form very excellent methods of halting the passer-by. 

There are many opportunities during tlie year for special decoration. Christmas, 
New Year's, Washington's and Lincoln's birthday anniversaries, St. Valentine's Day, 
Easter, Memorial Day, Fourth of July, Hallowe'en and Thanksgiving, are all generally 
recognized with appropriate displays. There are also numerous other occasions for 
attractive window work : association and lodge conventions, local celebrations, visit- 
ing celebrities, etc. Careful judgment should be exercised in all displays that have 
to do with elections, athletic victories, and, in fact, all matters upon which public sen- 
timent is divided. A partisan display usually has more power to repel than to 
attract. 

Most merchants dress their windows outside of business hours, but a deviation from 
this practice is frequently advantageous. Many decorators gain much attention for 
the store by dressing their windows in full view of a mid-day crowd. People never 
seem to tire of "getting behind the scenes" and "watching the Avheels go 'round," and 
a window dresser can always be sure of a sizable audience. If a canvas screen is used 
to enclose the window during a "change," the splendid opportunity its expanse offers 
for some brief, effective advertising should not be neglected. "Pass This Way To- 
morrow, but Don't Pass This Window," "Our Window Is Closed, but Our Door Is 
Open," "Come Back! You'll Be Glad You Did," "Don't Look! The Window Is Dress- 
ing" — these lines suggest the length and style of such notices. 

In the grocery trade, more than in any other, cleanliness of window displays is of 
essential importance. As a business-repelling device nothing can quite equal an exhi- 
bition of food products surrounded by dingy decorations, covered with dirt and dust 
and having the general appearance of an extensive fly morgue. Furthermore, while it 
is usually a desirable thing to have a cat in your store as a discourager of mice, it is 
wise to obtain ti shy and modest tabby; oiie without the vain habit of show-window 
lounging. Goods and decorations should never be permitted to remain on display after 
they have lost their appearance of freshness. Dust and dead insects can hardly be 
prevented, especially in an unenclosed window, but it is only the work of a few minutes 
to dust your displays once a day, keeping them clean and tidy. A display of opened 
goods in an unenclosed window can be protected from flies by placing an electric fan 
at one side and attaching to the front-protecting wires, long "strips of colored paper 
or silk ribbons. The wind-current from the fan, by keeping these streamers in motion, 
will not only drive away flies, but will add an attractive life to your display. Never, 
under any consideration, place fly paper in your window. 

WINDSOR, or Broad, BEANS. See illustration and description on page 50. 
WINDSOR, or Brown Windsor, SOAP. See article on Toilet Soaps,, page 571. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



685 



WINE: is not always found in the grocer's stock, but it is iu mauy localities a profit- 
able branch of the trade when it is kept iu its proper place. If sold only in bottles 
or by the quantity, with no sampling, it attracts a good class of customers who use; 
but do not abuse, the product of the vine and who, for that very reason, prefer to pur- 
chase from the grocer. 

Selling liquor over the bar should not be mixed with retailing groceries, although 
in some sections it is very generally doue. In the end, it limits the success of the store 
instead of aiding it. The best custom is driven away, and that which remains too often 
ends by owing both the bar and the store, the store having trusted a little more liber- 
ally on account of the bar, and the bar unable to refuse the credit asked lest the whole 
bill should be lost — as it frequently is. 

The term "Wine" is usually applied only to the fermented juice of the grape, but 
other fruits, as currants, raspberries, blackberries, gooseberries, elderberries, etc., are 
employed to make pi'oducts distinguished generally by the name of the fruit or known 
as Domestic, or Home-made, wines. 

The grapes are, for most types of wiue, picked when just fully rii^e, the juice 
being extracted by crushing and pressing, and stored in open vats for the first or active 
fermentation. The product is then drawn off the lees and placed in casks for the 
second or slow fermentation, during which the "character" of the wine develops. The 
subsequent processes differ according to the style and character of the wine desired 
(see special articles on Champagne, Sherry, etc.). During development, many wines 
undergo several "finings" (see Clarification). The lees, or Argol, deposited is largely 
utilized in the form of Cream of Tartar (which see). 

The quantity of alcohol in the wines of popular usage generally varies within the 
following percentages : 



Alcolio!: per cent 

Burgundy (red) 8-15 

Champagne 12-14 

Claret -. . 8-15 

Madeira 18-20 

Moselle 8-10 



Alcoliol per cent 

Port ...'. 18-24 

Rhine Wine 8-14 

Sauternes 8-15 

Sherry 15-24 

Tokay 9-15 



Wines, however, are not consumed for their alcohol alone. They contain other 
ingredients, derived from the grape juice, which are more important, both commercially 
and from the standpoint of the epicure. Their value depends largely on their age, flavor 
and bouquet. 

The matter of age varies with differ- 
ent classes — some reach their prime at 
four or five years ; others will continue to 
improve after the lapse of several dec- 
ades. The -flavor is attributable to the 
cenanthic ether formed during the fer- 
mentation of the grape juice — and on its 
delicacy and other characteristics rests 
the first popular classification of the 
merit of a wine. The bouquet, or blume. 
which frequently suggests the odors of vio- 
lets, almonds, etc., is a higher quality 
peculiar to certain varieties and generally 

the factor chiefly responsible for giving a primitive wine Press. Madeira 




686 



THE GEOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 




''Rackin, 



oue wine a value of five dollars a bot.tle, 
while another of the same alcoholic con- 
tent and general properties, may be listed 
at only fifty cents. The bouquet is due to 
obscure volatile oils or to ethers (other 
than cenanthic) developed by the combi- 
nation of certain acids in the wine with 
the ethyl of the alcohol content — so in- 
tangible that they are not detectable by 
chemical agency, yet very distinct and 
real to the educated palate. 

Among the other substances which 
lend character are the saline compounds. 
These, the ashes of vegetable tissues, exist in varying quantity in all fruits, and 
are found dissolved in their juices, both before and after fermentation. The most 
abundant is bitartrate of potash, or tartar, but there are numerous others, especially 
tartrate of lime, tartrate of iron, chloride of sodium, chloride and sulphate of potas- 
sium, sulphate of potash and phosphate of alumina, occurring in a total proportion 
of from one to four parts in one thousand of wine. Their presence is one of the surest 
indications of the genuineness of a wine. Those who manufacture "wines" chiefly from 
alcohol and water, only incorporating a certain quantity of true wine for flavor, do not 
usually add these mineral constituents. 

The first great division of wines is by their color. Broadly, the classification is 
into "Red" and "White," the latter including all wines which have no red in their 
composition. 

The best known of the Red Wines are the Clarets, Burgundies and Ports. Their 
color is due to the custom of permitting a partial preliminary fermentation of the 
grapes in their skins — for White Wine, the grapes are pressed as quickly as possible 
to avoid the skins coloring the juice. 

An accompanying attribute of Red Wine is tannic acid, which exists in some types 
to a considerable extent, and in many varieties, especially those from the south of 
France and Italy, gives a more or less marked astringency, which is not, though, in 
any way harmful to the human system. This astringency is usually absent from 
White Wines, though it is found in some of the darker varieties. Red Wines also 
generally contain more tartrates and iron, 
but less acetic ether. 

The next divisions are into "Spark- 
ling" and "Still," "Dry" and "Sweet." 

Sparkling Wine is that in which re- 
mains part of the carbon-dioxide (gas) 
formed in the fermentation of the natural 
sugar of the grape juice or of the sugar or 
syrup added thereto. Still Wine is that 
from which the carbon-dioxide has been 
permitted to escape. 

The difference between "Dry" and 
"Sweet" wines is due sometimes to the 
greater quantity of natural sugar left in 




Bottling Room in a Malaga \\ine house 




COPiniGBT, UNDEBWOOD & OMDBKWOOP, S. T. 



ONE OF THE GREAT WINE CELLARS AT MALAGA, SPAIN 



688 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 









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Cooper's Vartt ot a 'J'arraf2:ojia wine tirm 



the latter during the process of fermenta- 
tion and sometimes to the addition of 
small quantities of sweetening afterwards 
— or to both causes. Clarets contain very 
little or no sugar; some Sauternes and 
"sweet" Champagnes shuw a considerable 
percentage. 

The "body" of a wine may be due to 
the unfermented sugar content or, as in 
rich Rhine wines, to the glycerine con- 
tained- 

Natural wines to which neither alco- 
hol nor syrup has been added, are very 
closely akin to the grape, for the process 
of making is practically nothing but the fermentation of the fruit juice. The differ- 
ence between grape juice and claret, for example, is only the conversion of the "solid 
matters" and sugar of the grape into alcohol, water and small proportions of glycer- 
ine, albuminoids, etc., as will be noted by the average analyses below: 

Grape Juice Claret 

Sugar 21.80 0.13 

Alcohol 9.83 

Water 76,87 87.61 

Glycerine 0.642 

Tannin traces 0.238 

Albuminoid 0.30 0.278 

Total volatile acidity calculated as acetic acid 0.127 

Total fixed acidity reckoned as tartaric acid 0.69 0.460 

Potassium Tartrate 0.34 0.166 

Total mineral matter 0.34 0.220 

Fortified Wines, both Dry and Sweet, are those to which alcohol — generally 
brandy, i. e., grape alcohol — has been added. The best-known examples are Port, 
Madeira and the cheaper Sherries. The addition serves two i^urposes: (1) It gives 
the wine greater alcoholic strength than that of any "natural" wine, for no matter 
how heavy the grapes may be in sugar, fermentation is stopped when the alcohol 
formed by the fermentation of the juice reaches a percentage of about 17% by volume. 
(2) It makes iwssible a product containing much of the natural sweetness of the juice. 
Grape juice, from fresh fruit, has generally exhausted its sugar in fermentation and 




Gathering grapes, Aosta. Italy 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



(589 




Grape pickers carrying tlie filled tubs to the collecting wagons, Aosta, Italy 

is "drT" by the time it has formed a percentage of 9% to 12% alcohol — it seldom 
reaches the 17% point referred to — but if sufficient alcohol is added when the natural 
fermentation has only proceeded, saj, half-way, much of the sweetness of the juice is 
retained in the wine. This natural sweetness is in many fortified wines supplemented 
by the addition of sugar or syrup. By U. S. Standards, all wine containing more than 
16% alcohol is classed as Fortified. 

Storing and Care of Wines. 

Circumstances vary so greatly that it is difficult to formulate a practical set of 
rules for the storing and care of wines. It is easy to specify just what conditions 
should prevail and the proper position and temperature for each kind, but few retail- 
ers have the space or facilities for conducting an ideal wine cellar. 

A few cardinal principles must, however, be observed by everyone engaged in sell- 
ing wines, no matter how limited the department may be, if they are to be turned over 
Avithout loss and delivered in satisfactory condition. 

(1) The cellar is the best place for storing wines, if it is dry, well ventilated and 
of even temperature, not falling below 50° Fahr., and located where street traffic will 
not cause undue vibration; but if tlie cellar is damp or much exposed, an upper floor 
is safer. No sink or sewer should be in the vicinity of a cellar used for wines. 

(2) The temperature should average about 50° Fahr. for a mixed stock. Some 
Avines keep better at a higher temperature, but where it is not practicable to give 
special attention to eacli variety, 50° Fahr. is a fair average for all. 

(3) Vegetables or strong smelling articles should never be stored near wines. If 
possible, the cellar, or floor, should be devoted exclusively to wine storage. Vege- 
tables, growing plants, green wood, etc., are especially dangerous, as they are liable to 
start fermentation again. 

(4) The cellar door should nexer be left open, as variations are detrimental. 

(5) EA^ery barrel should be inspected on receipt — leakage results in atmospheric 
contact and will spoil the wine. A cask which has thus lost some of its contents should 



690 THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

be immediately refilled to avoid damage. In storing barrels, air-space should be left 
between each. 

(6) Every bottle and its cork should be inspected when received. If the bottles 
are to be placed in the wine-bin, their straw envelopes are best removed. 

If all other precautions are observed, wine may be left in cases, but if the wine-bin 
is suitably located and arranged, the bottles should be taken from the cases and placed 
in it. 

(7) When binning, the bottles should be placed preferably on racks, lying on 
their sides so that the wine covers the corks. Some wines may be stood up, but it 
is safest to make the rule that all bottled goods shall be kept on their sides. The posi- 
tion is absolutely imperative in the case of sparkling wines, as otherwise the drying 
of the cork will result in "flatness" from the escape of the carbon-dioxide (gas). 

The bottles should also lie with their labels up, so that, when taken out and 
replaced, they are always returned to the same position with the least possible 
disturbance of the sediment. 

Every bottle should rest on an even foundation and be safe against slipping. 

(8) If one side, or end, of the cellar is cooler than the other, the space should be 
assigned to Champagnes and Ehine and Moselle Wines. The warmest part should be 
given to Sherry, Madeira, etc. Port, Claret, Burgundy and Sauternes come in between. 

If there is no difference in temperature, the wines which require warmer atmos- 
phere should be binned or stored on the upper racks. 

(9) If the cellar or other store-room is dry, but unavoidably exposed to either heat 
or cold, it is often advisable to bin the bottles in sawdust. Special care is then neces- 
sary, for if the sawdust is damp, it will generate heat and damage the wines, and it is 
also liable, in some sections, to breed worms, which attack the corks. As a protection 
against the latter possibility, the top of each bottle may be dipped in wax or rosin. 

The Wines Most Generally Consumed. 

The general American public does not show the diversified wine taste of the Euro- 
pean. The average demand does not go beyond the various grades of Champagne, 
Claret, Ehine and Moselle Wines, Burgundy, Sauternes, Port and Sherry. To this 
list may be added, in some parts, a growing taste for Chianti and a limited con- 
sumption of Tokay, Madeira and Muscat. All of these are sold in both imported and 
domestic varieties. 

Consumers should be advised that, when possible, it is best to allow fine clarets 
and Burgundies — and, in fact, nearly all wines and liquors — to rest a few days after 
delivery before opening them. 

The "Correct" Wines for a Special Dinner. 

It is not unusual for the retailer who has established a reputation for his wine 
department to be asked by his customer for information as to "the proper thing" in 
the way of wines for a special dinner or banquet. 

No fixed routine of wines can be specified as being the only proper service for a 
dinner, banquet or other affair, as the highest authorities differ on this point, but the 
theoretically correct service is that which offers, for each course, wine which both in 
fiavor and strength "harmonizes" with the dishes of which that course is composed, 
while at the same time so arranging their sequence as both to lead the palate agree- 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 691 

ablj from course to course and to bring out, by contrast and the development of the 
palate, the full value of each succeeding wine. 

The fashion of the day carries, however, so much weight in all such affairs, that 
orthodox theories are often brushed aside. A few years ago saw a temporary revolu- 
tion in wine service in England and also largely on the Continent and in this country 
— champagne was served throughout the entire meal, other wines being entirely dis- 
regarded. The "champagne only" idea is still upheld in some sets, but more general 
at present is the middle path — that of thx'ee or four well-chosen wines. 

It must, however, be borne in mind that though the service of champagne and, 
say, two other wines, is better on general principles than that of only champagne, the 
latter method is more up to date than the former "strictly correct" style of a long 
list of different wines. 

If one offers a full service, the sequence should be about as follows: 

Commencement. 

An aperitif in the form of Punch (though this is unusual in America), a Cock- 
tail, old Madeira, very dry Sherry or Vermouth. 

With the Oysters. 

Light White Wines : Rhine or Moselle — as Hochheimer, Niersteiner, or Zeltinger ; 
or White Bordeaux — as Graves or Sauternes; or White Burgundy — as Chablis. 

With the Soup. 
Sherry, as Dry Amontillado or Manzanilla. 

With the Fish. 
Heavier White Wines, as Johannisberger, Steinberger or Montrachet. 

With the Entree and EelevIi: (or "Remove^''). 

Claret, as Pontet Canet, St. Julien or one of the minor Chateau brands; or 
Chianti, or Champagne. 

With the Game. 

Burgundy (red), as Pommard, Volnay or Chambertin. 

With the Dessert. 

Rich Old Red Wines, as Port or fine Chateau Clarets; or rare vintages of White 
Wines, as Chateau-Y(]uem or Schloss Johannisberger; or Champagne ; or Italian Wines, 
as Lacryma Christi ; or Spanish Wines, as Malaga — or similar wines of any country. 

With the Coffee. 

Liqueurs, as Creme de Menthe, Chartreuse, Benedictine or Fine Cognac. 
Also, throughout the meal, high-class Table Waters. 

The choice of the particular brands, etc., must naturally depend on (1) the amount 
the host wishes to spend and his individual fancy or preference, and (2) the physical 
construction of the repast. 




1. — Port, Madeira and similar wines 3.— Sherry 3.— Cocktail 

4 and b.— Plain glcns^ Claret. Chianti, etc.; with green bowl. Sauternes (and other White Bordeaux wines) and Rhine and Moselle 

wines: with rose or niby bowl. Burgundy 
THESE ILLUSTRATIONS ARE FOUR-FIFTHS OF ORIGINAL SIZE 




1.— Crfime de mentlie i.— Liqueurs 3.— Pony Brandy 

4.— Saucer Champagne 5.— Hollow-stem Champagne 

THESE ILLUSTRATIONS ARE FOUR-FIFTHS OF ORIGINAL SIZE 



694 THE geocek's encyclopedia 

The simpler "intermediate" style referred to is shown in the two examples below : 

Example A. 

An appetizer [aperitif] to commence with. 
White Wine with oysters, soup and fish. 
Champagne with the entree, releve and dessert. 
Burgundy (or fine claret) with the game. 
Liqueurs with the coffee. 

Example B. 

White Wine with the oysters. 

Sherry with the soup and fish. 

Champagne with entree, releve, game and dessert. 

Liqueurs with the coffee. 

The two pages preceding show a number of "correct" glasses for different wines 
and liqueurs. Here again the choice or decision is largely a matter of individual taste, 
local custom or temporary vogue. If only the glasses shown arg used, no adverse 
criticism is tenable, but various other styles might be followed and be considered in 
equally good form. 

Decanting, Serving and Temperature. 

The American preference is generally for bringing the original bottle of wine or 
spirits to the table, filling the glasses from it direct. This is also the correct 
method from an epicurean standpoint, as, in spite of some assertions to the contrary, 
the decanting of wine (emptying the original bottle into a decanter before serving) 
cannot improve the bouquet or flavor, and very often results in losing a noticeable 
proportion of both. 

Serving wine from the bottle needs, however, very careful handling in the case 
of older wines and others having a heavy sediment, as otherwise, in pouring into the 
glasses, the shaking of the bottle may mi.x particles of the sediment with the wine, 
detracting from the clearness which is so desirable. The wisest policy is to make use 
of a Wine Cradle (which see). 

Unless served from a Wine Cradle, old still wine — particularly Claret, Burgundy 
and Port — that has been a long time in bottle, should be allowed to stand on end for 
twenty-four to thirty-six hours so as to permit the sediment to settle to the bottom. 
If it is then considered advisable or preferable to decant it, a light may be placed 
behind the neck of the bottle while so doing — you can then see when the sediment has 
been reached. Before setting it to stand, it is best to partly extract the cork, so that 
when you are ready to decant, it can be removed with the least possible agitation of 
the wine. 

An automatic cork puller is almost indispensable for the easy and quiet removal 
of corks. 

The common belief in this country that wines containing sediment are impure, is 
incorrect. All still wines cast sediment if left in the bottle long enough — a fact well 
understood in Europe. The same result may follow from weather influences during 
transportation. This sediment affects neither the flavor nor quality, if the bottles are 
handled with sufflcient care to avoid mixing the contents. The process which results 



THE GROCERS ENCYCLOPEDIA 



695 



in its absence fi'om sparkling wines of high grade is described in the article on Cham- 
pagne. 

Wine in open bottles should never be left uncoi-ked longer than necessary to serve. 

Champagne should be well chilled before serving, but ice should not be put in 
the glasses. 

White Wines, such as Burgundies, Rhine and Moselle Wines and Sauternes, are 
best at about the temperature of the cellar, 50° to 55° Fahr. ; above this, they lose in 
taste and bouquet. Some people prefer Rhine and Moselle Wines served at a still lower 
temperature — about 45° Fahr. If too warm, they may be cooled by setting the bottles 
in iced water- — not in ice, as too violent a change of temperature will weaken the bou- 
quet of the finer types. 

Red Wines, such as Claret and Port, are best at a temperature of 60° to 65° 
Fahr. — about that of a moderately warm room. Burgundy (red) is generally best at 
70° Fahr. Below these temperatures they lose in mellowness. As the cellar tem- 
perature is generally below 60° Fahr., such wines should be placed where the tempera- 
ture is a little warmer for some hours before they are needed for consumption. 

Sherry and Madeira should be served at the 
average temperature for Red Wines, 65° Fahr. 

Sherry and Sweet Wines are especially 
liable to be chilled during transportation in cold 
weather and thus to lose their brilliancy. When 
this occurs, they should be placed for a time in 
a moderately warm and uniform temperature 
before putting into the cellar. 




A wagon-load of grapes for the press-house, Aosta, Italy 



696 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

Catalog of Wines of All Nations. 

The alphabetical list commencing at the foot of this page and concluded on page 
704, embraces all wines commercially familiar to the trade in this country and enumer- 
ates their chief characteristics. -Those distinguished by an asterisk (*) are further 
described under the headings so marked. Full titles generally include one or more of 
the terms following: 

FRENCH. 
Rouge. Red. Blanc. "White." Doux. Sweet 1 „ , artirle 

Ordinaire. "Common" or cheap grade. Sec. "Dry" I on ChamDas:ne 

Grand vin. Wine of a high class or cru. Brut. Unsweetened J P S • 

Premier, premiere. "First," as of crus or classes. Cr^mant. Moderately sparkling. 
Vierge. First pressing (of the grapes). Mousseux. Effervescent (as champagne). 

Vieiix, or Vieille. Old. 

The word Haiit is explained in the article on Bordeaux wines (white) ; Clos in Bur- 
gundy; Cru and Chateau in Claret, and Mas in Hermitage. 

GERMAN. 
Rot. Red. Weiss. "White." Berg. Mountain. Hof. Manor house. 

Ausiruch. First pressing (of the grapes). Schloss. Castle. 

Auslese. Selected (grapes). Siiss, Siisser. Sweet. Trocken. "Dry." 

Cabinet. Signifying "very choice." . Selct. Champagne. Sparkling. 

Feinste. Finest. Very delicate. Perlen. Sparkling. 

Keller-Abzug. Chateau-bottling. Schaum. Moussieren. Foaming. 

Essem. "Essence" (see description in Tokat). Effervescent. 

ITALIAN. 
Rosso. Red. Bianco. White. Secco. "Dry." Spumante. Sparkling. 

Dolce. Sweet. AmaMle. Light and delicate. 

Many Italian wines are classified by French terms, instead of their Italian equivalents. 

Where used without any qualification, the word Claret signifies Red Bordeaux 
wine (see article on Claret). Note that Chateau clarets are listed under "Chateau" 
instead of alphabetically by the name of the estate. 

When used without any qualification, the terms Rhine Wine and Moselle signify 
white Rhine and Moselle wines. 

The most important articles and items, found in their alphabetical positions, to 
which the catalog is subsidiary, are the following: American Wines, Angelica, Bor- 
deaux, Burgundy, Cabernet, Canary, Catawba, Cette Wines, Champagne, Claret, Dela- 
ware, Greek Wines, Hermitage, Hungarian and Austrian Wines, Italian Wines, 
Madeira, Malmsey, Muscat, Port, Portuguese Wines, Rhine and Moselle Wines, Riesling, 
Rivesaltes, Sack, Saumur, Scuppernong, Sherry, Spanish Wines, Swiss Wines, Tokay, 
Vermouth and Zinfandel. 

A .' . *'" 

Achaier. Greek.* Ambrosia. Greek muscat (Santorin). 

Adelantadillo. Spanish, claret-style. Amontillado. Sherkt.* 

Adelshacher. Moselle. Angelica.* 

Affenthaler. Red Rhine Wine.* Arbois. Red Burgundy (Jura district). 

Ahrbleichart. Red Rhine Wine.* Areas. Portuguese, red, slightly sweet and acid. 

Ahrweiler. Red Rhine Wine. Ardon. Strong red Swiss. 

Aigle. Swiss.* Arinto. Portuguese, white. 

Ala. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). Artimino. Red, claret-style, from Tuscany, Italy. 
Albanello. Sicilian, rather fiery, deep amber, Arvelets. Red Burgundy (Class IIL). 

sherry-style. Aschaffenburger. Rhine Wine. 
Alcantara. Sicilian, amber, spirituous, frequently Assmannshiiuser. Red Rhine Wine.* 

pungent. Asti. Italian.* 

Aleatico. Sweet Italian, dessert type. Asturia. Spanish, red, dry. 

Aleonzo. White Italian, various styles. Auldana. Australian, white and red, Rhine and 
Alicante. Spanish.* claret styles. 

Aloxe. Red Burgundy. Aulere. Red Burgundy. 

Altomino. White, dry, from Tuscany, Italy. Aulhauser. Rhine Wine. 

Ambares. Claret. Auvergnat. Orleans claret. 

Amareno. Sicilian, amber, sherry-style. Auxerre. Red Burgundy. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



697 



Avallon. Red Burgundy. 

Avelsbacher. Moselle. 

Ayler Kupp. Moselle. 

Azambuja. Portuguese, red, full-bodied, tart, 
spirituous. 

B 

Bacchus. Aromatic, gold Santorin (Greek). 

Bacharach. Rhine Wine — a variety formerly of 
great repute. 

Badacsonyer. Hungariax.* 

Baillio. Red, dry, full-bodied Swiss. 

Baja. South Italy, white. 

Bakacsinyer-Bratenwein. White Hungarian. 

Bakator. White Hungarian (Arad). 

Baraya. Red Hungarian. 

Barbera. 1 — It.w.ian.* 2 — U. S., red, Burgundy- 
style. 

Bari. Sweet gold Italian muscat. 

Barolo. Italian.* 

Barra-a-Barra. Red Portuguese, 

Barsac. White Bordeaux.* 

Bfitard-Montrachet. White Burgundy (Class II.). 

Baumes. Hekmitage.* See also Bonimes in 
Bordeaux (White). 

Baumoehl. White Moravian. 

Beaujolais. Red Burgundy.* 

Beaumont. 1 — Red Burgundy (Class III.). 2 — 
Tawny, sweet Australian, natural-port style. 

Beaune, Red Burgundy.* 

Beaune-greves. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Beblenheimer. White Reichenweyer (Alsace- 
Lorraine). 

Bel Air. Claret. 

Bellinzona. Red Swiss. 

Beni Carlo. Red Spanish, Burgundy-style. 

Bergama. White Austrian (Carniola). 

Bergerac. Red and white, from Dordogne, France. 

Berkowitzer. Red and white Bohemian. 

Berliquet. Claret. 

Berncasteler. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 

Bessar. Hermitage.* 

Beychevelle. Claret. 

Beziers. Burgundy-style, from Herault, Firance. 

Bigama. Golden Illyrian (Austria). 

Binger. Rhine Wine.* 

Blanquefort. 1 — Claret. 2 — White Bordeaux. 

Blanquette. White, still and sparkling, sweet and 
dry, from South France. 

Blaye. Claret. 

Blume der Nahe. White German, Moselle-type. 

Blume von Johannisberg. Sparkling Moselle. 

Bocellas (Bucellas). Portuguese.* 

Bocksteiner. Moselle. 

Bodendorfer. Red Rhine Wine, 

Bodenheimer. Rhine Wine.* 

Bodenthaler. Rhine Wine. 

Bommes. White Bordeaux.* 

Bonardo. Red dry Italian. 

Bonnes-Mares. Red Burgundy (Class II). 

Bordagno. Red dry Italian. 

Bordeaux Wines. See Claret and Bordeaux (white) 

Bosenheimer. White German, Moselle-style, Nahe 
Valley. 

Botzen. Numerous varieties from German Tyrol. 

Boudots. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Boudry. Dry, ruby Swiss. 

Bourg. Red. from Saumur district. France. 

Bourgogne. French for Burgundy.* 

Bouzy. Champagne-type from Bouzy, Marne, 
France. 



Bracheto, Bracheto Spumante. Red Italian, still 

and sparkling. 
Bratelbrunn. White Moravian. 
Brauneberger. Moselle. 
Briedeler. Moselle. 
Brunner. White Austrian. 
Bual. Madeira.* 
Bucellas. Portuguese.* 
Budai. Hungarian.* 
Bukkalla. Australian, red and white. 
Burger. U. S., Rhine-style. 
Burgundy.* 
Buxy. White Burgundy. 

Cabernet.* C 

Cailleret. Red Burgundy (Class III.;. 

Cailles. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Calliand. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 

Calvel. Portuguese.* 

Camarate. Portuguese, natural-port style. 

Camerite. Greek.* 

Campidano. Red Italian. 

Canary.* 

Cantenac. Claret. 

Canzemer. Moselle. 

Cape Hock. Cape of Good Hope — sherry and Rhine 

styles. 
Capo Corso. Dry white Corsican. 
Capo di Miseno. White, from South Italy. 
Capri. Italian.* 
Carbonnieux. -White Bordeaux. 
Carcavellos. Rich, spirituous, Portuguese, white to 

amber. 
Carignan. Full-bodied claret-style (1) from Turin, 

Italy; (2) U. S. 
Carlowitzer (Karlowitzer). Hungarian.* 
Carmignano. Red, dry Italian, from Tuscany. 
Carwarra. Dry Australian — Burgundy and Sau- 

ternes styles. 
Casalmaggiore. White dry Italian. 
Caseler. Ruwer (see Rhine Wine). 
Cassagne. Red Burgundy. 
Castel Ceriolo. Red dry Italian. 
Casteldaccia. Italian, red and white. 
Castelruggero. White dry Italian, from Tuscany. 
Castel San Stefano. Italian, red and white. 
Castillon. Claret. 
Catawba.* 

Cavallaro. Dry, spirituous, amber Sicilian. 
Cerljenacer. Strong, sweet Dalmatian (Austria). 
Cerneseker. White Bohemian. 
Cerons. White Bordeaux. 
Cette Wines.* 
Chablis. Burgundy'.* 

Chacoli. Light Bisay wines — red and white. 
Chambertin. Red Burgundy.* 
Champagne.* 

Champans. Red Burgundy. 
Chantalouette. Red Hermitage. 
Charlemagne-Corton. White Burgundy (Class II.). 
Charmes. White Burgundy (Class II.). 
Chassagne. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Chateau Abel-Laurent. Claret. 

" d'Arche, White Bordeaux.* 

" d'Arsac. Claret. 

" Astigues Arnaud. Claret. 

" d'Aux. Claret. 

" d'Avenson. Claret. 

" Barreyre. Claret. 

" Batailley. Claret.* 



*see special article. 



698 



THE GROCEK^s ENCYCLOPEDi A — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



Chateau Bayle. See Chateau 
Bordeaux (white). 
" Beaucaillou. Claret. 
" Beauregard. Claret. 
" Becker. Claket.* 
" Bel Air. Claret. 
" Belgrave. Clabet.* 
" Bellefond-Belcier. Claret. 
" Bellevue. Claret. 
" Beychevelle. Claret.* 

Boulbene. Claret. 

Bouliac. Claret. 
" Branaire Duluc 



Guiraud In 



Brane Cantenac 
Broustet Nerac 
Caillou 



Claket.' 



White Bordeaux 
(second growth). 

Calon-Segur | ctarvt* 
Camensac ] (-laeet. 

Camponac. Claret. 

Cantemerle ) „ ,, 

Cantenac Brown J claket. 

Carbonnieux. White Bordeaux. 

Carnet. Claret. 

Chapelle de la Madeleine. Claret. 

Cheval-Blanc. Claret. 

Citran. Claret. 

Clarke. Claret. 

Clerc-Milon. Claret.* 

Climenz. White Bordeaux.* 

Constance. Claret. 

Cos d'Estournel. Claret.* 

Cos Labory. Claret.* 

Coucy. Claret. 

Contenceau. Claret. 

Coutet. White Bordeaux.* 

Cremes. Claret. 

le Crock. Claret. 

Croizet-Bages. Claret.* 

Dauzao ] ,-, ^ 

Desmirail } Cl.4ret.- 

Dillon. 1 — Claret. 2 — White Bordeaux. 

Doisy. White Bordeaux (second growth). 

Ducasse-Grand-Puy ) 

Ducru Beaucaillou [- Claret.* 

Duhart Milon ) 

Buluc. Claret. 

Bupre-Pourcas. Claret. 

Durfort Vivent. Claret.* 

Ferriere. Claret.* 

Filhot. White Bordeaux (second growth). 

Flandres. Claret. 

Fleurennes. Claret. 

Fongravey Bethmann. Claret. 

Fourtet. Claret. 

Gallan. Claret. 

Germanville. Claret. 

Giscours. Claket.* 

Grand Barail. Claret. 

Grand Perrot. Claret. 

Grand Puy. Claret.* 

Grillet. White Burgundy. 

Gruaud Larose Sarget. Claret.* 

Guiraud. White Bordeaux.* 

Haut Bages. Claret.* 

Haut Barde. Claret. 

Haut Breton. Claret. 

Haut Brlon. Claret.* 

Haut-Smith-Lafite. Claret. 

de 1' He. (1) Claret. (2) White Bordeaux. 

d' Issan. Claret.* 



Claret.- 



Chateau Kirwan | „ * 

Laflte I "-i-^ET. 

" Lafon-Rochet. Claret. 

Lafourie. Red Burgundy. 

Lagrange j 
" , La Lagune '- Cl.\eet.* 
" Lalande ) 

Lamothe. 1 — White Bordeaux (second 

growth). 2— Claret. 

" Langora. Claret.* 

" Larose, Guaud-Larose, Gruaud-Larose- 

Sarget. Claret.* 

" Larrivaux. Claret. 

Lascombes ) claret * 
Latour J i-laret. 

Latour Blanche. White Bordeaux.* 
Carnet. Claret.* 

LaudSre. Claret. 

Laujac. Claret. 
" Leoville, Leoville Barton, Leoville Poy- 

ferre. Clajbet.* 
" Lessar. Claret. 
" Loubens. White Bordeaux. 

Lynch Bages ) 

Lynch Moussas j 

Maison Blanche. Claret. 
" Malescasse. Claret. 
" Malescot-St. Bxupery. Claret.* 
" Malle. White Bordeaux (second growth). 
" Malleret. Claret. 
" Marbuzet. Claret. 
" Margaux. Claret.* 

Marquis de Terme. Claret.* 
" Marpau. Claret. 

Maucaillou. 1 — C 1 a r e t. 2— W h i t e 
Bordeaux. 

Merin d'Or. Claret. 

Milon-Dejean. Claret. 

du Mirailh. Claret. 

Mirat (Myrat). White Bordeaux (second 
growth). 

La Mission. Claret. 
" Montjoie. White Bordeaux. 

Montlys. Claret. 

Montot. Claret. 

Montrose. Claret.* 

Moulerens. Claret 
" Mouton d'Armailhacq. Claret.* 
" Mouton Laflte. Claret. 

Mouton Rothschild. Claret.* 
" Neuf du Pape. Deep colored, heavy 
bodied, from Rhone district, France. 

de Nort. Claret. 

Olivier. 1 — Claret. 2 — White Bordeaux. 
" des Ormes. Claret. 
" Palmer. Claret.* 
" Pape Clement. Claret. 
" Passore. Claret. 

Paveil. Claret. 

Pavie. Claret. 
" Pedesclaux. Claret.* 
" Pessac. Claret. 
" Peyraguey. White Bordealtx.* 

Peyxotto. White Bordeaux (second 
growth). 

de Pez. Claret. 

Phelan-Segur. Claret. 
" Pichon Longueville. Cl.a.ret.* 

Piedreux. Claret. 

Plessy St. Paul. Claret. 



*see special article. 



THE grocer's encyclopedi A — Wine Cataloff, cont'd. 



699 



Claeet.* 



Chateau Poet Ausone. Claret. 
Pomys. Claret. 
Pontet Canet. Claket.* 
" Popp-Camensac. Claret. 
" Poujeaux. Claret. 
" Poujet. Claeet.* 
" le Prieure. Claeet.* 

Rabaud. White Boedeaux.* 
" Rauzan (Rausan) Gassies ( 
" Rauzan Segla j 

" Rieussec. White Boedeatjx.* 
" Rochet. Claret.* 

" Romer. White Bordeaux (second 
growth). 
St. Bris. White Bordeaux. 
St. Exuperj'. Claret. 
St. Georges. Claret. 
" St. Pierre. Claret.* 

Salins. White, Alsace-Lorraine. 
Sauau. White Bordeaux (second growth). 
Suduiraut. White Bordeaux.* 
Talbot. Claret.* 
de Tastes. White Bordeaux. . 
" du Tertre. Claret.* 
Tivoli. Claret. 
Les Trois-Moulins. Claret. 
Vieux-Certan. Claret. 
" Vigneau. White Bordeaux.* 
" Ville-George. Claret. 
" Yquem. White Bordeaux.* 
Chebres. White dry Swiss. 
Chevalier-Montrachet. White Burgundy (Class 

II.). 
Chianti. Italm-n.* 
Chusclan. Sweet rose-colored, from Rhone district, 

Prance. 
Cividino. White Italian. 

Clairette. 1 — Numerous white varieties from the 
Clairette grape, South France. 2 — Sweet 
U. S., chiefly white. 
Claret.* 

Clavoillon. Red Burgundy. 
Clevener. White German (Baden district). 
Coberner. Moselle. 
Cocoules. Hermitage.* 

Colares. Light Portuguese, red and white. 
Colombier. 1 — Hermitage.* 2 — Dry ruby Swiss. 
Combettes. White Burgundy. 
Commanderia. Sweet red Cyprus. 
Como. Greek, brilliant, port-style. 
Completer. White dry Swiss. 
Conaifesto. Red Portuguese. 
Concise. Dry ruby Swiss. 
Concord. U. S. red (claret) and white. 
Condrieu. Still white, pale to deep amber, Rhone 

district, France. 
Constancia. Liqueur-style wine from the vicinity 
of Cape Town, S. Africa. There are three 
chief varieties — Red. Siceet Pontac (dark 
and syrupy) and Fontignac (or "White"). 
Coquembay. White Swiss. 
Corinth wines. Greek.* 
'Cortaillod. Swiss.* 
Corton. Red Burgundy* (Class II.). 
Corve^s (Clos des). Red Burgundy. 
Corvini. Italian, red, dry. rather harsh. 
Cosn?. Red, dry. from Loire Valley, France. 
Costamser. Red dry Swi?s. 
Costieres. Still, red. from South France. 
Cfite d'Or. Burguxdy.* 



Cote Rotie. Still, purplish, aromatic, from Rhone 

district, France. 
Coteaux de Marc. Claret. 
Cras Murge. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Cremant Rose. Rose-colored sparkling Hungarian. 
Croznovano. White Roumanian. 
Csomborder. Transylvanian (Austria) Riesling. 
Cueser. Moselle. 
Cyprus Wine. Sweet, generally rich and spirituous, 

topaz to dark, and inclined to liqueur style. 
Czernoseker. White Bohemian. 

D 
Dacarella. Sicilian, amber, sweet. 
Dame Blanche. White Bordeaux. 
Dattenberger. Red Rhine Wine. 
Deidesheimer. Palatinate (see Rhine Wine). 

DEL.AWARE.* 

Deselay. Swiss.* 

Dhroner. Moselle. 

DionniSres. Hermitage.* 

Dolcetto. Red Italian. 

Donski. Russian "champagne" from the Don 

Vineyards. 
Douro. Natural wine from the Douro district, 

Portugal. See Port. 
Diirkheimer. Rhine Wine. 
Dulce. Syrupy, spirituous Spanish. 

E 
Ebernburger. White German, from Nahe Valley. 
Echezeaux. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Edelweiss. Rhine Wine, still and sparkling. 
Egri. Hungarian.* 

Eiblingen. Rhine Wine. i 

Eichberger. Sweet white Austrian. 
Eisenberger. White Hungarian. 
Eisenthurer. White Austrian. 
Eltviller Sonnenberg. Rhine Wine. 
Enkircher. Moselle. 
Enzerdorfer. White Austrian. 
Epanner. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Epineul. From lower Burgundy, chiefly red and 

sparkling. 
Erbacher. Rhine Wine. 
Erbametto. Red dry Italian. 
Erdener. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 
Erlauer. Red Hungarian. 
Ermellecker. White Hungarian. 
Ermite, Ermitage. Herjiitage.* 
Ernster. Moselle. 
Eschendorfer. Still white German, from Main 

Vaney. 
Estargel. Still, red, from Pyrenges-Orientales, 

France. 
Est (Vino dell'). Red Italian. 

F 
Falerno. Italian.* 
Falkensteiner. Red Austrian. 
Farnese. Sweet oily Greek muscat. 
Faro. 1 — Red Portuguese. 2 — A light Belgian 

beer. 
Paverge. Swiss.* 
Feilsen. Saar (see Rhine Wine). 
Felseneck. Rhine Wine. 
Ferdistan. Sweet Persian, red and white. 
FerriSre. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Feves. Red Burgundy. 
Fino. Sherry.* 
Plandorfer. Red Hungarian. 
Floirac. 1 — Claret. 2 — Red, sweet. South Prance. 



•see special article. 



700 



THE GEOCER^s ENCYCLOPEDi A — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



Florence. Red, full bodied Italian. 

Forli. Red Italian. 

Forst, Forster. Palatinate (see Rhine Wine). 

Frainsteiner. White, from German Tyrol. 

Franconia Wines. See Rhine Wine. 

Frauenfeld. Red Swiss. 

Freisa. Red dry Italian. 

Friauler. Dark Illyrian (Austria). 

Fronsac. Claret. 

Frontignac. 1 — Red and white muscat, from South 

France. 2 — U. S. muscat. 3 — Constancia. 
Furis d'Ischia. South Italian, white. 

G 

Gattinara. Red Italian. 
Geierslayer Neuberger. Moselle. 
Geisenheimer. Rhine Wine.* 
Genevrieres. White Burgundy (Class II.). 
Geropiga. Sweet Portuguese, liqueur-style, red and 

white. 
Gimmeldinger. White German. 
Glacier. Swiss.* 

Glenpara. Spirituous Australian, red and white. 
Gnadlersdorfer. Mild Moravian. 
Goldeck. White Austrian. 
Gomera. Red sweet Canary. 
Gonobitzer. Sweet red Austrian. 
Goutte d'or. White Burgundy (Class II.). 
Gouvio. Red, full flavored Portuguese. 
Graaoher. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 
Grafenherger. White German. 
Grafenstein. White German. 
Gragnano. Red Italian. 
Grand Puy Lacoste. Claret. 
Graves. White Bordeaux.* 
Greffieux. Hekmitage.* 

Grenache. Still, red, sweet, from South France. 
Grignolino. Dark full Italian. 
Gringet. Swiss.* 
Grinzinger. White Austrian. 
Gros-Vimeau. White Bordeaux. 
Gruaud-Larose. Claret. 
Grunauer. Sweet white Austrian. 
Gruneberger. White Prussian. 
Griinhaiiser. Ruwer (Moselle). 
Guiognieres. Red Hermitage. 

Gumpoldskirchner. See Hungaeian and Austeian. 
Gunstramdorfer. White Austrian. 
Guntersblumer. Rhine Wine. 
Gutedel. German and U. S. white wines from 

Gutedel grapes. 

H 

Hallauer. Red dry Swiss. 

Hallgartner. Rhine Wine. 

Haneadan. Sweet Persian, red and white. 

Hattenheimer. Rhine Wine.* 

Haugsdorfer. White Austrian. 

Haut Bommes ) .^ Bordeaux * 

Haut Barsac f vvhite bordeaux. 

Haut Cerons. White Bordeaux. 
Haut Sauternes. White Bordeaux.* 
Heidesheimer. Red Rhine Wine. 
Heillgengeistwein. Franconia (see Rhine Wine). 
Hemsberger. White German, Odenwald District. 
Herault. See Cette Wines. 
Herbemont. U. S., rosy-white, sherry-style. 
Hermitage. 1 — See Hermitage. 2 — Rich red 

Australian. 
Herrenberger. Rhine Wine. 
Hesslocher. Rhine Wine. 



Highercombe. Dry Australian, amber and ruby. 
Hochenburger. Light red Austrian. 
"Hock," Hochheimer. Rhine Wine.* 
Hoersteiner. White German, Main Valley. 
Hoertenberger. Red Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Homburger. White German, Main "Valley. 
Hubberger. White German, Odenwald District. 
Hunneweyer. White Rappoltsweiler, Alsace-Lor- 
raine. 
Hymettus. Greek.* 

I 

Ihringen. White German, Baden district. 

Imperial Blanco. White light aromatic Spanish. 

Ingelheimer. Red Rhine Wine.* 

Irrewang. Red dry Australian. 

Isera. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 

Itzsteiner. White German, Moselle-style, Nahe 

Valley. 
Ives. U. S., Claret.* 



Jarrie. Still, red, from Isere, France. 
Jassy-Nicorestic. Red Roumanian. 
Jerez (Xeres). See Sheery. 
Jerusalemer. White Austrian. 
Johannisberger. Rhine Wine.* 
Jonquieres. Still, red, from South France. 
Josefshofer. Moselle. 
Jurangon. Aromatic white U. S. 

K 

Kaisersberger. 1 — Sweet white Austrian. 2 — 

Reichenweyer (Alsace-Lorraine), red and 

white. 
Kakhetian. Aromatic, red, from the Caucasus. 
Kalavrita. Greek, liqueur-style. 
Kalterer. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Kapunda. Red Australian, resembling young port. 
Karlburger. White German, Main Valley. 
Karlowitzer. Hungarian.* 
Karthauser. Moselle. 
Kasbin. Sweet Persian, red and white. 
Kausenberger. Whit© German, Moselle-style, 

Nahe Valley. 
Kephisia. Dry Greek, red and white. 
Kiedricher Grafenberg. Rhine Wine. 
Kientzheim. Reichenweyer (Alsace-Lorraine), 

red and white. 
Kinheimer. Rhine Wine. 

Kirchberger. White German, Baden district. 
Kissibel. Alsace-Lorraine, white. 
Klentnitz. White Moravian. 
Klingelberger. White German, Baden district. 
Klosterberger. Moselle. 

Klosterneuberger. White Austrian, liqueur-style. 
Koenigsbacher. Palatinate (see Rhine Wine). 
Kokelblirger. Gold Transylvanian (Austria). 
Kolleser. White Austrian. 
Kostheimer. Rhine Wine. 
Kreutzberger. Red Rhine Wine. 
Krimski. Russian "champagne" produced in the 

Crimea. 
Kuechelberger. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Kiitterle. Alsace-Lorraine, white. 
Kynousia. Greek, several styles, still and 

sparkling. 



Labin. Bohemian, red and white, 
LaCote. Swiss.* 



*SEE special article. 



THE GEOCER^s ENCYCLOPED I A — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



701 



La Croix. 1 — Blanc, White Bordeaux. 2 — Rouge, 

Claret. 
Lacryma Christi. 1 — Italian.* 2 — Sweet Greek. 
Lacryma di Castellamare, Lacryma di Tiberii. 

Italian, similar to Lacryma Christi. 
Lafite, Lafite Talence. Claret. 
La Lagune. Claret. 
Lalande Pomerol. Claret. 
Lamalonga. Red, rather sweet Portuguese. 
LaJVIarque. White Swiss. 
Lamego. Red Portuguese. 
Langlade. Red, sweet, from South France. 
Langres (Clos des). Red Burgundy. 
Larose. Claret. 
LaTache. Buequndy.* 
Latour Martillac. Claret. 
Lauhenheimer. Rhine Wine.* 
Laudau. Light, sparkling, from Rhone district, 

France. 
Lavardio. Red dry Portuguese, 
Ledenon. Red, sweet, from South France. 
Leggi (Vino di). A Greek wine manufactured by 

Hebrews for the use of co-religionists. 
Leistenwein. Franconia (see Rhine Wine). 
Leitaoher. Red Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Leoville, Leoville Barton, etc. Claret. 
Liebfraumilch. Rhine Wine.* 
Lieserer. Moselle. 
Lipari. Red and white muscat from Lipari 

Islands. 
Lirac. Very dry, rose-colored, from Rhone district, 

France. 
Lissubon. White dry Portuguese. 
Listrac. Claret. 
Locarno. Red Swiss. 

Longuevllle. Alsace-Lorraine, still white. 
Lons-le-Saulier. Several varieties, sparkling and 

still, from the Jura, France. 
Lorch. Red Rhine Wine. 
Lormont. Claret. 
Lugarno. Red Swiss. 

Luttenherger. See Hungarian and Austrian. 
Lunel. Still white, sweet, from South France. 

M 

Macau. Claret. 

Maccabeo. 1 — Rivesaltes.* 2 — Madeira from the 

Maccabeo grape. 
Macon. Red Burgundy.* 
Madeira.* 

Madrina. Deep red, sweet Dalmatian (Austria). 
Magyarater. Hungarian.* 
Mailberger. White Austrian. 
Maizemino. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 
Maizieres (Clos de). Red Burgundy. 
Malaga. Spanish.* 
Malbec. U. S., claret-style. 
Malmsey.* 

Malvasia, Malvasier, Malvoisie. Malmsey.* 
Malvasia, Malvasia Spumante. Italian.* 
Manzanilla. Sherry'.* 

Maraschino Wine. See Hungarian and Austrian. 
Marburger. Red and white Austrian. 
Marcobrunner. Rhine Wine.* 
Margaux. Claret.* 
Marignane. Red and white, from Rhone Valley, 

Prance. 
Markgraefler. White German, Baden district, 
Marsala. Italian.* 
Masdeu. See RoussiUon (this list) 



Mdsias. Light Transylvanian (Austria). 

M a t a r . Claret type — Spanish, U. S. and 

Australian. 
Matzner. Red Austrian. 
Mauerer. Red Austrian. 
Mauler. Swiss "champagne." 
Mavrodaphne. Greek.* 

Maximim-Griinhaus. Ruwer (see Rhine Wine). 
Meal. Hermitage.* 
Medoc. Claret.* 
Melnicker. Red Bohemian. 
Meneser. Hungari.\n.* 
Mercurey. Red Burgundy. 
Merkensteiner. Red Austrian. 
Merzaminos. Dark red Austrian. 
Meursault, Meursault-Charmes. White Burgundy.* 
Meursault-Santenot. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Mezzolombard. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 
Minheimer. Moselle. 

Mittleweyer. White Reichenweyer (Alsace-Lor- 
raine). 
Mondeuse. Strong red U. S., Burgundy-style. 
Monnai. Red, from Pyrenees-Orientales, France. 
Monsao. Portuguese.* 
Montalcino. Red and white, dry, from Tuscany, 

Italy. 
Monteferrand. Claret. 
Montepulciano. Purple, aromatic, spirituous, from 

Tuscany, Italy. 
Montefiascone. Spirituous Italian, white and 

purple. 
Montferrat. Light Italian. 
Monthelhie. Red Burgundy. 
Montilla. Sherry.* 
Montmaillon. French muscat. 
Montmatriss. Red tawny Sicilian. 
Montiachet. White Burgundy.* 
Montu. White Italian. 
Monzingener. White German, Moselle-style, Nahe 

Valley. 
Morea. Greek.* 

Morgeot (Clos). Red Burgundy (Class lit.). 
Moscato ("Muscat"), Moscato Spumante, etc. 

Italian.* 
Moselbluemchen. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 
Moselle. See Rhine Wine. 
M5ttling. White Illyrian (Austria). 
Moulin a Vent (Clos de). Red Burgundy. 
Moulis. White Bordeaux. 
Mountain Lagrima. Spanish liqueur wine. 
Mouriseo. Red Portuguese. 
Mouton-Rothschild. Claret. 
Murets. Hermitage.* 
Muscat, Muscatel, Muscato. Muscat.* 
Musigny. Red Burgundy (Class II.). 
Mustang. Fortified, red U. S. 

N 
Nachenheimer. Rhine Wine. 
Nasco. Strong Italian. 
Nauplia. Greek wines of numerous styles — red 

and white Corinth, etc. (see Greek Wines). 
Naxos. Pale red sweet Greek. 
Nebbiolo, Nebbiolo Spumante. Itali.4.n.* 
Nectar. See Nectar and Greek Wines. 
Neefer. Moselle, 
Neftenbacher. Red Swiss, 
Negrara. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 
Neirano. Red dry Italian, 
Neroberger, Rhine Wine, 
Neszeling, White Hungarian, 



*SEE SPECIAL article. 



702 



THE GEOCER-'s ENCYCLOPEDi A — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



Nesmelyer. Hukgaeian.* 

Neufchatel. Various types of Swiss wines, includ- 
ing "Neufchatel Champagne." 

Niersteiner. Rhine Wine.* 

Nippozzono. White, dry, from Tuscany, Italy. 

Noley. Red Burgundy. 

Nonnenberger. Rhine Wine. 

Norheimer. White German, Moselle-style, Nahe 
Valley. 

Norton. U. S. Claret.* 

Noussa. Red dry fruity Greek, from Mt. Olympus. 

Noyer. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Nuits. Red Burgundy.* 

Nussberger, Nussdorfer. White Austrian. 

O 

Oberemmeler. German wine, Moselle-style, Saar 
Valley. 

Oberf elder Kindermacher. Mild Illyrian (Austria). 

Ober-Ingelheimer. Red Rhine Wine.* 

Oberlander. Red dry Swiss. 

Oberlinger. Alsace-Lorraine, white. 

Ockfen. Saar (see Rhine Wine). 

Odelsberger. Moselle. 

Odenberger, or Oedenburger. Sweetish white Hun- 
garian. 

Ceil de Perdrix, or "Pheasant's Eye." Sparkling 
red Burgundy. 

Oestricher. 1 — Rhine Wine. 2 — White Austrian. 

Ofen, Ofner, Adelsberger. Hungarian.* 

Ohligsberger. Moselle. 

Ojo de Gallo. or "Cock's Bye." Aromatic, very 
brilliant, red Spanish. 

Olewig Neuberger. Moselle. 

Oloroso. Sherry.* 

Opoul. Red, from Pyrenees-Orientales, France. 

Oppenheimer. Rhine Wine.* 

Orsan. Dry, red, from Drome, France. 

Or (clos d'). White Bordeaux. 

Orvietto, Orvietani. Sweet Italian, red and white. 

Osterberger. Still white Rappoltsweiler (Alsace- 
Lorraine). 

P 

Pajerete. Gold sweet Spanish. 

Palatinate Wines. See Rhine Wine. 

Palma. Sherry.* 

Palo Cortado. Sherry.* 

Passerretta Spumante. An Italian "champagne." 

Passito. Sweet Italian. 

Passum. Sweet topaz-colored Turkish. 

Patras. Greek.* 

Pauillac. Claret.* 

Pedro Jiminez. 1 — Tawny Spanish, Malaga-style. 
2 — Soft gold Australian. 

Pfileat. Hermitage.* 

Perchtelsdorfer. White Austrian. 

Perriere. Burgundy, red and white. 

Pesti. Hungarian.* 

Pettauer. White Austrian. 

Piantadella. Syrupy red Illyrian (Austria). 

Picardin. Still, red, dry, spirituous, from Herault, 
France. 

Piccolit. 1 — Sweet Italian. 2 — Thick sweet 
Illyrian (Austria) "straw wine." 

Pickerer. White Austrian. 

Pierrelle. Hermit.4ge.* 

Piesporter. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 

Pineau (blanc, gris. noir). Burgundy-style — the 
two first white and the third red — from 
Pineau grapes. 



Pinuclo (Vino). Deep-tinted white Spanish. 
Piquette.* 

Pitoy. Red Burgundy. 
Ploeschowitz. White Moravian. 
Poggiosecco. Red, from Tuscany, Italy. 
Pollau. White Moravian. 
Pomerol.- Claret. 

Pomino. Chianti-style from Tuscany, Italy. 
Pommard. Red Burgundy.* 
Pommard-Rugiens. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Pontac. See Constancia, this list. 
Pontet-Canet Claret.* 
Porrets. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Port.* 

Posillips. Red Italian. 
Poutures. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Prannuan-Malvasia. Sweet topaz-colored Turkish. 
Preaux. Red Burgundy. 
Preignac. 1 — Claret. 2 — White Bordeaux. 
Priorato. Red Spanish, resembling fruity port. 
Prosecco. 1 — Italian, red and white. 2 — Reddish- 
yellow Austrian "straw wine." 
Pruliers. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Puligny. Red Burgundy. 

R 

Radisalle. White Austrian. 

Radkersburger. Sweet white Austrian. 

Rametzer, Schloss Rametzer. Red and white 
Austrian (German Tyrol). 

Rancio. 1 — Red Spanish.* 2 — Rivesaltes* and 
similar wines from other parts of South 
France. 

Rappoltsweiler. Wines of various styles produced 
in Alsace-Lorraine. 

Rauenthaler. Rhine Wine.* 

Rausan, Rauzan. Claret. 

Rauschenbruch. White Moravian. 

Ray a. Sherry'.* 

Refoscos. Dark red Austrian. 

Reichenweyer. Wines of various styles from Al- 
sace-Lorraine. 

Reiler. Moselle. 

Reinhardtshausen. Rhine Wine. 

Revention. Red, from Isere, France. 

Rheingold. Sparkling white German. 

Rhine Wine.* 

Ribolla. White Italian. 

Richebourg. Red Burgundy'.* 

Riesling. See Riesling and Rhine Wine. 

Rimini. Red Italian. 

Rioja Blanco. Spanish "Sauternes." 

Rioja Clarete. . Spanish "claret." 

Rionero. Heavy red Italian. 

Ripa. Red, dry, from Tuscany, Italy. 

Risbacher. Rhine Wine. 

Rittergberger. Sweet white Austrian. 

Rivesaltes.* 

Roi (Clos du). Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Romanee, Romanee Conti. Red Burgundy-.* 

Romance St. Vivant. Red Burgundy (Class II.). 

Roquemaure. Dry, rose-colored, Rhone district. 

Rosa (Vin doux). Sweet, rose-tinted, from Mt. 
Lebanon. 

ROSOLIO.* 

Rota. See Tinto de Rota, this list. 
Rothenberger. Rhine Wine. 
Roucoule. Red Hermitage. 

Roussillon. Fruity, spirituous, deep-colored, dry 
and sweet, from Pyrenees-Orientales, France. 



*SEE SPECIAL ARTICLE. 



THE GROCER-'s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



703 



Roveredo. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 
Rozsamaler. Red Transylvanian (Austria). . 
Ruberberger. Moselle. 
Rudesheimer. Rhike Wine.* 
Ruffino. White Italian. 

Ruppertsberger. Palatinate (see Rhike Wine). 
Rusivica. Deep red, sweet Dalmatian (Austria). 
Ruster, or Ruszti. Hung.4.rian.* 
Ruwersteiner. Moselle-type, Ruwer Valley. 
Ruy. Red, from Isere, Prance. 



Sabayes. White Spanish. 

Sack.* 

Sacra Tent. Spanish.* 

Sagunto. Red Spanish. 

St. Andrg. Claret. 

" Cancian. White Illyrian (Austria). 

" Chef. Red, from Isere, France. 

" Chrystoly. Claret. 

" Chrystol. 

" Drezery. 

" Elie. Geisek.* 



,1.) 

y- 1 



Red, sweet, from Herault, France. 



Emilion. 



'■ Claret.* 



" Estephe. f 

" Etienne. Claret. 

" Genies. Sweet, rose-colored, from Rhone dis- 
trict, France. 

" Georger. White Hungarian (Pressburg). 

" Georges. Red, sweet, from H§rault, France. 

" Georges (Clos). Red Burgundy (Class II.). 

" Gervais. Claret. 

" Gilles. Spirituous purple, from South France. 

" Hippolyte. 1 — Claret. 2 — White Reichenweyer 
(Alsace-Lorraine ) . 

•' Julien. Claret.* 

" Lambert. Claret. 

" Laurent. Claret. 

" Laurent des Arabes. Dry, red, from Drome, 
France. 

" Loubes. Claret. 

" Macaire. Claret. 

" Magdalene. Red Austrian (German Tyrol). 

" Martin de Mazerat. Claret. 

" Peray. Dry, white, sparkling and still, from 
Rhone district, France. 

" Pey-de-Langon. White Bordeaux. 

" Pierre. Claret. 

" Prex. Deep red, spirituous Swiss. 

" Saom. Red, from Isere, France. 

" Saphorin. White dry Swiss. 

" Verand. Red, from Isere, France. 

" Vivien. Claret. 
Salarem. Red Portuguese. 
Salces. Red. sweet, from South Francj. 
Salurner. Red and white Austrian (German 

Tyrol). 
Salvaguin. Deep red, spirituous Swiss. 
San Michele. Red Austrian (Italian Tyrol). 
San Sidero. Sicilian, amber, sherry-style. 
Santa Venera. Red soft spirituous Sicilian. 
Santenay. Red Burgundy. 
Santenot. Burgundy, red and white. 
Santo, Santorin. Greek.* 
Sartena. Sweet red Corsican. 
Sassela. Red dry Italian. 
Salt-niue.* 

Sausaler. White Austrian. 
Sauternes. White Boedea-dx.* 
Sauvignon. Several kinds from Sauvignon grapes. 



Savigny. Red Burgundy. 

Scharlachberger. Rhine Wine.* 

Scharzberger, Scharzhofberger. Saar (see Rhine 
Wine). 

Schottan. White Moravian. 

Schiersteiner. Rhine Wine. 

"Schiller" wines. A class of pale light Austrian. 

Schlossberger. White German, Moselle-style, Nahe 
Valley. 

Schmitsberger. Sweet white Austrian. 

Schonberg Riesling. White Reichenweyer (Alsace- 
Lorraine). 

Schrattenthaler. Red Austrian. 

Schwabenheimer. Rhine Wine. 

Schwanberger. Light red Austrian. 

SCUPPERNONG.* 

Seewein. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 

Sercial. Madeira.* 

Sestri Levante. White Italian, from Genoa. 

Setural. White Portuguese. 

Sherry.* 

Shiebbs. White Austrian. 

Shiraz. Sweet rich Persian — red, amber and white. 

Sieblingener. White dry Swiss. 

Simonthurn. Sweetish red Hungarian. 

Siracusa. Italian.* 

Sitteradorfer. Deep red Illyrian (Austria). 

Sliwowitz. White Hungarian. See also Slivovitz 

(liqueur). 
Solera. See Sherry. The term is also similarly 

employed in Madeira. 
Som, or Sombor. Delicate white Transylvanian 

(Austria). 
Somlauer, or Somloi. Hungarian.* 
Sommerauer. Moselle. 
Sonoma (sparkling). U. S. champagne-style, 

named after the County of Sonoma, Cal. 
"Spanish Reds."* 

Stadtberger. Light red Illyrian (Austria). 
Steeger. Rhine Wine. 
Steffensberger. Moselle. 

Steinberger. 1 — Rhine Wine.* 2 — Austrian. 
Steinwein. Franconia (see Rhine Wine). 
Strasser. White Austrian. 
Straw Wine. The pressings of very ripe grapes 

which have been dried on reed or straw 

mats. Syrupy, spirituous and sometimes 

slightly acidulated. 
Styrian Wines. Austrian wines from the province 

of Styria — Luttenberger, Schiller, etc., and 

"Styrian Champagne." 
Sultzmelt. Still, white, from Alsace-Lorraine. 
Sunbury. Delicate red dry Australian. 
Syracuse. "Siracusa" (Italian).* 
Syrmier. White Hungarian. 
Szamorodni, Szamorodnyer. Hungarian.* 
Szegszarder. Hungarian.* 



Tabris. Sweet Persian, red and white. 

Tarragona Port. See Poet. 

Tart (Clos de). Red Burgundy (Class II). 

Tavannes (Clos). Red Burgundy. 

Tavel. Very dry, rose-colored, from Rhone district. 

France. 
Teher. Sweet Persian, red and white. 
Temprano. White Australian, sherry-style. 
Teneriffe. Canary.* 
Terasse, La. Red, from Isere. France. 
Terlauer. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 



•see special article. 



704 



THE GROCEE^s ENCYCLOPEDi A — Wine Catalog, cont'd. 



Terma. White, light bodied Portuguese. 

Termo Tinto. Red Portuguese. 

Terran. Mild, deep-colored Illyrian (Austria). 

Terre Forte. Very strong Sicilian. 

Tetenyer. Slightly sweet, deep red Hungarian. 

Thaurey. Red Burgundy (Class HI.). 

Thera. Greek, dry-Madeira-style. 

Thiergaertner. Moselle. 

Thurgau. Swiss, red and white. 

Tintara. Tawny strong Australian. 

Tinto de Rota. Dry red Spanish. 

Tipo Chianti — Asti, etc. Wines of Chianti, Asti 

and kindred style or "type," made in 

America. 
Tofalver. Transylvanian (Austria) Riesling. 
Toggenburger. White Austrian (German Tyrol). 
Tokay.* 

Tonnerre. Burgundy-style, from Yonne, France. 
Topaz Villa Flor. Aromatic, dry and sweet, 

Portuguese. 
Torre Giulia. Italian, red and white. 
Torres-Vedras. Pale red, sweet Portuguese. 
Trabener. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 
Traminer. White German and Austrian, from 

Traminer grapes. 
Trarbacher. Moselle. 
Trebbiano. Gold syrupy Italian. 
Trittenheimer. Moselle. 
Trockenbeer. ' Rhine Wine. 
Trogslaver. Red and white Bohemian. 
Trojer. White Bohemian. 
Tiirkheimer. White, from Alsace-Lorraine and S. 

W. Germany. 

U 

Uchard. Red, sweet, from South France. 

Uerziger. Moselle. 

Ungsteiner. White German. 

Uvaccia. Syrupy, spirituous Austrian (Istria). 

Uvaggio. Any Italian wine from mixed grapes. 



Val 



(2) 



de penas. Spanish — (1) whits, sweet; 

dry sub-bitter red. 
Valence, or Valencia. Red sweet Spanish. 
Valmagra. Red dry Italian. 
Valpolicello. Red dry Italian. 
Varognes. Heemit.\ge.* 
Vaucrains. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 
Vauvert. Red. sweet, from South France. 
Veltelin. Red Swiss. 
Verdeilho. 1 — Madeiea.* 2 — Australian wine of 

Madeira type; 
Vermouth.* 



*SEE SPECIAL article. 



Vernaccio. Straw-color Italian. 

Vesuvio. Italian, red and white. 

Vigue de Monsieur. Red Roumanian. 

Villa Salto. Sicilian, amber, sherry-style. 

Villanyi. Hungarian.* 

Vin, Vini, Vino. Signifies "wine." For "Vin Ran- 
cio," etc., see Rancio, etc. 

Vino de Pasto. 1 — Sherey.* 2 — Red Italian. 

Vino Santo. Italian.* 

Vinos Tintos. "Spanish Reds."* 

Vinum Altaris. Sweet red Spanish for altar pur- 
poses. 

Visp. Red dry strong Swiss. 

Vollradser. Rhine Wine. 

Volnay. Red Burgundy.* 

Volnay-Santenot. Red Burgundy (Class III.). 

Voslauer. See Hungarian and Austrian. 

Vosne. Red Burgundy.* 

Vougeot, Clos de Vougeot. Red Buegundy.* 

Vouvray. White, sparkling, from Tours, France. 

Vugava. Sweet gold Austrian. 

Vukovarer. Red Hungarian. 

W 

Wallershak. White Austrian. 

Walporzheimer. Red Rhine Wine.* 

Waltershof. White German. 

Wawerner. Moselle. 

Wehlener. Moselle. 

Weidlinger. White Austrian. 

Weinberger. White Austrian. 

Weisskirchen. Hungarian wines, white and red. 

Werschetzer. Hungarian wines of various styles, 

Wickerer. Rhine Wine. 

Wiltengen. Saar (see Rhine Wine). 

Windischbuchler. White Austrian. 

Winkeler. Rhine Wine. 

Winninger. Moselle. 



X 



Xeres Wine. Sheeey'.* 



Yering. Delicate red dry Australian. 
Yvorne. Swiss.* 



Zahnacker. White Ruppoltsweiler (Alsace-Lor- 
raine), 
Zeltinger. Moselle (see Rhine Wine). 
Zinfandel.* 

Zlatarizza. Rose-color strong Dalmatian (Austria). 
Zucco. Red Italian. 



WINE CRADLE: a small basket, somewhat resembling a sauce-boat in shape, 
specially designed to hold a wine bottle, lying down. It has a handle at one end, and 
at the other, a groove or depression to hold the neck of the bottle. It is used to pour 
out wines, such as Burgundies and fine clarets, without disturbing the sediment accu- 
mulated along the side of the bottle as it has lain in the cellar bin. The bottle should 
be placed in the basket in the same position that it has occupied in the bin, care 
being exercised not to agitate it, nor to stand it up even for a moment, or the sediment 
will be mixed with the wine. 



WINE VINEGAR. 



See general article under heading of Vinegar. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



ro5 



WINTER CHERRY: one of many names for the Ground Cherry (which see). 

WINTERGREEN FLAVOR, or EXTRACT: employed in confectionery and medic- 
inallj', owes its title to its original source, the Winter- 
green shrub or plant — known botanically as Gaultheria 
pvocumhcns, a member of the Heath family, and locally 
in some sections as "Checkerberry," "Tea-berry," etc. — 
whose leaves yield the true Wintergreen Oil or Oil of 
Gaultheria. 

The principal present source of natural so-called 
wintergreen oil is the Black Birch, Betula Lenta, from 
the twigs and leaves of which is produced Oil of Betula, 
which is chemically identical with Oil of Gaultheria. 

Wintergreen Extract is made by dissolving the oil 
in alcohol. 

There is a shrub of the Madder family botanically 
classed as Mitchella repens, which is also known in some 
parts of the country as the "Checkerberry," and in 
others as the "Wintergreen," but it contains no oil and 
has no relation to the Wintergreen of the Heath familj^ 
It, however, supplies edible berries which, though dry 
and tasteless to the palate, are said to possess consider- 
able medicinal virtue, being both tonic and soothing. 




wintergreen 



WOANDSU: a newly discovered food plant, native to tropical Africa. It resembles 
the peanut in its manner of growth and furnishes a very white flour of exceptionally 
high and well-balanced food value, which, after cooking, has a pleasing chestnut flavor. 
The kernel is egg-shaped, dark red, with black stripes and a white hilum. 

WOODCOCK {see Color Page facing 260) : one of the most popular of the smaller 
game birds, found in many parts of Eastern North America, from Canada to the Gulf. 
It averages a little larger than a snipe and is distinguished by its long beak — utilized 
for boring for earth-worms, its favorite diet ; short, thick neck ; compact, rounded body 
and short wings and legs. Its upper plumage is a varied grey, bulf, brown and black; 
the under parts are a reddish-brown. The flesh is dark and rich in flavor. The Euro- 
pean woodcock is a similar bird of larger size. 

WOODRUFF : a plant of the Madder faoiily, which grows freely both in this coun- 
try and Europe. It varies from six to eigliteen inches in height and bears a quantitj' 
of small whitish flowers. When fresh, it has little scent, but the dried leaves possess 
a lasting perfume suggestive of new-mown hay. It is employed in various ways, the 
most noteworthy perhaps being as flavoring for "May Wine," or .l/fn'fr(/»A:^ the leaves 
being steeped for a short time in a punch of Rhine or mixed wines. Dried Woodruft" 
for this purpose is sold in tin boxes, generally under the title of Waldmeister zur 
Bowie. 

The detached leaves are also placed in closets, drawers, etc., to repel insects. 



WORCESTERSHIRE SAUCE. See general article on S-ixjces. 



706 THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

WORMWOOD. See Absinthium in article on Absinthe. 

YAMS: the tuberous roots of a climbing plant. They resemble sweet potatoes in 
general characteristics and are extensively used as food in the West Indies and other 
tropical regions. Large specimens frequently weigh thirty pounds or more. 

The two best varieties are the "Yampie" of Jamaica, and the "Barbados Yam," 
both of them of marked delicacy of flavor. Properly prepared by long boiling, they 
are to most palates superior to even the finest sweet potatoes. 

YEAST: is the family name of those tiny plants or micro-organisms belonging to 
the Fungi class which reproduce themselves by budding. There are many varieties, 
but they are all oval or round, colorless and nearly transparent, except when great 
numbers are bulked together, and so small that singly they cannot be discerned by 
the naked eye. The mature plant or cell develops a bud which rapidly increases in 
size and detaches itself from the parent plant, to itself bud and develop another cell 
- — and so on indefinitely. The new cell frequently commences to bud before it detaches 
itself from the parent plant, and the latter may produce a second bud before the 
first is detached — resulting often in the formation of clusters of several cells before dis- 
integration. The multiplication is very rapid where the food supply is favorable. 

Yeast plants are present everywhere. They flourish best in foods containing 
sugary solutions in moderate amount, or substances convertible into sugar, but sugar 
itself is immune, except some moist varieties such as maple sugar. Thus in the 
household they will speedily multiply in the jelly that is left exposed in a warm room 
and cause it to ferment, but they cannot grow in the dry sugar nor in the heavily 
sugared jam standing at its side. 

These "wild" yeast cells must be kept out of food, for their uncontrolled, unregu- 
lated growth often spoils it by producing undesired fermentation. The cultivated 
yeast plant is, on the other hand, one of the most valuable of human food assistants. 

The usefulness of properly controlled yeast is found in the fact that the action of 
its "enzymes" or secretions on the sugary contents of the matter, whether bread dough 
or grape juice, etc., in which it falls or is placed, is to convert the sugar into alcohol 
and carbon-dioxide (carbonic acid gas). Of these two, only the alcohol is retained in 
still wines, spirits, etc., but sparkling wines, beer, etc., include also a small amount of 
the carbon-dioxide. In bread making, the alcohol, comparatively unimportant in quan- 
tity and effect, is lost by evaporation in baking. The carbon-dioxide also passes aAvay 
in the oven — but in the dough set to rise, it produces the hundreds of little bubbles or 
cavities which give the loaf the desired porous character (see article on Bread). 

Another good example of the action of yeast is seen in the home manufacture of 
root beer and similar beverages. The extract purchased provides the agreeable herb 
flavor, but the directions for making require the addition of both yeast and sugar, and 
it is the action of the yeast on the sugar which gives the slightly exhilarating quality 
(from the small percentage of alcohol produced) and the effervescence (from the 
action of the carbon-dioxide). 

It is the wild yeast in grape and apple skins which produces the bulk of our wine 
and cider, by causing fermentation in the juice of the grapes and apples, but with these 
exceptions nearly all the yeast plants utilized are those of carefully selected, specially 
cultivated varieties. The fermentative process which precedes the manufacture of 
whisky, rum, etc., is always produced by cultivated yeast. Bread dough, if left to 



707 

stand in a wai'm room, will generally "rise," as a result of the activity of the wild yeast 
which has fallen in it, but the results are uncertain and irregular compared with those 
obtained by the use of cultivated yeast. 

Yeast grows most freely between 70° and 95° Fahr., so the temperature of a good 
refrigerator will prevent propagation. Fooci in which wild yeast has begun to grow, 
but in which it has not progressed sufficiently to do considerable damage, can be saved by 
boiling, or its equivalent heat in other forms of cooking. Heat is the only effective 
destroyer. It must be remembered, however, that unless the food thus freed is effec- 
tually covered or placed in a refrigerator, it is just as liable as before to suffer fermen- 
tation from new wild yeast getting into it. 

Cultivated yeast consists of selected wild cells, propagated in appropriate food 
material. If undisturbed, they will multiply until the whole is a mass of practically 
pure yeast. Different kinds are grown for special purposes; as a variety which may 
be very good for beer, for example, may not be desirable in color or taste for bread. 

Commercial Compressed Yeast is obtained from distillery fermenting vats by skim- 
ming or separating from the "wort" and then cleansing, etc., or by sowing selected 
yeast cells in vats filled with a mixture of malt and rye or corn, or boiled potato 
mash, etc., and water, held at a moderately warm temperature. Boiling the water 
with a small quantity of hops, followed by straining, frequently precedes the addi- 
tion of the malt or potato mash, partly for the agreeable flavor but principally to retard 
the growth of any bacteria present. As the cells multiply, they collect in a thick coat- 
ing on the surface. This is skimmed off from time to time, washed, freed from part 
of the water and made into the soft, rather soggy cakes sold in such enormous quanti- 
ties for both household and bakers' use. When fresh, nearly all the cells wall be found 
alive and vigorous — there are millions of them in each cake, mixed with starch, etc. — 
but after two or three days many of them die and the yeast will show less and less 
vigor. In time, bacteria, another form of micro-organism, will develop in the cake and 
spoil its flavor. It is consequently best to use Compressed Yeast while perfectly fresh. 
If this is impossible, its life may be prolonged by placing the cakes in cold water and 
setting in the ice chest. It should never be exposed to temperature below the freezing 
point. 

Next after Compressed Yeast in strength and utility for bread making, is 
Brewer's Yeast, the brownish frothy top yeast from the fermenting vats of ale or beer. 
It answers the same purpose, but is not so vigorous, and sometimes gives a slightly 
bitter taste. 

Beer yeast is also used to a limited extent by physicians. It makes an appetizing 
"Bouillon," somewhat resembling beef tea, and is given as a stimulant in low fevers 
when inflammatory symptoms make the use of wine inadvisable. 

Dried Yeast, in cakes or powder, is Compressed Yeast dried at low heat. The 
process kills some of the plants and thus lessens the vigor of the yeast, but a good 
many are left in a dormant condition and the advantage is that it will, under suitable 
conditions, keep for several weeks, and sometimes months. It must, however, be 
handled with care, as its vitality is destroyed or lessened by falls, bruises, etc., and by 
excessive heat or cold. 

The live cells of Drie(r Yeast begin growing again when moistened. The best plan 
is to put the cake or powder in a little sweetened warm water shortly before using. 

Both Compressed and Dried yeasts vary in purity and hence in value, so that it is 
advisable to purchase from concerns of recognized experience and integrity. 



708 THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 

YELLOW TAIL: a name given in various parts to many different kinds of fish. 
The best known is the California Yellow-tail [Seriola Dorsalis), a large fish, plentiful 
along the coast and highly esteemed for food. 

ZAPOTE: one of several names for the Sapodilla (which see). 

ZINFANDEL: a California claret of excellent repute, made chiefly from the Zin- 
fandel grape, which supposedly originated in the Cier Fandel grape-stock, imported 
from Hungary. 

ZOOLAK, or Matzoon: a fermented preparation of cow's milk resembling the 
modern Kumiss (which see), except that the. milk is sterilized before the addition of 
the bacteria culture used as a ferment. 

Fermented milk, known as Yoghoord, has been for centuries an article of daily 
diet in Armenia, Persia and other Oriental countries, the fresh product being very 
seldom consumed by the native inhabitants. It is also employed as a specific in many 
forms of sickness, the patient being restricted to its consumption exclusively. 

ZWIEBACH, or Zwieback: is a product whose name describes its manufacture, the 
word (in German) signifying "twice baked." That put on the market by large manufac- 
turers is made from a special dough, raised by yeast like ordinary bread but contain- 
ing more milk than water and frequently including also eggs and butter — and, for 
SM'eetened varieties, sugar and a little flavoring. The dough is molded in shapes 
according to the variety, well proved and baked ; then left to cool for several hours, 
sliced and re-baked dry to a nice brown. The industry originated in Germany, and 
there is still a small annual importation from that country, but the great bulk of the 
supply is of domestic manufacture. 

Among the best known special types are Ilamhitrg Ztviehach, like round rolls cut 
in two across; Vienna Ziciebach, in long OA^als or finger shape; Hungarian Zwieback, 
finger-shaped, wider at each end than in the middle, covered with icing and baked 
brown ; Saxon Zwiehach, finger-shaped, sliced ; Anise Ziviebach; Hamburg Children's 
Zioiebach, a specially light style for children and invalids, and several kinds made for 
dietetic purposes of Gluten or Malted Bread. 

Supplementing the varieties described, is a large quantity made from ordinary 
bread, either sweetened or unsweetened, cut in slices and slowly baked till thoroughly 
crisp. For ordinary unsweetened use, it is best prepared from Vienna bread, but 
almost any kind of baker's bread will answer the purpose. Home-made bread will 
seldom give satisfactory results. 

Zwiebach is eaten in place of cake or bread and is also sometimes used for cook- 
ing. It is considered very wholesome. It is best consumed fresh, but if held in a cool 
dry place it can be kept for some time by occasional additional toasting or baking to 
remove any moisture attracted. 

ZWETSCHENWASSER: the German form of Slivovitz (which see). 



APPENDIX 



PAGE 

DICTIONARY OF FOOD NAMES IN FIVE LANGUAGES— English, French, 

German, Italian and Swedish - - - - - - - 710 

DICTIONNAIRE FRANCAIS-ANGLAIS ------ 735 

WORTERBUCH DER DEUTSCHEN-ENGLISCHEN SPRACHE - - 739 

DIZIONARIO ITALIANO-INGLESE . . - - - - 733 

SVENSK-ENGELSK ORDBOK -------- 737 

CULINARY AND BILL-OP-FARE TERMS .... - 741 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 745 



DICTIONARY OF FOOD NAMES IN FIVE LANGUAGES. 



ENGLISH 



FRENCS 



GERMAN 



ITALIAN 



SWEDISH 



ALCOHOL 



Alcool 



Alcohol. Wein- 
geist. Spiritus 



Alcool 



Sprit. Alkohol 



ALE 



Ale. Aile 



Englisches Bier, 
Ale 



Birra inglese 



Engelskst 61 



ALUGATOR PEAR 



Avocat 



Avocado-Birne 



Pera avvocato 



Alligator-paron 



ALLSPICE 



Piment de la 
Jamaique 



Nelkenpfeffer 



Coccola di pi- 
mento 



Kryddpeppar 



ALMONDS 
Bitter almonds 
Burned almonds (in 
sugar) 

Shelled almonds 

Sweet almonds 



Amandes 
Amandes ameres 
Amandes pralinees 



Amandes cass^es 



Amandes douces 



Mandeln 

Bittere Mandeln 

Gebrannte Man 
deln (Zuckerman- 
deln) 

Geschalte Man- 
deln 

Siisse Mandeln 



Mandorle 

Mandorle. amare 

Mandorle a b b r u- 

stolite (in z u c- 

chero) 

Mandorle sbucciate 

Mandorle doici 



Mandel 
Bittermandel 
Branda mandlar 



Krakmandel 



Sotmandel 



ALMOND PASTE 



ANCHOVIES 
Anchovy butter 
Anchovy paste 
Anchovy sauce 



Pate d'amande 



Mandelteig 



Pasta di mandorla 



Mandelmassa 



Anchois 

Beurre d'anchois 
Pate d'anehois 
Sauce d'anehois 



Anschoven 
Anschovenbutter 
Anschovenpaste 
Anschovensauce 



Acciughe 

Burro di acciughe 
Pasta di acciughe 
Acciugata 



Ansjovis 
Ansjovissmor 
Ansjovismassa 
Ansjoviss^s 



ANISE 



Anis 



Anis 



Anice 



Anis 



APPLES 

Cooking apples 
Eating apples 
Dried apples 



Pommes 
Pommes a cuire 
Pommes a couteau 
Pommes tapees 



Apfel 
Kochapfel 
Tafelapfel 
Getrocknete Apfel 



Mele 

Mele da cuocere 
Mele da mangiare 
Mele secche 



Applen 
Matapplen 
Dessertapplen 
Torkade applen 



APRICOTS 



Abricots 



Aprikosen 



Albicocche 



Aprikoser 



ARROWROOT 



Arrow-root 



Pfeilwurz 



Arrowroot 



Arrowrotmjol 



ARTICHOKES 
Artichoke bottoms 



Artichauts 
Ponds ( or culs") 
d'artichauts 



Artischocken 
Artischockenboden 



Carciofl 

Fondi [or torsi) di 
carciofo 



Kronartskockor 
Kronartskock- 
bottnar 



ASPARAGUS 
Green asparagus. 
White asparagus 
Asparagus tips 



Asperges 
Asperges vertes 
Asperges blanches 
Pointes d'asperges 



Spargel 

Griiner Spargel 
Weisser Spargel 
Spargelkbpfe 



Asparagi 
Asparagi verdi 
Asparagi bianchi 
Punte d'asparagi 



Sparris 
Gron sparris 
Hvit sparris 
Sparris toppar 



AVOCADO. See Alligator Pear 


BACON 


Lard 


Speck 


Lardo 


Rokt flask 


BAKING POWDER 


Levure en poudre 


Backpulver 


Polvere crescente 


Jastpulver 


BANANAS 


Bananes - 


Bananen 


Banane 


Bananer 


BARLEY 


Orge 


Gerste 


Orzo 


Korngryn 



THE GROCER^s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



711 



ENGLISH 



BAY LEAVES 



FRENCH 



Feuilles de laurier 



GERMAN 



Lorbeerblatter 



ITALIAN 



Foglie d'alloro 



SWEDISH 



Lagerbarsblad 



BEANS 

Kidney beans 



Lima becins 

Navy beans 
String beans 
Wax beans 



F6ves 
Haricots 



Haricots de Lima 

Haricots blancs sees 
Haricots verts 
Haricots a c o s s e 



Bohnen 
Welscbe Bohnen 



Lima-Bohnen 

Getrocknete Bohnen 
Griine Bohnen 
Wachs Bohnen 



Fave. Fagiuoli 
Fagiuoli 



Fagiuoli di Lima 

Fagiuoli secchl 
Fagiuolini 
Fagiuolini gialli 



Bonor 

Turska-bonor. 
Bruna bonor 
{irovm 6eaws) 

Lima-bonor. 
Bond-bonor 

Hvita bonor 

Skarbonor 

Vaxbonor 



Young green beans 


jaune 
Flageolets 


Griine Bohnen 

Kerne 


Fagluoli giovani 


Grona honor 


BEECHNUTS 


Faines 


Buchecker 


Faggiole 


Boknotter 


BEEF 

Corned beef 


Boeuf 
Boeuf sale 


Rindfleisch 
Gepokeltes Rind- 


Manzo 
Manzo salato 


Oxkott 
Salt oxkott 



fleisch 



Roast beef 
Spiced beef 
Dried beef 

BEEFSTEAK. 





Boeuf roti. Rosbif 


Rinderbraten j 


Rostbif. Manzo ar- 
rosto 


Oxstek. RostbifE 




Boeuf epice 


Gewiirztes R i n d - 
fleisch 


Manzo aromatico 


Kryddad oxkott 




Boeuf boucane 


Getrocknetes Rind- 
fleisch 


Manzo seccato 


Torkadt oxkott 



See Steak 



BEEF EXTRACT. See Meat Extract 



BEER 


Biere 


Bier 


Birra 


01 


BEETROOTS 


Betteraves 


Runkelriiben 


Barbabietole 


Betor. Rodbetor 
(red ieets) 


BERRIES 


Bales 


Beeren 


Bacche 


Bar 


BISCUITS 


Biscuits 


Zwieback. Biskuit 


Biseotti. Biscottlni 


Kex. Skorpor 


BITTERS 


Amers 


Magenbitter 


Amari 


Bitter-vin. Malort 


BLACKBERRIES 


Bales de ronce 


Brombeeren 


More di rovo 


Bjornbar 


BLOATERS 


Harengs boufiis 


See Herring (Smoked) 


BLOOD 


Sang 


Blut 


Sangue 


Blod 


BLOOD PUDDING 


Boudin 


Blutwurst 


Sanguinaccio 


Blodpudding. Blod- 
korf 



BLUEBERRIES. 


See Huckleberries 








BONE 


Os 


Knochen 


Osso 


Ben 


BRAINS 


Cervelle 


Gehirn 


Cervella 


Hiarna 


BRANDY 




Eau de vie 


C g n a k . Brannt- 
wein 


Acquavlte. Cognac 


Konjak 



BRAWN. See Head Cheese 








BRAZIL NUTS 


Noix de Br^sil 


Paraniisse 


Noci del Brasile 


Brasilnotter 


BREAD 


Pain 


Brot 


Pane 


Brod 


Brown bread (or 


Pain bis 


Schwarzbrot 


Pan nero. Pane 


Groft brod 


Graham bread) 






bruno 




Home-made brea d 


Pain de menage 


Hausbrot. Selbstge- 
backenes Brot 


Pane casalingo 


Hembakadt brod 


New bread 


Pain tendre 


Frisches Brot 


Pane fresco 


Farskt brod 


Rye bread 


Pain de seigle 


Roggenbrot 


Pane di segala 


Ragbrod 


White bread 


Pain blanc 


Weissbrot 


Pane bianco 


Hvetebrod 


BREAST (of a bird or 


Poitrine 


Brust 


Petto 


Brost (of Urds) 


lamb) 








Bringa {of lamM 



36 



112 THE GKOCER-'s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food 'Names, cont'd- 



ENGLISH 


FREJfPM 


■GERMAN 


ITALIAN SWEDISH , 


BREAST (brisket) 


Brisquet ,,; ■, /; 


Bruststiick 


Petto 


Bringa 


BRINE 


Marinade , v., . 


Salzwasser. La.ke 


Salmoja 


Saltlake. Saltvatten 



BRISKET. See. Breast • '•- ■ 










BROCCOLI 


Brocoli 

' ■ f ■ 


Brokoli. Spargel- 
kobl , , . -. 


■ Broccoli 


Sparriskai 


BROTH 


Bouillon 


Fleischbriihe 


Brodo 


Kraftsoppa 


BRUSSELS 

SPROUTS 


Choux de BFuxelles 


■ iBosenkiihl 


■Broccoli di Brus- 
selle 


Brysselkai 




BUCKWHEAT 


Sarazin " 


BucHiveizBn ' 


Saggina 


Bohvete 




BURGUNDY (wine) 


Yin de Bourgbge^ 


Burgund^r WeinL 


Vino di Borgogna 


Bourgognevin 




BUTTER 

Cooking butter 
Salt butter 


Beurre 

Beurre de "ciii^iiie 
Beurre ^airr 


Butter.., . : 
Kochbutter 
Gesalzene Butter 


Burro 

Burro per cuoeere 

Burro salato 


Smor 
-Matsmor 
Salt smor 




BUTTERMILK 


Lait de beurre 


Buttermilcli 


Siero di latte 


Karnmjolk 


CABBAGE 
Red cabbage 


Cliou 
Chou rouge 


Kobl. Kraut 
Rotkohl 


Cavolo 
Cavolo rosso 


Hvitkai 
Rodkai 




CAKE 


Gateau 


Kuchen 


Focaceia 


Kaka 


CALF'S BRAINS 


Cervelle de veau 


Kalbshirn 


Cervella di vitello 


Kalfhjarn& 


CALF'S HEAD 


Tete de veau 


Kalbskopf 


Testa di vitello 


Kalfhufvud 


CALF'S LIVER 


Foie de veau 


Kalbsleber 


Fegato di vitello 


Kalilefver 


CANDY 


Candi. Bonbons. 
Sucreries 


Zuckerwerk. 
Bonbons 


Confetti. 
Dolci. Chicche. 


Karameller. 
Konfekt (fancy) 


CANTALOUPE 


Cantaloup 


Kantalupe. 
Bisam Melone 


Meloncini. 
Mellone muschiato 


Kantaloup-melon 




CAPERS 


Capres 


Kapern 


Capperi 


Kapris 


CAPON 


Cbapon 


Kapaun 


Cappone 


Kapun 


CARAWAY SEED 


Cumin des prgs 


Kuramelsaine 


Seme di carvi 


Kummin 



CARBONATE OF SODA. See Soda 



CARBONATED 

WATERS 



CARDAMOM 



CAROB-BEAN 



CARROTS 



CASSIA (bark) 



CATSUP 



CAULIFLOWER 



Eaux carbonatees 



Cardamome 



Garoube 



Carottes 



Casse aromatique 



Sauce anglaise pre- 
paree de cbam- 
pignons, ou 
toinates, etc. 



Cboufleur 



Kohlensaurebal- 
tige Wasser 



Kardamom 



Johannisbrot 



Mohrriiben. Karot- 
ten 



Kanehl 



Pikante Sauce 
von Schwammen 
Oder Tomaten, 
etc. 



Acque carbonate 



Cardamomo 



Carruba 



Carote 



Cassia (corteccia) 



BiumenkoHl " 



Conserva liquida di 
fungiii o pomi 
d'oro, ecc, per 
condire vivande 



"Cavolo fie re 



Sodavatten 



Kardemumma 



Johannesbrod 



Morotter 



Kassiabark 



Pikant s a s a f 
champinjoner, 
eller tomater, etc. 



TSlomkil 



CAVIAR 



T!aviar 



Kaviar 



Caviale 



TCaviar 



CELERY 



Celeri 



Sellerie 



Sedano 



Selleri 



CHAMPAGNE 



Champagne 



Champagner. Sekt 



Sciampagna. Cham- 
pagne 



Champagne 



CHEESE 

Cream cheese 



Grated cheese 



Fromage 

F r o m a g e k la 
cr6me 

Fromage rape 



Kase 
Rahmkase 



Geriebener Kase 



Formaggio 
Formaggio di 
crema. Formag- 
— gir grasso 
Formaggio grattato 



Ost 
Graddost 



Rifven ost 



THE G K c E K ■ s E X c Y c L p E D I A — Dictionary of Food Names, con I '<!. 713 



ENGLISH 



FRENCH 



CHEESE CAKE 

CHERRIES 

Candied cherries 

CHESTNUTS 

Candied chestnuts 



Talmouse 



Cerises 
Cerises glacSes 



GERMAN 



Kaselvuchen 



Kirschen 
Kandirte Kirschen 



ITALIAN 



SWEDISH 



Focaccia di formag- 
gio I 



Ostkalva 



Ciliegie 
Ciliegie candite 



Korsbar 
Kanderade Icorsbar 



Marrons 
Marrons glaces 



Kastanien. Maronen 
Kandirte Kastanien 



CHICKEN 

Roasting chicken 

Spring chicken 



Poulet 
Poulet a rotir 



Castagne 
Cattagne candite 



Kastanjer 

Kanderade Icastan- 
jer 



Huhn 
Brathuhn 



Poulet de grain Junges Hulin 



CHICORY 



Chicoree 



CHILIES 



Poivrons de Guinee 



Ppllo 

Polio per arrosto 

Galletto. 
Pollastrino 



Unghons 

Unghbns £br Stek- 

ning 
Kyclvling 



Chicorie 



Cicoria 



Cayennepfefiler 



Pepe di Guinea. 
Peperoni 



Cikoria 



Spansli peppar 



CHOCOLATE 



Chocolat 



ScholvOlade 



Cioccolata 



Cholvolad 



CHOPS 


Cotelettes 


Rippclien 


Costolette 


Kotletter 


CIDER 


Cidre 


Apfelwein 


Sidro 


Cider. Appelvin 


CINNAMON 


Cannelle 


Zimmt 


i Cannella 


Kanel 



CITRON PEEL 

(candied) 



Cedrat confit 



Citronat. Sukkade. 



Cedrato candito 



Kanderad citron- 
skal. "Suceat" 



CLAMS (hard) 



Soft clams 



Lucines orangees 



Lucines papillons 



Venusmuschein 



Weichmuscheln 



Genere di mollusclii 
bivalvi (famiglia 
di veneri). V. 
Clmis, p. 138. 



Venus musslor 



Trftg musslor 



CLARET 


Vin de Bordeaux 


; Rotweia 


j Vino rosso. Vino di 

1 Bordo. Claretto 

1 


Rod vin 


CLAWS (of shell- 
fish, etc.) 


Pattes. Pinces 


: Solieren. Klauen 


' Forbici. Tanaglie 


Klor 


CLOVES 


Girofles 


Gewiirznelke 


Garofani { 


Kryddnejlikor 



COCKSCOMBS 


Cretes de coq 


' Hahnenkamme 


Creste di gallo 


Tuppkammar 


COCOA 


Cacao 


Kakao 


Cacao 


Kakao 


COCOANUT 


Noix de coco 


Kolcosnuss 


Noce di cocco 


Kokosnot 


CODFISH 
Dried cod 


Morue. Cabillaud 
Morue seche 


Kabeljau 
Stockfisch 


Merluzzo. Baccala 
Baccala secco 


Torsk. Kabiljo 
Klippfisk. Stock- 
fish. T r k a d 
kabiljo 



Salt cod 
Cod sounds 
Cod tongues 



Morue salee 

Noues 

Langues de moruei 



Laberdan 

Kabeljau-Blasen 

Kabeljau-Zungen 



COD LIVER OIL 



Huile de foie ' de 
morue 



Lebertran 



Baccala salato 
Vescica di merluzzo 
Lingue di merluzzo 



Saltad kabiljo 
Simbiasor af torsk 
Tunga at torsk 



Olio di fegato di. 
merluzzo 



Fisklefvertran 



COFFEE 

Whole coffee 
Ground coffee 



Cafe 

Cafe en grains 

Cafe moulu. Cafe 



Kaffee 

Kaffeebohnen 
Gemahlener Kaffee 



Caffe 

Gaffe in grani 

Caffe macinato 



Kaffie 

Kaffebbnor 
Malet kaffe 



Roasted coffee 


en ijouure 
Cafe grille 


Gebrannter 


Kaffee 


Caffe tostato 


Brandt (or 
Rostadt) kaffe 


COLD SLAW 


Salade de chou 


Kohl Salat 




Insalata di cavolo 


Hvitkai sallat 


CONDENSED MILK 


Lait concentre 


Condensirte 


Milcli 


Latte condensate 


Kondenserad mjolk 


CONFECTIONERY 


Confiserie 


Konditorei 


' 


Confettura 


Konfekt. Sotsaker 



714 THE geocek's encyclopedia — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


CORIANDER 


Coriandre 


Koriander 


CoriandoU 


Koriander 


CORN (Indian) 
Cornmeal 
Cornstarch 


Mais 

Farine de mai's 

Pecule de mais 


Mais 

Maismebl 
Kornstarke. 
Maisstarke 


Grano saraceno 
Farina saracena 
Amido di grano 


MaJs 

Majsmjol 

Majsstarkelse 


CORN SALAD 

(plant) 


Mache 


Feldsalad 


Fu. Valeriana do- 
mestica 


En sallat vaxt 


CRAB 

Soft-shell crab 

Oyster crab 


Crabe 
Crabe mou 

Crabe d'hultre 


Krabbe 
Weichschalige 

Krabbe 
Austernkrabbe 


Granchio 
Granchio a guscio 

molle 
Granchio ostrica 


Krabba 

Krabba med 

mjukt skal 
Ostronkrabba 


CRAB APPLES 


Pommes sauvages 


Holzapfel 


Mele selvaticbe 


Vildapplen 



CRACKERS. See Biscuits 



CRANBERRIES 



CRAYFISH 



Airelles rouges 



Ecrevisses 



Preisselbeeren 



Flusskrebse 



Bacche di mortella 



Gambero d'acqua 
dolce 



Tranbar 



K r a f t o r. 
kraftor 



Flod- 



CREAM 



Creme 



Rahm. Sahne 



Crema 



Gradde 



CREAM OF 

TARTAR 



Crgme de tartre 



Weinsteinrabm 



Cremor di tartaro 



Cremor tartari. Vin- 
syradtkali 



CRESS 



Cresson 



Kresse 



Cresoione 



Krasse 



CUCUMBER 
Pickled cucumbers 



Concombre 
Concombres coniits 



Gurke 

Eingemachte Gur- 
ken 



Getriuolo 

C e t r i u o 1 i sotto 
aceto 



Gurka 
Attiksgurkor. Salt- 

gurltor 
Syltgurkor (sweet 

pickled) 
Inlagda g u r k o r 

{spiced pickled) 



CURD 



Caille 



Quark. Dicke 
Milch 



Latte quagliato 



Ostmysja 



CURRANTS (fresh) 
Currant jelly 

Currants (dried) 



Groseilles 

Gelee de groseilles 

Raisins de 
Corinthe 



Johannisbeeren 
Johannisbeergelee 

Korinthen 



Ribes 

Conserva (or Gela- 

tina) di ribes 
Uva passa di 

Corinto 



Vinbar 
Vinbarsgelg 

Korinter 



CURRY 


Curry. Karri 


Curry 


Curry, specie di 
condimento indi- 
ano 


Kurry. Kurrypep- 
par 


CUTLET 


Cotelette 


Rippchen. Kotelett 


Costoletta 


Kotlett 


DAMSON (plum) 


Damas 


Damascener Pfla- 
ume. Zwetsche 


Damoscina. Pruna 
di damasco 


Damascenerplom- 
mon 


DANDELION 


Dent-de-lion 


Lowenzahn 


Macerone 


Maskros 


DATES (fruit) 


Dattes 


Datteln 


Datteri 


Dadlar 


DESSERT 


Dessert 


Nachtisch. Dessert 


Pospasto. Dessert. 
Frutta (fruit) 


Dessert 


DILL PICKLES 


Concombres conflts 
a I'aneth 


Dillgurken 


C e t r i u 1 i sotto 
aneto 


Dillgurkor 


DUCK 

Wild duck 


Canard 
Canard sauvage 


Ente 
"Wildente 


Anitra 

Anitra selvatica 


And 
Vildand 


EEL 
Sea eel 


Anguille 
Congre 


Aal 
Meeraal 


Anguilla 
Grongo 


Al. Insjoai (fresh- 
water) 
Hafsai 


EGGS 


(Eufs 


Eier 


TJova 


Agg 



THE GROCER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 715 



EN&LISB 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


EGGPLANT 


Aubergine 


Eierpflanze 


Melanzana 


Aggplanta 


ENDIVE 


Endive 


Endivien 


Indivia 


Endivia 



ESCHALOTS. See SUallots 



EXTRACT 


Extrait 


Extrakt 


Essenza. Bstratto 1 Extrakt 


FARINA 

1 — (of ground 

corn) 
2 — (of wheat 

middlings) 


Parine (de mais) 
Semoule 


Maisgries 
Weizengries 


Farina saracena 
Semolino 


Majsmjol 
Semolinagryn 


FAT 


Graisse 


Fett 


Grasso 


Fett 


FEET 


Pieds 


Piisse 


Piedi 


Fotter 


FIGS 


Figues 


Feigen 


Ficbi 


Fikon 


FILBERTS 


Avelines 


Lambertsniisse 


Nocciuole. Avellane 


Filbertsnotter 



FINNAN HADDIE. See Haddock {Smoked) 



FISH 


Poisson 


Fisch 


Pesce 


Fisk 


Fresh water fish 


Poisson d'eau douce 


Siisswasserfisch 


Pesce d ' a c q u a 
fresca 


Insjoflsk 


Salt water fish 


Poisson de mer 


Meerfisch. S a 1 z - 
wasserfisch 


Pesce di mare 


Hafsfisk 


FLOUR 


Farine (de fro- 
ment) 


Mehl 


Farina 


Fint mjol 


Rye flour 


Farine de seigle 


Roggenmehl 


Farina di segala 


Ragmjol 


FOREQUARTER 


Quartier de devant 


VordervierTel 


Quarto davanti 


Framfjarding 



FOWL. See Chicken 



FROGS' LEGS 



Cuisses de gren- 
ouilles 



Frosclischenkel 



Gambe di ranocchie Grodben 



FROSTING (for cakes). See Icing 



FRUIT 

Candied fruit 
Dried fruit 


Fruit 

Fruits glaoes 
Fruits sees 


Obst. Prucbt 
Kandirte Frucht 
Getrocknete Frucbt 


Prutta 

Frutta candita 
Prutta secca 


Prukt 

Kanderad frukt 
Torkad frukt 


GAME (birds and 
animals) 


Gibier 


Wildbret {animals) 
Wildgef liigel 
{birds) 


Selvaggiume 


Vildt 


GARLIC 


Ail 


Knoblauch 


Aglio 


Hvitlok 


GARNISHING 


Garniture 


Garnierung 


Guarnitura 


Garnering 


GELATINE 


Gelatine 


Gelatine 


Gelatina 


Gelatin 


GHERKINS 


Cornichons 


Kleine Bssig 
Gurken 


Cetriuolini (all'a- 
ceto) 


Vester§,s gurkor 


GIBLETS 


Abatis 


Hiihnerklein 


Frattaglie 


pagelkras. Gaskras 


GIN 


Genievre 


"Wachliolderbrannt- 
wein 


Ginepro 


Genever. Genever- 
branvin 


GINGER 
Ginger ale 

Gingerbread 


Gingembre 
Boisson au gingem- 
bre 
Pain d'epice 


Ingwer 
Ingwer-Ale 

PfefEerkuchen 


Zenzero 

Birra di zenzero 

Pan pepato 


Ingetara 
(Ingefars) Socker- 

dricka 
Pepparkaka 


GIZZARD 


GSsier 


Magen 


Ventriglio. Ventric- 
cio 


Krafva 


GOOSE 

Goose liver 
Gosling (or Green 
goose) 


Oie 

Foie gras 

Oison 


Gans 

Ganseleber 
Junge Gans 


Oca 

Fegato d'oca 

Papero 


Gas 

Gaslefver 

Gasunge 



716 THE GROCER^s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



ENGLDiH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


GOOSEBERRIES 


Groseilles a ma- 
quereau 


Stachelbeeren 


Ribes uva spina. 
Uva crespina 


Krusbar 


GRAPES 
Grape jelly 
Grape juice 


Raisins 

Gelee des raisins 

Mout 


Trauben 
Traubengelee 
Traubensaft - 


Uva 

Conserva d'uva 

Sugo d'uva 


Vindrufvor 

Drufgele 

Brufsaft 


GRAPE FRUIT 


Pamplemousse 


Pompelmuse 


Pampelimossa 


Grape frukt 


GREENGAGES 


Prunes de reine 
Claude 


Reineclauden 


Susine verdi 


Reineclaude. Grona 
plommon 


GREENS 


Legumes verts 


Griines Gemiise. 
Griinzeug 


Verdura 


Gronsaker 


GROATS 


Gruau 


Grutze 


Grano mondato 


Krossgryn 


GROUSE 


Tetras 


Waldhuhn. Moor- 
Huhn 


Gallo di niontagna 


Ripa 


GUAVA 


Goyave 


Guava 


Guajava 


Guavafrukt 


GUINEA FOWL 


Pintade 


Perlhuhn 


Gallina di faraone 


Perlhona 


GUMBO. See Okra 



HADDOCK 

Smoked haddock 
("Finnan Haddie") 



Egrefin 
Egrefin fume 



HAM 



Jambon 



Schellfiscli 
Gerauoberter 
Scbellflsoh 



Specie di merluzzo Kol^a 

Rokt kolja 



Schinken 



Giambone. Pi'osci- 
utto 



Skinka. 
Rokt skinka 



HARD TACK 



Biscuit de mer 



Schiffszwieback 



Galletta 



Skepps-skorpor 



HARE 



Lievre 



Hase 



Lepre 



Hare 



HAUNCH 



Cimier 



Hiifte. Schenkel 



Anca 



L§,rstycke 



HAZEL-NUTS 



Avelines 



Haselniisse 



Nocciuole 



Hasselnotter 



HEAD 



Tete 



Kopf 



Testa 



Hufvud 



HEAD CHEESE 



HEART 



Fromage de pore 



Schwartenmagen. 
Presskopf 



Pormaggio f a t to 
c o 1 1 a testa d i 
porco 



Pressylta. Sylta 



Coeur 



Herz 



Cuore 



Hjarta 



HEN 

HERBS 

Fine herbs. Sweet 
herbs. Aromatic 
herbs 



Poule 



Huhn 



Gallina 



Hona 



HerJses 

r Eines herbes. 
•j Herbes aromati- 
( ques. Aromates 



Krauter 
Feine Krauter. 
Gewiirzkrauter. 
Kuchenkrauter 



Brbaggio 
Erbe flni. 
Erbe aromatictie 



Orter 
Kryddvaxter 



HERRING 

Pickled herring 

Kippered (or 
Smoked) herring 



Hareng 

Hareng marine. 
Hareng sale 
Hareng saur 



Hering 

Marinirter Hering 
Salzhering 
Geraucherter Her- 
ing 



Aringa 

Aringa marinata 

Aringa affumicata 



HINDQUARTER 



Quartier d e der- 
riere 



HIP 



Culotte 



Hinterviertel 



Schwanzstiick 



Quarto di dietro 



Anca 



Sill 
Inlagd sill 

Rokt sill 



Bakfjarding 



Hoft 



HOMINY 


Semoule de mais 
blanc 


Weisser Mais Gries. 
Grob gemahlener 
Mais 


Semolino di grano- 
turco bianco 


Majskrossgryn 


HONEY 

Honeycomb 


Miel 

Rayon de miel 


Honlg 
Honigwabe 


Miele 
Favo 


Honung 
Honungskaka 


HOPS 


Houblons 


Hopfen 


Luppoli 


Humle 


HOREHOUND 

CANDY 


Pastilles de mar- 
rube 


Marrubium P a s - 
tillen 


Confetti di marrob- 
bio 


Brostkarameller 
(andorn) 



THE grocer's encyclopedia — ■Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



711 



ENGLISH 



HORSERADISH 



FRENCH 



Raitoi't 



GERMAN 



Meerrettig 



ITALIAN 



Rafano. Ramolac- 
cio 



SWEDISH 



Pepparrot 



HUCKLEBERRIES 



Myrtils 



Heidelbeeren. 
Blaubeeren 



Mlrtillo 



Biabar 



ICE 



Glace 



Eis 



Ghiaccio 



Is 



ICE (dessert) 



Glace 



Gefrorenes 



Gelato. Sorbetto 



Glace 



ICE CREAM 



Glace. Glace a la 

creme 



Gefrorenes. Eis 
creme 



Crema ghlacciata 
Gelato 



Glace 



ICING 



Glace. Glace royale 
Foudant {cooked) i 



Glasur aus Zucker 
Zuckerguss 



Crosta di zucchero 



Glasering. 
Glasyr kandering 



INDIAN MEAL. See Cornmeal 



JAM 


Confiture 


Marmelade. E i n - 
gemachtes 


Conserva. Confet- 
tura 


Sylt 


JELLY 


Gelee 


Gelee 


Gelatina 


Gele 


JERUSALEM 

ARTICHOKE 


Topinambcur 


Jerusalem-A,rti- 
scbocke 


Elianto tuberoso 


Jordartskocka 


JOINT (of meat) 


Grosse piece 


Gross Stiick. 
Grosses Fleisch- 
stiiok 


Taglio 


Stort Kottstycke 


JUICE 


Jus 


Saft 


Succo. Sugo 


Saft 


KALE 


Chou vert frise 


Krauskohl. Blat- 
terkohl 


Cavolo rlccio 


Kruskai 



KETCHUP. See Catsup 



KIDNEY 


Rognon 


Nieren 


Rognone 


' Njure 


KNUCKLE 


Jarret 


Knochel 


Nocca 


Lilgg 


KOHLRABI 


Chourave 


Kohlrabi 


Cavolo rapa 


KMrabbi 


LAMB 


Agneau 


Lamm 


Agnello 


Lamkott 


Spring lamb 


Agneau de lait 


Milchlamm 


Agnello di latte 


Dilamm 


LARD 


Saindoux 


Scliweinesclimalz 


Lardo. Saime. 
Grasso strutto 


Ister. Svinfett 


LEEKS 


Poireaux 


Lauch 


Porri 


Purjolok . 


LEG 


Patte (0/ small 


Keule. Schlegel 


Gambe {of small 


Ben {of birds. 




Mrds, etc.) 




birds, frogs, etc.) 


frogs, etc.) 




Cuisse {of chicken, 










frogs, etc.) 










Glgot {of lamb, 




Coscia {of animals 


Lar. Larstycke 




mutton, etc.) 




and larger birds) 


{of animals) 




Cuissot {of veal, 










venison, etc.) 










Trumeau {of teef) 








LEMON 


Citron. Limoa 


Citrone. Limone 


Limone 


Citron 


Lemon peel 


fecorce de citron 


Citronenschale 


Scorza di limone 


Citronskal 


Candied lemon 


Citronnat 


Citronat 


Scorza di limone 


Kanderad citron- 


peel 






candita 


skal 


Lemon extract 


Alcoolat de citron 


Citronen Extrakt 


Essenza {or Estrat- 
to) di limone 


Citroneztrakt 


Lemon juice 


Jus de citron 


Citronensaft 


Sugo di limone. 
Agro di limone 


Sur citronsaft 


LEMONADE 


Limonade 


Limonade 


Limonata 


Limonad 


LENTILS 


Lentilles 


Linsen 


Lenticchie 


Linser 


LETTUCE 


Laitue 


Kopfsalat 


Lattuga 


Gronsalad 


Cos lettuce. See 


Romaine 









718 THE GEOCER^s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



ENG-LISJS 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


LICORICE 


Rgglisse 


Lakritze 


Liquirizia 


Lakrits 


LIME (fruit) 


Lime 


Limette 


Lima (piccolo 
limone) 


Limon (en 1 i t e n 
citron) 


LIME JUICE 


Jus de lime 


Limonensaft 


Cedrato. Agro di 
lima 


Limonsaft 


LIVER 


Fole 


Leber 


Fegato 


Lefver 


LOBSTER 


Homard 


Hummer 


Gambero marino. 
Astaco 


Hummer 


LOIN 


Longe 


Lendeu-Stiick 


Lombo 


Framre landstycke. 
Oxliare 


LOZENGES 


Pastilles 


PastlUen 


Pastiglie 


Pastilj 


MACARONI 


Macaroni 


Makaroni 


Maccheroni 


Makaroni 


MACAROONS 


Macarons 


Makronen 


Amaretti 


Makron (ett slags 
mandel-bakelse) 


MACE 


Macis 


Muskatbliite 


Macis 


Muskotblomma 


MACKEREL 
Salt mackerel 


Maquereau 
Maquereau sale 


Makrele 
Salz-Makrele 


Sgombro 
Sgombro salato 


Makrill 
Salt makrill 



MAIZE. See Corn (Indian) 



MALT 


Malt 


Malz 


Orzo malto 


Malt 




MANGO 


Mangue 


Mangofrucht 


Mango 


Mango 


MAPLE SUGAR 


Sucre d'erable 


Aliornzucker 


Zuccliero di aoero 


Lonnsocker 


MAPLE SYRUP 


Sirop d'erable 


Aliornsirup 


Sciroppo di acero 


Lonnsirap 




MARCHPANE 


Massepain 


Marzipan 


Marzapane 


Marsipan 


MARJORAM (sweet) 


Marjolaine 


Meiran 


Magiorana (dolce) 


Mejram 


MARMALADE 

(orange) 


Marmelade 
(d'oranges) 


Marmelade (von 
Apfelsinen) 


Marmellata. Con- 
serva di aranci 


Marmelad. Sylt 
apelsiner 


af 


MARROW 

Marrow bone 


Moelle 

Os a moelle 


Mark 
Markknochen 


Midollo 

Osso midolloso 


Marg 
Margben 


MEAT 

See also Beef, etc. 


Viande 


Pleisch 


Carne 


Kott 


MEAT EXTRACT 


Extrait de viande 


Fleischextrakt 


Essenza (or Estrat- 
to) di carne 


Kottextrakt 


MELON 


Nefle 


Mispel 


Nespola 


Mispel 


MEDLAR 


Melon 


Melone 


Mellone 


Melon 


MILK 


Lait 


Milch 


Latte 


Mjolk 



MILT. See Roe (soft) 



MINCE MEAT 


Viande cuite hacliee 


Gehacktes gekoch- 


Carne cotta t r i - 


Hackadt kott med 




avec p m m e s , 


tes Fleisch, Apfel, 


tata, con mele, 


appeln, russin, 




raisins sees, ce- 


Rosinen, Citron- 


uva passa, cedro 


kanderad citron. 




drat confit. 


at, Gewiirze, 


candito, spezie, 


kryddor, konjak. 




epices, eau de vie, 
etc. 


Cognak, etc. 


acquavite, ecc. 


etc. 


MINERAL WATERS 


Eaux minerales 


Mineral-Wasser 


Acque minerali 


Mineral-vatten 


MINT 


Menthe 


Minze 


Menta 


Mynta 


MOCK TURTLE 


Fausse tortue 


Falsche Sohildkro- 


Zuppa fatta con 


P a 1 s k skoldpadd- 


(soup) 


(Soupe a la) 


ten - Suppe (von 
Kalbskopf z u - 
bereitet) 


testa di vitello 
(imitazione di 
tartaruga) 


soppa 



THE GEOCBR^s ENOYCLOPEDi A — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



719 



ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


MOLASSES 


Mglasse 


Melasse 


Melassa 


Sirap. 
Sockersirap 


MULBERRIES 


Mures 


Maulbeeren 


More 


Mullbar 


MUSHROOMS 

Button mushrooms 


Champignons 
Mousserons 


Pilze 
Tafelpilze 


Funghi 
Funghicini 


Champinjoner 
Champinjonhufvud 



MUSK MELON. See Cantaloupe 



MUSSELS 


Moules 


Muscheln 


Datterl di mare 


Musslor 


MUSTARD 


Moutarde 


Senf. Mostrich 


Senapa. Mostarda 


Senap 


MUTTON 


Mouton 


Hammelfleisch 


Castrate 


Farkott 


NECK 


Cou 


Hals 


Cello 


Hals. Halsstycke 


NECTARINE 


Brugnon 


Nektarine 


Pesca noce 


Nektarin 


NOODLES 


Nouilles 


Nudeln 


Una forma di 
pasta alimentara 
simile alle fettuc- 
celle 


Nudlar 


NUTMEG 


Muscade 


Muskatnuss 


Noce moscata 


Muskott 


NUTS 


Noix 


Niisse 


Noci 


Notter 


OATMEAL 


Farine d'avoine 


Hafergriitze 


Farina di avena 


Hafremjol 


OIL 

Sweet oil 


Huile 

Huile de table 


01 

Speiseol. Olivenol 


Olio 

Olio da tavola 


Olja 
Matolja 


OKRA 


Gombaut 


Ochra. Gombo 


Ocra 


Ochra 


OLIVES 


Olives 


Oliven 


Olive 


Oliver 


OLIVE OIL 


Huile d'olive 


Oliven 01 


Olio d'ollva 


Olivolja 


ONIONS 


Oignons 


Zwiebeln 


Cipolle 


Lok 


ORANGES 


Oranges 


Apfelsinen. 
Orangen 


Aranci 


Apelsiner 


OX TAIL 


Queue de bceuf 


Ochsenschwanz 


Coda di bue 


Oxsvans 


OX TONGUE 


Langue de boeuf 


Ochsenzunge 


Lingua di manzo 


Oxtunga 


OYSTERS 


Hultres 


Austern 


Ostriche 


Ostron 


OYSTER PLANT 


Salsifis 


Salsify 


Barba di becco 


Salsofi. 
Sockerrotter 


PARSLEY 


Persil 


Petersilie 


Prezzemolo 


Persilja 


PARSNIPS 


Panais 


Pastinake 


Pastinache 


Palsternacka 


PARTRIDGE 


Perdrix 


Rebhuhn 


Pernice 


Rapphons 


PASTRY 


Patisserie 


Backwerk 


Pasticcieria 


Bakverk. S m 6 r • 
bakelse 


PATTY 


Pate 


Pastete 


Pasticcetto 


Pastej 


PEAS 

Green peas 

Split peas 


Pols 

Pois nouveaux. 

Petits pois 
Pois cassees 


Erbsen 
Griine Erbsen 

Getrocknete g e s - 
chalte Erbsen 


Pi sell i 
Piselli verdi 

Piselli spaccati 


Arter 
Grona arter 

Krossade arter 


PEACHES 


Peches (freestone) 
Pa vies {"clings") 


Pfirsiche 


Pesche 


Persikor 


PEANUTS 
Earthnuts, 
Goobers, etc. 


Arachides 


Erdniisse 


Pistacclii di terra 


Jordnotter 


PEARS 


Poires 


Birnen 


Pare 


Paron 



720 



THE grocer's encyclopedia — Dictionary of Food Isames, cont'd. 



ENGLISH 



FRENCH 



GERMAN 



ITALIAN 



SWEDISH 



PEPPER 

Black pepper 
White pepper 
Red pepper 
Cayenne pepper 
Peppercorns 



Poivre 

Poivre noir 
Poivre blanc 
Poivre rouge 
Poivre de Guinee 
Grains de poivre 



Pfeffer 

Schwarzer Pfeffer 
Weisser' Pfeffer 
Roter Pfeffer 
Spanisclier Pfeffer 
Pfefferkorner 



Pepe 

Pepe nero 
Pepe bianco 
Pepe rosso 
Pepe di Caienna 
Grani di pepe 



Peppar 

Starlipeppar 

Hvitpeppar 

Rodpeppar 

Cayenne peppar 

Pepparkorn 



PEPPERS (fresh) 



Piments 



Frisclie Pfeffer- 
schoten 



Pepercni comuni i Farsk peppar 



PEPPERMINT 



Menthe poivrge 



Pfefferminze 



Menta pepata 



Pepparmynta 



PHEASANT 



Faisan 



Fasan 



Fagiano 



Fasan 



PICKLES 



Concombres, o u 
legumes, etc., con- 
fits au vinaigre 



Eingemacbte 
Gurken, Gemiise, 
etc. 



Cetriuoli, Iegumi,j Pickles. Inlagda- 
ecc, in aceto : g u r k o r eller 
gronsaker, etc. 



PIE 



Pate (covered and 

chiefly of vieat) 
Tourte (open and 

prefer aily o f 

meat) 
Tarte {open and 

chiefly of jam. 

fruit, etc.) 



Pastete 



Pasticcio. Torta. 

Crostata 



Pastej (meat or 

sweet) 
T^rta (sweet) 



PIG 

Sucking pig 
Pig's tongue 



CoclLon 
Cochon de lait 

Langue de pore 



Schwein 
Spanferkel. Milch- 

schwein 
Schweinszunge 



Porco. Majale 
Porcellino lattante 

Lingua di porco 



Gris. Svin 
Digris 

Gristunga 



PIGEON Pigeon 

Young pigeon. See Squai 



Taube 



Piccione 



Dufva 



PINEAPPLE Ananas 


Ananas 


Ananasso 


Ananas 


PISTACHIO NUTS 


Pistaehes 


Pistazienniisse - 


Noci di pistacchio 


Pistacier 


PLUMS 


Prunes 


Pflaumen 


Prugne 


Plommon 


"PLUM" CAKE 


Gateau de fruits 


Rosinenkuchen 


Focaccia con uva 
passa. Focaccia 
inglese 


Russinkaka 


PLUM PUDDING 


Plumpudding 


Plumpudding 


Budino inglese 


Plumpudding 


POMEGRANATE 


Grenade 


Granatapfel 


Melagrana 


Granatapple 


PORK 

Fresh pork 


Pore 
Pore frals 


Schweinefleisch 
Frisches Scbweine- 


Porco 
Porco fresco 


Flask 
Farskt flask 



Corned (or Salt) 
pork 


Pore sale 


fleisch 
Pokelfleisch 


Porco salato. 
Lardone 


Saltadt flask 


PORT (wine) 


Vin d'Oporto 


Portwein 


Vino di Oporto 


Portvin 


POTATOES 


Pommes de terre 


Kartoffeln 


Patate 


Potatis 


POULTRY 


Volaille 


Geflugel 


Pollame 


Fjaderfa. 
Honsfoglar 


PRAWNS 


Crevettes 


Garneelen 


Granchiolini. Gam- 
beretti di mare 


Rakor 


PRESERVES 


Confiture (as 

"jam") 
Conserves (less 

sweet or dryer) 


Eingemacbtes 


Conserve 


Konserver 


PRUNES 


Pruneaux 


Backpflaume 


Prugne secche 


Sviskon 


PULLET 


Poulette 


Junges Huhn 


Pollastrina 


Ungbons 



THE grockr's encyclopedia — Dictioiiarij of Food Names, cont'd. 



721 



ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


PUMPKIN 


Citrouille 


Kiirbis 


Zucca (melopo- 
pone) 


Pumpa 


PUNCH 


Ponclie 


Punscli 


Ponce 


Punscli 


QUAIL 


Caille 


Wachtel 


Quaglia 


Vaktel 


QUINCE 


Going 


Quitte 


Mela cotogna 


Kvitten 


RABBIT 


Lapin 


Kanlnohen 


Coniglio 


Kanin 


RADISHES 


Radis 


Rettige 


Ravanelli 


Radisor 


RAISINS 


Raisins sees 


Rosinen 


Uva passa 


Kussin 


RASHER of bacon 


Tranche de lard 


Specl^sclieiben 


Petta sottile di 
lardo 


Rokt fiaskskifva 



RASPBERRIES 
Raspberry vinegar 


Pramboises 
Vinaigre framboise 


Himbeeren 
Himbeer-Saft 


Lamponi 

Adeto di lampone 


Hallon 
Hallonattika 


RENNET 


Caillette 


Kaselab 


Caglio 


Renett 


RHINE WINE 


Vin du Rhin 


Rheinwein 


Vino del Reno 


Renskt vin 


RHUBARB 


Rhubarbe 


Rhabarber 


Rabarbaro 


Rabarber 


RIB 


Cote 


Rippe 


Costola 


Refben 


RICE 

Rice flour 


Riz 

Farine de riz 


Reis 
Reismehl 


Riso 

Farina di riso 


Ris 
Rismjol 


ROAST 


aet 


Braten 


Arrosto 


Stek 


ROE (hard) 

" (soft). Milt 


Frai 
Laitance 


Rogen 
Milcher 


Uova di pesce 
Latte di pesce 


Rom 

Mjolke 


ROLLS (bread) 


Petits pains 


Brotchen 


Panini 


Pranska brod. 
Smorbrod 


ROMAINE (lettuce) 


Romaine 


Romischer Salat 


Lattuga romana 


Ett slags gronsallat 


ROUND (of beef) 


Rouelle 


Keule (rind) 


Rotella 


Innania,r 


RUM 


Rhum 


Rum (aus Zucker- 
rohr) 


Rhum 


Rom 


RUMP 


Culotte 


Rumpfstiick. 
Schwanzsttick 


Culatta 


Svansstek. Bakre 
landstycke 


RYE 


Seigle 


Roggen 


Segala 


Rig 


SADDLE (of meat) 


Selle 


Riicken. Riicken- 
stiicli; 


Schiena 


Sadel 


SAGE 


Sauge 


Salbei 


Salvia 


Salvia 


SAGO 


Sagou 


Sago 


Sago 


Sago 



ST. JOHN'S BREAD. See Caroh Bean 



SALAD 


Salade 


Salat 


Insalata 


Salad 


SALMON 


Saumon . 


Lachs 


Salmone 


Lax 


SALT 


Sel 


Salz 


Sale 


Salt 


SAMP. 

See also Hominy 


Mais blanc 


Weisser Mais 


Granoturco bianco 


Majs 


SANDWICH 


Sandwich 


Belegtes, zusamnien 
geklapptes Brot- 
chen 


Due fettine di pane 
con della carne 


Dubbelsmorgas. 
Smorg^s 


SARDINES 


Sardines 


Sardinen 


Sardine 


Sardiner 



SARSAPARILLA 


Salsepareille 


Sarsaparille 


Salsapariglia 


Sassaparill 


SASSAFRAS 


Sassafras 


Sassafras 


Sassafrasso 


Sassafrasbark 


SAUCE 


Sauce 


Tunke. Sauce 


Salsa 


sas 



722 THE GKOCER-'s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Dictionary of Food 'Names, cont'd. 



ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


SAUSAGE 


Saucisse 


"Wurst 


Salsiccia 


Korf 


SAVOY CABBAGE 


Chou de Savoie 


Savoyerkohl 


Cavolo cappuccio 


Savojkai 


SCALLOPS 


Petoncles 


.Kammuscliel 


Pettonchi 


Kammussla 


SEASONING 


Assaissonnement 


Wiirze 


Condimento 


Kryddning 



SEMOLINA. See Farina (2) 



SHAD 



Alose 



Maifisch. Alse 



Cheppia 



Staksill 



SHADDOCK. See Grape Fruit 



SHALLOT 


Echalote 


Schalotte 


Scalogno 


Schalottenlok 


SHELLFISH 


Crustaces (lobsters, 

etc.) 
MoUusques 

{oysters, eta.) 


Schaltiere 


Pesce con guscio. 
Pesce di scorza 


Skaldjur 


SHERRY 


Vin de XerSs 


Xereswein 


Vino di Xeres 


Sherry 


SHOULDER 


Epaule 


Schulter 


Spalla 


Bog 


SHRIMPS 


Crevettes salicoque 


Garneelen 


Gamberettlni. 
Grancbiolini 


Rakor 


SKIN 


Peau 


Haut 


Pelle 


Skinn 


SLICE 


Tranche (of meat) 
Dame (of large 

fish) 
Escalope (thin 

slice) 


Schnitte. Scheibe 


Fetta 


Skifva 


SNAILS 


Escargots 


Scbnecken 


Lumache 


Sniglar 


SNIPE 


Becassine 


Schnepfe 


Beccaccino 


Beckasin 


SODA 


Soude. Carbonate 
de soude 


Soda. Kohlensaures 
Natron 


Soda. Carbonato di 
soda 


Soda. 

Kolsyradt natron 



SODA WATER. See Carbonated Water 








SOLE (fish) 


Sole 


Seezunge. Scholle 


Sogliuola 


Hafstunga. 
Sjotunga 


SORREL 


Oseille 


Sauerampfer 


Acetosa 


Syra 


SOUP 


Potage 


Suppe 


Zuppa 


Soppa 


SOURKRAUT 


Choucroute 


Sauerkraut 


Sourcrout. Crauti. 
Cavoli salati 


Surkai 


SPARE RIBS 


Plates-cotes ( d e 
pore) 


Solperrippchen 


Costole di porco 


Refbensspjall 


SPICE 


Epice 


Gewiirz 


Spezie 


Krydda 


SPINACH 


fepinards 


Spinat 


Spinacci 


Spenat 


SPRATS 


Sprats 


Sprotten 


Laterini 


Skarpsill 


SQUAB 


Pigeonneau 


Junge Taube 


Piccioneello. 
Piccione noyello 


Ung dufva 


SQUASH 


Courge 


Melonenkiirbis 


Zucca 


MS,nga olika sorter 
af Kurbits-slag- 
tet 


STEAK 


Bifteck 


Beefsteak 


Bifstek. Braciuola. 
Bistecca 


Biffstek. S 1 8 k . 
Kottskifva 


STOMACH 


Estomac 


Magen 


Stomaco 


Mage 


STRAWBERRIES 
Strawberry short- 
cake 


Fralses 

Gateau aux fraises 


Erdbeeren 
Erdbeerkuchen 


Pragole 

Focaccia di fragole 


Jordgubbar 
Jordgubbstarta 



THE grocee's encyclopedia — Dictionary of Food 'Names, cont'd. 



723 



ENGLISH 


FRENCH 


GERMAN 


ITALIAN 


SWEDISH 


STUFFING 


Farce 


Fiillung. Fiillsel , 
Stor 


Ripieno 
Storione 


Fyllning 


STURGEON 


Bsturgeon 


Stor 


SUET 


{Beef) Graisse de 
rognon de boeuf 

{Mutton) Suif . 
Graisse de 
mouton 


Rindsnierenfett 

(6ee/) 
Talg {mutton) 


Sugna 


Njurfett 


SUGAR 

Brown sugar 


Sucre 
Sucre brut 


Zucker 
Brauner Zucker 


Zuccbero 
Zucchero di mu- 


Socker 

Brunt farinsocker 



Granulated sugar 
Lump sugar 
Powdered sugar 



Sucre granule 
Sucre en pain 
Sucre en poudre 



Korniger Zucker 

Sbiicken-Zuclcer 

Puder-Zucker 



scavado 
Zucchero in grano 
Zucchero in pani 
Zucchero polveriz- 

zato 



Strosocker 

Bitsoclcer 

Pudersocker 



SWEETBREAD Ris 

Calf's sweetbread Ris de veau 



SWEET POTATOES Patates 



SYRUP 



TAMARINDS 



Sirop 



Broschen 
Kalbsbroschen 



Animella 
Animella di vitello 



B a t a t e n. 
Siisse Kartoffeln 



Batate. 
Patate dolci 



Sirup 



Sciroppo 



Tamarins 



Tamarinden 



Tamarindi 



Brass 
Kalfbrass 



Sot potatis 



Sirap 



Tamarinder 



TAPIOCA 



Tapioca 



Tapioka 



Tapioca 



Tapioca. K a s s a - 
vagryn 



TARRAGON 



Estragon 



Dragon 



Targone. Artemisia 



Kejsarsallat. 

"Estragon." 

Dragonort 



TART 

See also Pie 



Tartelette 



Torte 



Torta 



Tarta. Pastej 



TEA 



The 



Thee 



Te 



Te 



TENDERLOIN 



Filet 



Lendenstiick 



Filetto 



Filet 



TERRAPIN 



Terapgne 



Eine kleine! 

Amerikanische 

Schildkrote. 
Dosenschildkrote 



Ta,rtaruga palustris 
indigena d e g 1 i 
Stati Unit! 
d' America 



En landskoldpadda 
forekammande i 
sumptrakter 
i U. S. 



THYME 

Wild thyme 



Thym 
Serpolet 



Thymian 
"Wilder Thymian 



Timo 
Sermollino 



Timjan 
Backtimjan 



TOAST 



Pain rati 



Gerostetes Brot 



Pane abbrustolato ' Rostadt brod 



TOMATO 



Tomate 



Tomate. Paradies- 
apfel 



T m a t a. 
d'oro 



Porno Tomat 



TONGUE 



Langue 



Zunge 



Lingua 



Tunga 



TORTOISE (land) 

" (fresh- j 

water) 



Tortue de terre 
" d'eau douce 



Land-Schildkrote 
Fluss-Schildkrote 



Tartaruga di terra 
" di flume 



Landskoldpadda 
Parsk-vattens skold- 
padda 



TRIPE 



Tripe 



Kaldaunen 



Trippa 



Maghinna. RSnta 



TROTTERS. See Feet 



TROUT 


Truite 


Forelle 


Trota 


Forell 


TRUFFLES 


TrufEes 


TriifEeln 


Tartufi 


Tryffel 


TUNNY FISH 


Thon 


Thunfisch 


Tonno 


Tonfisk 


TURBOT 


Turbot 


Steinbutt 


Rombo 


Pigghvar 


TURKEY 

Young turkey 


Dinde 
Dindonneau 


Puter. Truthahn 
Junger Puter 


Tacchino 
Tacchino giovane 


Kalkon 
Kalkonkyckling 



724 THE grocer's encyclopedia — Dictionary of Food Names, cont'd. 



ENGLISH 



TURNIPS 



FRENCH 



Navets {long kind) 
Raves {round and 
fiat kinds) 



GERMAN 



Riiben. Stecliriiben 



ITALIAN 



Rape 



SWEDISH 



Rofva 
KS,lr6tter 



TURTLE 



Tortue (de mer) 



Suppen-Schildlcrote 



Tartaruga (di 
mare) 



Hafs skoldpadda 



VANILLA 
Vanilla bean 



Vanille 

Gousse de vanille 



Vanille 

Vanillenschote 



Vainiglia j 

Fagiuolo di vaini- 
glia 



Vanilj 
Vaiiiljebona 



VEAL 



Veau 



Kalbfleisch 



Vitello 



Kalfkott 



VEGETABLES 



Legumes 



Gemiise 



Vegetali. 

Verdura {green 
vegetables) 



Koksvilxter 
Grbnsaker {green 
vegetables) 



VERMICELLI 



Vermicelle 



Fadennudeln 



Vermicelli 



Vermiceller 



VENISON 



Venaison 



Wildbret 



Selvaggiume 



R^djurskott 



VINEGAR 

Wine vinegar 
Cider vinegar 
Malt vinegar 



Vinaigre 
Vinaigre de vin 
Vinaigre de cidre 
Vinaigre de malt 



Essig 
Weinessig 
Apfehveinessig 
Malzessig 



Aceto 

Aceto di vino 

Aceto di sidro 

Aceto d'orzo 



Attika 
Vinattika 
Ciderattika 
Maltattika 



WAFFLES 



Gaufres 



Waffeln 



Clalde 



vacior 



WALNUTS 



Nolx 



Wallniisse 



Noci 



Valnotter 



WATER 



Eau 



Wasser 



Acqua 



Vatten 



WATERCRESS 



Cresson de fon- 
taine 



Brunnenkresse 



Crescione di riviera 



Vattenkrasse 



WATERMELON 



Melon d' eau 



Wassermelone 



Cocomero 



Vattenmelon 



WHEAT 



Ble 



Weizen 



Prumento 



Hvete 



WHISKY 



Whisky 



Whisky. K o r n 
branntwein 



Acquavite di orzo (o Whisky 
di segala, ecc.) 



WHITEBAIT 



Blanchaille 



Weissfischen. 
Breitling 



Bianchetti 



Sm3,sill. 
Stromming 



WHITES (of eggs) 



Blancs d'ceuf 



Eiweiss 



Bianco d'uovo. 
Albume 



Agghvitor 



WHORTLEBERRIES 


See Huckleberries 








WINE 

Red wine 
Sparkling wine 
Sweet wine 
White wine 


Vin 

Vin rouge 
Vin mousseux 
Vin Sucre 
Vin blano 


Wein 
Rotwein 
Schaumwein 
Siisser Wein 
Weisswein 


Vino 

Vino rosso 
Vino spumante 
Vino dolce 
Vino bianco 


Vin 
Rodvin 

Musserande vin 
Sott vin 
Hvitt vin 


WING 


Aile 


Flugel 


Ala 


Vinge 


YEAST 


Levure 


Hefe 


Lievito 


Jast 


YOLKS 


Jaunes d'ceuf 


Eigelb 


Rosso d'uovo. 
Tuorlo 


, Aggulor 



DICTIONNAIRE FRANCAIS-ANGLAIS. 



Abatis. Giblets. 
Abricots. Apricots. 
Agneau. Lamb. 

Agneau de lait. Spring lamb. 
Ail. Garlic. 

Aile. 1 — Ale {Mere anglaise) . 
2 — Wing {mem'bre des ois- 
eaiix). 
Airelles rouges. Cranberries. 
Alcool. Alcohol. 
Ale. Ale. 
Alose. Shad. 
Amandes. Almonds. 
Amandes ameres. Bitter al- 
monds. 
Amandes cass6es. Shelled al- 
monds. 
Amandes douces. Sweet al- 
monds. 
A7nandes pralindes. Burned al- 
monds (in sugar). 
Pote damande. Almond paste. 
Amers. Bitters. 
Ananas; Pineapple. 
Anchois. Anchovies. 
Beurre d'anchois. Anchovy 

butter. 
Pate d'anchois. Anchovy paste. 
Sauce d'anchois. Anchovy 
sauce. 
Anguille. Eel. 
Anis. Anise. 
Arachides. Peanuts. 
Aromates. Aromatic herbs. 
Arrow-root. Arrowroot. 
Artichauts. Artichokes. 

Fonds (ou culs) d'artichauts. 
Artichoke bottoms. 
Asperges. Asparagus. 
Asperges ilanches. White 

asparagus. 
Asperges vertes. Green as- 
paragus. 
Pointes d'asperges. Asparagus 
tips. 
Assaissonnement. Seasoning. 
Aubergine. Egg plant. 
Avelines. Filberts. Hazel-nuts. 



Avocat (Poire d'). Alligator 

pear. 
Avoine, Farine d'. Oatmeal. 

B 

Baies. Berries. 
Baies de ronce. Blackberries. 
Bananes. Bananas. 
Becassine. Snipe. 
Betteraves. Beetroots. 
Beurre. Butter. 

Beurre de cuisine. Cooking 
butter. 

Beurre sale. Salt butter. 
Biere. Beer. 
Bifteck. Steak. 
Biscuits. Biscuits. 
Biscuit de mer. Hard tack. 
Blanchaille. Whitebait. 
Ble. Wheat. 
Boeuf. Beef. 

Baiif ioucani. Dried beef. 

Bwuf epic^. Spiced beef. 

Boiiif r6ti. Roast beef. 

Ba;uf sale. Corned beef. 
Bonbons. Candy. Sweets. 
Boudin. Blood pudding, 
Bouillon. Broth. 
Brisquet. Brisket. 
Brocoli. Broccoli. 
Brugnon. Nectarine. 



Cabillaud. Codfish. 
Cacao. Cocoa. 
Cafe. Coffee. 

C'af4 en grains. Whole coffee. 

Caf6 grim. Roasted coffee. 

Cafe moulu. Caf4 en poudre. 
Ground coffee. 
Caille. Quail. 
Caille. Curd. 
Caillette. Rennet. 
Canard. Duck. 

Canard sauvage. Wild duck. 
Candi. Candy. 
Cannelle. Cinnamon. 
Cantaloup. Musk melon. Canta- 
loupe. 



Capres. Capers. 

Cardamome. Cardamom. 

Carottes. Carrots. 

Caroube. Carob-bean. 

Carre. Rack. 

Casse arcmatique. Cassia. 

Caviar. Caviar. 

Cedrat confit. Candied citron. 

Celeri. Celery. 

Cerises. Cherries. 

Cerises glades. Candied 
cherries. 
Cervelle. Brains. 
Champagne. Champagne. 
Champignons. Mushrooms. 
Chapon. Capon. 
Chicoree. Chicory. 
Chocolat. Chocolate. 
Chou. Cabbage. 

Chou rouge. Red cabbage. 

Salade de chou. Cold slaw. 

Chou de savoie. Savoy cabbage. 

Chou vert frise. Kale. 

Choux de Eruxelles. Brussels 

sprouts. 
Choucroute. Sourkraut. 
Choufleur. Cauliflower. 
Chourave. Kohlrabi. 
Cidre. Cider. 

Cimier. Haunch {de venaison). 
Citron. Lemon. 
Alcoolat de citron. Lemon ex- 
tract. 
Ecorce de citron. Lemon peel. 
Jus de citron. Lemon juice. 
Citronnat. Candied lemon peel, 
Citrouille. Pumpkin. 
Cochon. Pig. 

Cochon de lait. Sucking pig. 
Coco (noix de). Cocoanut. 
Coeur. Heart. 
Coing. Quince. 
Concombre. Cucumber. 

Concomhres confits. Pickled 
cucumbers. 
Confiserie. Confectionery. 
Confiture. Jam. 
Congre. Sea eel. 
Conserves. Preserves. 
Coriandre. Coriander. 



726 



THP; GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Dictionnaire Frangais-Anglais — Continued. 



Corn!chons. Gherkins. 

Cote. Rib. 

Cotelette. Cutlet. Chop. 

Cou. Neck. 

Courge. Squash. 

Crabe. Crab. 

Craie mou. Soft shell crab. 
Crabe d'huitre. Oyster crab. 
Creme. Cream. 
Creme de tartre. Cream of 

tartar. 
Cresson. Cress. 

Cresson de fontaine. Water- 
cress. 
Cretes de coq. Cockscombs. 
Crevettes. Prawns. 
Crevettes salicoque. Shrimps. 
Crustaces. Shellfish. 
Cuisse. Cu!ssot. Leg. 
Culotte. Rump. Hip. 
Cumin des pres. Caraway seed. 
Curry. Curry. 

D 

Damas. Damson (plum). 
Darne. Slice. 
Dattes. Dates. 
Dent-de-lion. Dandelion. 
Dessert. Dessert. 
Dinde. Turkey. 

Dindonneau. Young turkey. 



Eau. Water. 

Eaux carionatdes. Carbonated 
waters. 

Eaux minirales. Mineral 
waters. 
Eau de vie. Brandy. 
Echalote. Shallot. 
Ecrevisses. Crayfish. 
Egrefin. Haddock. 

Egrefin fume. Smoked had- 
dock. "Finnan Haddie." 
Endive. Endive. 
Epaule. Shoulder. 
Epice. Spice. 

Pain d'dpice. Gingerbread. 
Epinards. Spinach. 
Erable, Sirop d'. Maple syrup. 
Erable, Sucre d*. Maple sugar. 
Escalope. Thin slice. 
Escargots. Snails. 
Estomac. Stomach. 
Estragon. Tarragon. 
Esturgeon. Sturgeon. 
Extrait. Extract. 



Faines. Beechnuts. 

Faisan. Pheasant. 

Farce. Stuffing. 

Farine (de froment). Flour. 

Farine de seigle. Rye flour. 
Feves. Beans. 
Figues. Figs. 
Filet. Tenderloin. 
Flageolets. Young green beans. 
Foie. Liver. 
Foie gras. Goose liver. 
Fondant. Icing ( Cooked). 
Frai. Roe (hard). 
Fraises. Strawberries. 

G&teau aux fraises. Straw- 
berry shortcake. 
Framboises. Raspberries. 

Yinaigre framboise. Rasp- 
berry vinegar. 
Fromage. Cheese. 

Fromage d la creme. Cream 
cheese. 

Fromage rap6. Grated cheese. 
Fruit. Fruit. 

Fruits glacis. Candied fruit. 

Fruits sees. Dried fruit. 



Garniture. Garnishing. 
Gateau. Cake. 

Gateau de fruits. "Plum" cake. 
Gaufres. Waffles. 
Gelatine. Gelatine. 
Gelee. Jelly. 
Genievre. Gin. 
Gesier. Gizzard. 
Gibier. Game. 
Gigot. Leg. 
Gingembre. Ginger. 
Boisson au gingemVre. Ginger 

ale. 
Girofles. Cloves. 
Glace. Ice (et Veau congel6 et 

glace aux fruits, etc.). Ice 

cream {glace d, la crSme). 
Glace d la creme. Ice cream. 
Glace. Glace royale. Icing. 

Frosting. 
Gombaut. Okra. 
Goyave. Guava. 
Graisse. Fat. 
Graisse de rognon de iceuf. 

Beef suet. 
Graisse de mouton. Mutton 

suet. 
Grenade. Pomegranate. 
Grenouilles, Cuisses de. Frogs' 

legs. 



Groseilles. Currants (fresh). 
GeUe de groseilles. Currant 
jelly. 

Groseilles a maquereau. Goose- 
berries. 

Grosse piece. Joint. 

Gruau. Groats. 

H 

Hareng. Herring. 
Harengs louffis. Bloaters. 
Harengs m,arin6s. Harengs 

saUs. Pickled herrings. 
Harengs saurs. Kippered her- 
rings. Smoked herrings. 
Haricots. Kidney beans. 
Haricots blancs sees. Navy 

beans. 
Haricots a cosse jaune. Wax 

beans. 
Haricots de Lima. Lima beans. 
Haricots verts. String beans. 
Herbes. Herbs. 
Fines heries. Herbes aromat- 
iques. Fine herbs. Sweet 
herbs. 
Homard. Lobster. 
Houblons. Hops. 
Huile. Oil. 

Huile de table. Sweet oil. 
Huitres. Oysters. 



Jambon. Ham. 
Jarret. Knuckle. 
■Jus. Juice. Gravy (de la 

viande). 



K 



Karri. Curry. 



Lait. Milk. 

Lait concentre. Condensed 
milk. 
Lait de beurre. Buttermilk. 
Laitance. Roe (soft). 
Laitue. Lettuce. 
Langue. Tongue. 

Langue de bceuf. Ox tongue. 

Langue de pore. Pig's tongue. 
Lapin. Rabbit. 
Lard. Bacon. 

Laurier, Feuilles de. Bay leaves. 
Legumes. Vegetables. 

Legumes verts. "Greens." 
Lentilles. Lentils. 
Levure. Yeast. 

Levure en poudre. Baking pow- 
der. 
Lievre. Hare. 



THE grocer's encyclopedia 



727 



Dictionnaire Frangais-Anglais — Continued. 



Lime. Lime. 

Jus de lime. Lime juice. 
Limon. Lemon. 
Limonade. Lemonade. 
Longe. Loin. 
Lucines. Clams. 

Lucines orang6es. Hard clams. 

Lucines papiUons. Soft clams. 



M 

Macarons. Macaroons. 
Macaroni. Macaroni. 
Mache. Corn salad (plant). 
Macis. Mace. 
Mai's. Corn (Indian). 
Farine de man. Cornmeal. 
F6cule de nidis. Cornstarch. 
Semoule de mais ilanc. 
Hominy. 
Malt. Malt. 
Mangue. Mango. 
Maquereau. Mackerel. 

Maquereau said. Salt mackerel. 
Marinade. Vinegar pickle (de 

vinaigre). Brine (desel). 
Marjolaine. Marjoram, (sweet). 
Marmelade. Marmalade (ordi- 

nairement, d'oranges). 
Marrons. Chestnuts. 
Marrons glacis. Candied chest- 
nuts. 
Marrube, Pastilles de. Hore- 

hound candy. 
Massepain. Marchpane. 
Melasse. Molasses. 
Melon. Melon. 

Melon d'eau. Watermelon. 
Menthe. Mint. 

Menthe poivrde. Peppermint. 
Miche. Loaf. 
Mlel. Honey. 

Uayon de miel. Honeycomb. 
Moelle. Marrow. 

Os d, moelle. Marrow bone. 
Morue. Codfish. 
Morue salie. Salt cod. 
Morue seche. Dried cod. 
Lang u e s de morue. Cod 
tongues. 
Morue, Huile de foie de. Cod 

liver oil. 
Moules. Mussels. 
Mousserons. Button mushrooms. 
Mout. Grape juice. 
Moutarde. Mustard. 
Mouton. Mutton. 
Mures. Mulberries. 
Muscade. Nutmeg. 
Myrtils. Huckleberries. 



N 
Navets. Turnips. 
Nefle. Medlar. 

Noix. 1. Walnuts (fruit du 
noyer). 2. Nuts {des noix de 
toute espece). 
Noix de Brisil. Brazil nuts. 
Noues. Cod sounds. 
Nouilles. Noodles. 



CEufs. Eggs. 

Blancs d'CBuf. Egg whites. 

Jaunes d'osuf. Yolks. 
Oie. Goose. 

Oison. Gosling. 
Oignons. Onions. 
Olives. Olives. 

Huile d'olive. Olive oil. 
Oranges. Oranges. 
Orge. Barley. 
Os. Bone. 
Oseille. Sorrel. 



Pain. Bread. 

Pain Hs. Brown bread. 

Pain tlanc. White bread. 

Pain de manage. Home made 
bread. 

Pain de seigle. Rye bread. 

Pain tendre. New bread. 

Pain rdti. Toast. 

Petits pains. Rolls. 
Pamplemousse. Grape fruit. 
Panais. Parsnips. 
Pastilles. Lozenges. 
Patates. Sweet potatoes. 
Pate. Pie. Patty (.petit). - 
Patisserie. Pastry. 
Patte. (1) Leg. (2) Claw (des 

crustacis). 
Pavies. Peaches ("clings"). 
Peau. Skin. 

Peches. Peaches ("freestones"). 
Perdrix. Partridge. 
Persil. Parsley. 
Petoncles. Scallops. 
Pieds. Feet. 
Pigeon. Pigeon. 

Pigeonneau. Squab. 
Piment de la JamaVque. Allspice. 
Piments. Peppers. 
Pinces. ClawS. 
Pintade. Guinea fowl. 
Pistaches. Pistachio nuts. 
Plumpudding. Plum pudding. 
Poires. Pears. 



Poireaux. Leeks. 
Pois. Peas. 
Pois cassies. Split peas. 
Pois nouveaux. Petits pois. 
Green peas. 
Poisson. Fish. 
Poisson d'eau douce. Fresh 

water fish. 
Poisson de mer. Salt water 
fish. 
Poitrine. Breast. 
Poivre. Pepper. 
Poivre Wane. White pepper. 
Poivre de Guinie. Cayenne 

pepper. 
Poivre noir. Black pepper. 
Poivre rouge. Red pepper. 
Grains de poivre. Pepper- 
corns. 
Poivrons de Guinee. Chilies. 
Pommes. Apples. 
Pommes A couteau. Eating 

apples. 
Pommes & cuire. Cooking 

apples. 
Pommes s auvag e s. Crab 

apples. 
Pommes tapies. Dried apples. 
Pommes de terre. Potatoes. 
Ponche. Punch. 
Poncire. Citron. 
Pore. Pork. 

Pore frais. Fresh pork. 
Pore said. Corned (ou Salt) 

pork. 
Plates-cdtes (de pore). Spare 

ribs. 
Fromage de pore. Head cheese. 
Potage. Soup. 
Poule. Hen. 
Poulet. Chicken. 
Poulet de grain. Spring 

chicken. 
Poulet A rdtir. R o a s ti n g 

chicken. 
Poulet a sauter. Frying 
chicken. 
Poulette. Pullet. 
Prunes. Plums. 
Prunes de reine claude. Green- 
gages. 
Pruneaux. Prunes. 



Quartier de derriere. Hind- 
quarter. 
Quartier de devant. Forequarter. 
Queue. Tail. 
Queue de iwuf. Ox tail. 



728 



THE GBOCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Dictionnaire Frangais-Anglais — Continued. 



Radis. Radishes. 

Raifort. Horseradish. 

Raisins. Grapes. 

Raisins sees. Raisins. 

Raisins de Corinthe. Currants 

(dried). 
Raves. Turnips. 
Regllsse. Licorice. 
Rhubarbe. Rhubarb. 
Rhum. Rum. 
Ris. Sweetbread. 

Ris de veau. Calf's sweetbread. 
Riz. Rice. 

Farine de riz. Rice flour. 
Rognon. Kidney. 
Romaine. Romaine (lettuce). 
Rosblf. Roast beef. 
Rot. Roast. 
Rouelle. Round. 



Sagou. Sago. 
Salndoux. Lard. 
Salade. Salad. 
Salsepareille. Sarsaparilla. 
Salsifis. Oyster plant. 
Sandwich. Sandwich. 
Sang. Blood. 
Sarazln. ' Buckwheat. 
Sardines. Sardines. 
Sassafras. Sassafras. 
Sauce. Sauce. 
Saucisse. Sausage. 
Sauge. Sage. 
Saumon. Salmon. 
Seigle. Rye. 
Sel. Salt. 



Selle. Saddle. 

Semoule. Farina. 

Serpolet. Wild thyme. 

Sirop. Syrup. 

Sole. Sole. 

Soude. Carbonate de soude. 

Soda. Carbonate of soda. 
Sprats. Sprats. 
Sucre. Sugar. 

Sucre trut. Brown sugar. 

Sucre granuU. Granulated 
sugar. 

Sucre en pain. Lump sugar. 

Sucre en poudre. Powdered 
sugar. 
Sucreries. Candy. Sweets. 
Suif. Suet (mutton). 



Talmouse. Cheese cake. 

Tamarins. Tamarinds. 

Tapioca. Tapioca. 

Tarte. Pie. 

Tartelette. Tart. 

Terapene. Terrapin. 

Tete. Head. 

Tetras. Grouse. 

The. Tea. 

Then. Tunny fish. 

Thym. Thyme. 

Tomate. Tomato. 

Topinambour. Jerusalem arti- 
choke. 

Tortue. Turtle {tortue de mer). 
Tortoise {tortue de terre ou 
d'eau douce). 

Tourte. Pie. 

Tranche. Slice (de toeuf, etc.). 
Rasher (de lard). 



Tripe. Tripe. 
Truffes. Truffles. 
Truile. Trout. 
Trumeau. Leg. 
Turbot. Turbot. 

V 

Vanille. Vanilla. 

Gotisse de vanille. Vanilla 
bean. 
Veau. Veal. 

Gervelle de veau. Calf's brains. 

Foie de veau. Calf's liver. 

Tete de veau. Calf's head. 
Venalson. Venison. 
Vermlcelle. Vermicelli. 
Viande. Meat. 

Extrait de viande. Meat Ex- 
tract. 
Vin. Wine. 

Yin tlanc. White wine. 

Yin mousseux. Sparkling wine. 

Yin rouge. Red wine. 

Yin sucr6. Sweet wine. 

Yin de Bordeaux. Claret. 

Yin de Bourgogne. Burgundy. 

Yin d'Oporto. Port. 

Yin du Rhin. Rhine wine. 

Yin de X4res. Sherry. 
Vinaigre. Vinegar. 

Yi7iaigre de cidre. Cider vine- 
gar. 

Yinaigre de malt. Malt vinegar. 

Yinaigre de vin. Wine vinegar. 
Volallle. Poultry. 

W 
Whisky. Whisky. 



WORTERBUCH DER DEUTSCHEN-ENGLISCHEN SPRACHE. 



Aal. Eel. 

Ahornsirup. Maple syrup. 

Ahornzucker. Maple sugar. 

Alcohol. Alcohol. 

Ale. Ale. 

Alse. Shad. 

Ananas. Pineapple. 

Andorn. Horehound candy. 

Anis. Anise. 

Anschoven. Anchovies. 

Ansclwvenhutter. Anchovy 
butter. 

Anschovenpaste. Anchovy 
paste. 

Anschovensauce. Anchovy 
sauce. 
Apfel. Apples. 

GetrocTcnete Apfel. Dried ap- 
ples. 

KocJiapfel. Cooking apples. 

Tafelapfel. Eating apples. 
Apfelsinen. Oranges. 
Apfelwein. Cider. 
Aprikosen. Apricots. 
Artischocken. Artichokes. 
Artischockenboden. Artichoke 

bottoms. 
Austern. Oysters. 
Austernkrabbe. Oyster crab. 
Avocado-Birne. Alligator pear. 

B 

Backpflaume. Prunes. 
Backpulver. Baking powder. 
Backwerk. Pastry. 
Bananen. Bananas. 
Bataten. Sweet potatoes. 

Beefsteak. Steak. 

Beeren. Berries. 

Belegtes, zusammen geklapptes 
Brotchen. Sandwich. 

Bier. Beer. 
Englisches Bier. Ale. 

Bimen. Pears. 

Biskuit. Biscuits. 

Blatterkohl. Kale. 

Blaubeeren. Huckleberries. Blue- 
berries. 

Blumenkohl. Cauliflower. 



Blut. Blood. 

Blutwurst. Blood pudding. 

Bohnen. Beans. 

Getrocknete Bohnen. Navy 
beans. 

Griine Bohnen. String beans. 

Griine Bohnen Kerne. Young 
green beans. 

Lima-Bohnen. Lima beans. 

Wachs Bohnen. Wax beans. 

Welsche Bohnen. Kidney beans. 
Bonbons. Candy. 
Branntwein. Brandy. 
Braten. Roast. 
Breitling. Whitebait. 
Brokoli. Broccoli. 
Brombeeren. Blackberries. 
Broschen. Sweetbread. 

Kanstroschen. Calf's sweet- 
bread. 
Brot. Bread. 

Frisches Brot. New bread. 

Sausirot. Selistgehackenes 
Brot. Home made bread. 

Roggenhrot. Rye bread. 

Schwarzhrot. Brown bread. 

Weissirot. White bread. 

Gerostetes Brot. Toast. 
Brotchen. Rolls. 
Brunnenkresse. Watercress. 
Brust. Bruststuck. Breast (von 
Gefliigel, Lamm, etc.). Bris- 
ket (vovi Ochsen). 
Buchecker. Beechnuts. 
Buchweizen. Buckwheat. 
Burgunder Wein. Burgundy 

(wine). 
Butter. Butter. 

Gesalnene Butter. Salt butter. 

Kochhutter. Cooking butter. 
Buttermilch. Buttermilk. 



Cayennepfeffer. Chilies. 
Cedrat. Citron. 
Champagner. Champagne. 
Chicorie. Chicory. 
Citrone. 1 — Lemon (Limone). 
2— Citron {Cedrat). 

Citronensaft. Lemon juice. 

Citronenschale. Lemon peel. 



C'itronen Extrakt. Lemon ex- 
tract. 
Citronat. Candied lemon peel. 
Candied citron (Cedrat). 
Cognak. Brandy. 
Curry. Curry. 



Damascener Pflaume. Damson. 
Datteln. Dates. 
Dessert. Dessert. 
Dillgurken. Dill pickles. 
Dosenschildkrote. Terrapin. 
Dragon. Tarragon. 



Eier. Eggs. 

Eigelb. Yolks. 

Eiweiss. Egg whites. 
Eierpflanze. Egg plant. 
Eingemachtes. Jam. Preserves. 
Eiscreme. Ice cream. 
Endivien. Endive. 
Ente. Duck. 

WUdente. Wild duck. 
Erbsen. Peas. 

Getrocknete geschdlte Er'bsen. 
Split peas. 

Griine Er'bsen. Green peas. 
Erdbeeren. Strawberries. 

Erdbeerkuchen. Strawberry 
shortcake. 
Erdniisse. Peanuts. 
Essig. Vinegar. 

.i'pfelioeinessig. Cider vinegar. 

Malsessig. Malt vinegar. 

Weinessig. Wine vinegar. 
Extrakt. Extract. 



Fadennudeln. Vermicelli. 
Fasan. Pheasant. 
Feigen. Figs. 
Feldsalad. Corn salad. 
Felt. Fat. 
Fisch. Fish. 

Meerfisch. Salt-water fish. 

Siis.^wasserfisch. Fresh-water 
fish. 
Fleisch. Meat. 
Fleischbruhe. Broth. 



730 



THE GROCEK-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Worterbuch der Deutschen-Englischen Sprache — Continued. 



Fleischexlrakt. Meat extract. 
Rindfleisch-Extrakt. Beef ex- 
tract. 
FlUgel. Wing. 
Flusskrebse. Crayfish. 
Forelle. Trout. 
Froschschenkel. Frogs' legs. 
Frucht. Fruit. 
Q-etrochnete FrucM. Dried 

fruit. 
Kandirte Frucht. Candied 
fruit. 
FUUsel. FUllung. Stuffing. 
Fusse. Feet. "Trotters." 

G 

Gans. Goose. 

Jiinge Q-ans. Gosling. 
Ganseleber. Goose liver. 
Garneelen. Shrimps. Prawns. 
Garnierung. Garnishing. 
GeflUgel. Poultry. 
Gefrorenes. Ice (Himtieer-Eis, 
etc.) Ice cream {Eiscreme). 
Gehirn. Brains. 
Gelatine. Gelatine. 
Gelee. Jelly. 
Gemiise. Vegetables. 

Griines Gemiise. Green vege- 
tables. "Greens." 
Gerste. Barley. 
Gewurz. Spice. 
Gewurznelke. Cloves. 
Glasur aus Zucker. Icing. 
Gombo. Gumbo. Okra. 
Granatapfel. Pomegranate. 
Griinzeug. "Greens." Green 

vegetables. 
Griitze. Groats. 
Guava. Guava. 
Gurken. Cucumbers. 
Eingeniacnte Gurken. Essig 

Gurken. Pickled cucumbers. 
Kl ei n e Essig Gurken. 

Gherkins. 

H 
Hafergriitze. Oatmeal. 
Hahnenkamme. Cockscombs. 
Hammelfleisch. Mutton. 
Hase. Hare. 
Haselniisse. Hazel-nuts. 
Haut. Skin. 
Hefe. Yeast. 
Heidelbeeren. Huckleberries. 

Blueberries. 
Hering. Herring. 

Geraucherter Hering. Kippered 

herring. Smoked herring. 

Bloater (Englischer) . 
Salzhering. Marinirter 

Hering. Pickled herring. 



Herz. Heart. 
Himbeeren. Raspberries. 

Himteeren - Saft. Raspberry 
vinegar. 
Hinterviertel. Hindquarter. 
Holzapfel. Crab apples. 
Honig. Honey. 

Honigwabe. Honeycomb. 
Hopfen. Hops. 
Hiifte. Haunch. 
Huhn. Hen. Chicken. 

Junges Huhn. Pullet. Spring 
chicken. 

Brathuhn. Roasting chicken. 
Huhnerklein. Giblets. 
Hummer. Lobster. 



I 



Ingwer. Ginger. 
Ingiver-Ale. Ginger ale. 



Jerusalem-Artischocke. Jerusa- 
lem artichoke. 

Johannisbeeren. Currants (fresh) . 
Johannisbeergelee. Currant 
jelly. 

Johannisbrot. Carob-bean. St. 
John's Bread. 

K 

Kabeljau. Codfish. 

Kaheljau-Blasen. Cod sounds. 

Kabeljau-Zungen. Cod tongues. 
Kaffee. Coffee. 

Kaffee'bohnen. Whole coffee. 

Geirannter Kaffee. Roasted 
coffee. 

Gemahlener Kaffee. Ground 
coffee. 
Kakao. Cocoa. 
Kalbfleisch. Veal. 

Kalbshirn. Calf's brains. 

Kaliskopf. Calf's head. 

Kalhsleher. Calf's liver. 
Kaldaunen. Tripe. 
Kammuschel. Scallops. 
Kanehl. Cassia. 

Kaninchen. Rabbit. 
Kantalupe. Cantaloupe. 
Kapaun. Capon. 
Kapern. Capers. 
Kardamom. Cardamom. 
Karotten. Carrots. 
Kartoffeln. Potatoes. 
Kase. Cheese. 

Geriebener Kase. Grated cheese. 

Rahrnkdse. Cream cheese. 



Kasekuchen. Cheese cake. 

Kaselab. Rennet. 

Kastanien. Chestnuts. 

Kandirte Kastanien. Candied 
chestnuts. 

Kaviar. Caviar. 

Keule. Leg {Schenkel). Round 
(_Quer aus der Keule gesch- 
nittene Scheibe. S. 57). 

Kirschen. Cherries. 
Kandirte Kirschen. Candied 
cherries. 

Klauen. Claws. 

Knoblauch. Garlic. 
Knoblauchzehe. Clove of garlic. 

Knochel. Knuckle. 

Knochen. Bone. 

Kohl. Cabbage. 
Kohl Salat. Cold slaw. 

Kohlensaurehaltige Wasser. Car- 
bonated waters. Soda water. 

Kohlensaures Natron. Carbon- 
ate of soda. 

Kohlrabi. Kohlrabi. 

Kokosnuss. Cocoanut. 

Konditorei. Confectionery. 

Kopf. Head. 

Kopfsalat. Lettuce. 

Koriander. Coriander. 

Korinthen. Currants (dried). 

Kornbranntwein. Whisky. 

Kornstarke. Cornstarch. 

Kotelett. Cutlet. 

Krabbe. Crab. 

Weichschalige Krabbe. Soft- 
■ shell crab. 

Krauskohl. Kale. 

Kraut. Cabbage. 

Krauter. Herbs. 

Peine Krauter. GewiirzTcrauter. 
Kiichenkrduter. Fine herbs. 
Sweet herbs. 

Kresse. Cress. 

Kuchen. Cake. 

Kiimmelsame. Caraway seed. 

Kiirbis. Pumpkin. 



Lachs. Salmon. 
Laib. Loaf. 
Lake. Brine. 
Lakritze. Licorice. 
Lambertsniisse. Filberts. 
Lamm. Lamb. 

Milchlamm. Spring lamb. 
Laberdan. Salt cod. 
Lauch. Leeks. 
Leber. Liver. 
Lebertran. Cod liver oil. 
Lendenstiick. Loin. Tenderloin. 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



731 



Worterbuch der Deutschen-Englischen Sprache — Continued. 



Limette. Lime. 
Limonade. Lemonade. 
Limonensaft. Lime juice. 
Linsen. Lentils. 
Lorbeerblatter. Bay leaves. 
Lowenzahn. Dandelion. 



M 

Magen. Stomach. Gizzard (^von 

Oefliigel). 
Magenbitter. Bitters. 
Maifisch. Shad. 
Mais. Corn (Indian). Maize. 
Maisgries. Farina. 
MaismeUl. Cornmeal. Indian 

meal. 
Maisstarke. Cornstarch. 
Weisser Mais Gries. Groi 
gemahlener Mais. Hominy. 
Makaroni. Macaroni. 
Makrele. Mackerel. 

Salz-Makrele. Salt mackerel. 
Makronen. Macaroons. 
Malz. Malt. 
Mandeln. Almonds. 
Bittere Mandeln. Bitter al- 
monds. 
Gehrannte Mandeln. Zucker 
Mandeln. Burned almonds 
(in sugar). 
Geschdlte Mandeln. Shelled 

almonds. 
Silsse Mandeln. Sweet al- 
monds. 
Mandelteig. Almond paste. 
Mangofrucht. Mango. 
Mark. Marrow. 

Markknochen. Marrow bone. 
Marmelade. Marmalade (Einge- 

machte Orangen). Jam. 
Maronen. Chestnuts. 
Marrubium Pastillen. Horehound 

candy. 
Marzipan. Marchpane. 
Maulbeeren. Mulberries. 
Meeraal. Sea eel. 
Meerrettig. Horseradish. 
Mehl. Flour. 

Meiran. Marjoram (sweet). 
Melasse. Molasses. 
Melone. Melon. 
Bisam Melone. Cantaloupe. 
Musk-melon. 
Melonenkiirbis. Squash. 
Milch. Milk. 
Gondensirte Milch. Condensed 
milk. 
Milcher. Roe (soft). Milt. 
Mineral-Wasser. Mineral waters. 



Minze. Mint. 
Mispel. Medlar. 
Mohrriiben. Carrots. 
Moor-Huhn. Grouse. 
Mostrich. Mustard. 
Muscheln. Mussels. 
Muskatbliite. Mace. 
Muskatnuss. Nutmeg. 

N 

Nachtisch. Dessert. 
Neklarjne. Nectarine. 
Nelkenpfeffer. Allspice. 
Nieren. Kidney. 
Nudeln. Noodles. 
Niisse. Nuts. 

O 

Obst. Fruit. 
Ochra. Okra. 
Ochsenschwanz. Ox tail. 
Ochsenzunge. Ox tongue. 
Ol. Oil. 
Oliven. Olives. 

Olivenol. Olive oil. 
Orangen. Oranges. 



Paradiesapfel. Tomato. 
Paraniisse. Brazil nuts. 
Pastete. Pie. Patty (Klein). 
Pastillen. Lozenges. 
Pastinake. Parsnips. 
Perlhuhn. Guinea fowl. 
Petersilie. Parsley. 
Pfeffer. Pepper. 

Roter Pfeffer. Red Pepper. 

Schwarzer Pfeffer. Black 
pepper. 

Spanischer Pfeffer. Cayenne 
pepper. 

Weisser Pfeffer. White pepper. 

Pfefferkorner. Peppercorns. 
Pfefferschoten. Whole peppers. 
Pfefferkuchen. Gingerbread. 
Pfefferminze. Peppermint. 
Pfeilwurz. Arrowroot. 
Pfirsiche. Peaches. 

Pflaumen. Plums. 
Pilze. Mushrooms. 

Tafelpilze. Button mushrooms. 
Pistazienn\isse. Pistachio nuts. 
Plumpudding. Plum pudding. 
Pokelfleisch. Corned (Oder Salt) 

pork. 
Pompelmuse. Grape fruit. 
Portwein. Port. 
Preisselbeeren. Cranberries. 



Presskopf. Head cheese. Brawn. 
Punsch. Punch. 
Puter. Turkey. 
Junger Puter. Young turkey. 



Quark. Curd. 
Quitte. Quince. 



R 



Rahm. Cream. 
Rebhuhn. Partridge. 
Reineclauden. Greengages. 
Reis. Rice. 

Reismehl. Rice flour. 
Rettige. Radishes. 
Rhabarber. Rhubarb. 
Rheinwein. Rhine wine. 
Rindfleisch. Beef. 

Rinderiraten. ' Roast beef. 

Gepokeltes Rindfleisch. Corned 
beef. 

Getrocknetes Rindfleisch. Dried 
beef. 

Geivilrztes Rindfleisch. Spiced 
beef. 
Rindsnierenfett. Suet (beef). 
Rippchen. Chops. Cutlets. 
Rippe. Rib. 
Rogen. Roe (hard). 
Roggen. Rye. 

Roggenmehl. Rye flour. 
Romischer Salat. Romaine (let- 
tuce). 
Rosenkohl. Brussels sprouts. 
Rosinen. Raisins. 

Rosinenkuchen. "Plum" cake. 
Rotwein. Claret. 
RUben. Turnips. 
Riicken. Riickenstiick. Saddle. 
Rum (aus Zuckerrohr). Rum. 
Rumpfstiick. Rump. 
Runkelriiben. Beetroots. 



Saft. Juice. 
Sago. Sago. 
Sahne. Cream. 
Salat. Salad. 
Salbei. Sage. 
Salsify. Oyster plant. 
Salz. Salt. 
Salzwasser. Brine. 
Sardinen. Sardines. 
Sarsaparille. Sarsaparilla. 
Sassafras. Sassafras. 
Sauce. Sauce. 



732 



THE GKOCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Worterbuch der Deutschen-Englischen Sprache — Continued. 



Sauerampfer. Sorrel. 
Sauerkraut. Sourkraut. 
Savoyerkohl. Savoy cabbage. 
Schalotte. Shallot. 
Schaltiere. Shellfisll. 
Scheibe. Slice. 
Schellfisch. Haddock. 

Geraucherter Schellfisch. 
Smoked haddock. "Finnan 
Haddie." 
Schenkel. Haunch. 
Scheren. Claws. 
Schiffszwieback. Hard tack. 
Schildkrote. Tortoise (Fluss-, 
und Land-). Turtle (Meer-). 
Schinken. Ham. 
Schlegel. Leg. 
Schnecken. Snails. 
Schnepfe. Snipe. 
Schnitte. Slice. 
Schokolade. Chocolate. 
Scholle. Sole. 
Schulter. Shoulder. 
Schwanzstuck. Hip. Rump. 
Schwartenraagen. Head cheese. 

Brawn. 
Schwein. Pig. 

Schweinefleisch. Pork. 

Frisches Schweinefleisch. 
Fresh pork. 

Schweinszunge. Pig's tongue. 

Milchschwein. Sucking pig. 
Schweineschmalz, Lard. 
Seezunge. Sole. 
Sekt. Champagne. 
Sellerie. Celery. 
Senf. Mustard. 
Sirup. Syrup. 
Soda. Soda. 

Solperrippchen. Spare ribs. 
Spanferkel. Sucking pig. 
SpaYgel. Asparagus. 

Griiner Spargel. Green aspara- 
gus. 

Weisser Spargel. White aspara- 
gus. 

Spargelkopfe. Asparagus tips. 



Spargelkohl. Broccoli. 
Speck. Bacon. 
Speolcscheiben. Rasher of 
bacon. 
Spelseol. Sweet oil. 
Spinat. Spinach. 
Spiritus. Alcohol. 
Sprotten. Sprats. 
Siachelbeeren. Gooseberries. 
Steckriiben. Turnips. 
Steinbutt. Turbot. 
Stockfisch. Dried cod. 
Stor. Sturgeon. 
Sukkade. Candied citron. 
Suppe. Soup. 

Sissse Kartoffeln. Sweet potatoes. 
Siissholz. Licorice. 
Sussigkeiten. Candy. Sweets. 



Talg. Suet (mutton). 
Tamarinden. Tamarinds. 
Tapioka. Tapioca. 
Taube. Pigeon. 

Junge Taube. Squab. 
Tbee. Tea. 

Thunfisch. Tunny Fish. 
Thymian. Thyme. 

Wilder Thymian. Wild thyme. 
Tomate. Tomato. 
Torte. Tart. 
Trauben. Grapes. 

Trauiengelee. Grape jelly. 

Trauiensaft. Grape juice. 
Triiffeln. Truffles. 
Truthahn. Turkey. 
Tunke. Sauce. 



Vanille. Vanilla. 

Vanilleschote. Vanilla bean. 
Venusmuscheln. Clams (hard). 
Vorderviertel. Forequarter. 



W 

Wachholderbranntwein. Gin. 
Wachtel. Quail. 
Waffeln. Waffles. 
Waldhuhn. Grouse. 
Wallniisse. Walnuts. 
Wasser. Water. 
Wassertnelone. Watermelon. 
Weichmuscheln. Solt clams. 
Wein. Wine. 

Rotwein. Red wine. 

Schaumwein. Sparkling wine. 

SUsser Wein. Sweet wine. 

Weisswein. White wine. 
Weingeist. Alcohol. Spirits of 

wine. 
Weinsteinrahm. Cream of tartar. 
Weissfischen. Whitebait. 
Weizen. Wheat. 

Weizengries. Farina. 
Whisky. Whisky. 
Wildbret. Venison {Hirsch- 
fieisch). Game {Alles 
Wild). 
Wildgefliigel. Game birds. 
Wurst. Sausage. 
Wiirze. Seasoning. 



Xereswein. Sherry. 



Zimmt. Cinnamon. 
Zucker. Sugar. 

Brauner Zucker. Brown sugar. 

Korniger Zucker. Granulated 
sugar. 

Puder-Zuoker. Powdered sugar. 

Stilcken-Zucker. Lump sugar. 
Zuckerguss. Icing. Frosting. 
Zuckerwerk. Candy. 
Zunge. Tongue. 
Zwetsche. Damson (plum). 
Zwieback. BiSCUitS. 
Zwiebeln. Onions. 



DIZIONARIO ITALIANO-INGLESE. 



Acciughe. Anchovies. 
Burro di acciughe. Anchovy 

butter. 
Pasta (li acciughe. Anchovj' 

paste. 
Acciiigata. Anchovy sauce. 
Anchovy essence. 
Acero, Sciroppo di. Maple syrup. 
Acero, Zucchero di. Maple sugar. 
Aceto. Vinegar. 

Aceto d'orzo. Malt vinegar. 
Aceto di sidro. Cider vinegar. 
Aceto di vino. Wine vinegar. 
Acetosa. Sorrel. 
Acqua. Water. 
Acgue carbonate. Carhonated 

waters. Soda water. 
Acqiie minerali. Mineral 
waters. 
Acquavite. Brandy. 
Acquavite di orzo (o di segala, 

ecc). Whisky. 
Aglio. Garlic. 
Agnello. Lamb. 

Agnello di latte. Spring lamb. 
Ala. Wing. 
Albicocche. Apricots. 
Albume. Egg whites. 
Alcool. Alcohol. 
Alloro, Foglie d'. Bay leaves. 
Amaretti. Macaroons. 
Amari. Bitters. 
Amido di grano (saraceno). 

Cornstarch. 
Ananasso. Pineapple. 
Anca. Haunch (quarto di dietro 
— di selvaggiume) . Hip 
(7iatica). 
Anguilla. Eel. 
Anice. Anise. 
Animella. Sweetbread. 
Animella di vitello. Calf's 
sweetbread. 
Anitra. Duck. 

Anitra seVvatica. Wild duck. 
Aranci. Oranges. 

Conserva di aranci. Marma- 
lade. 



Aringa. Herring. 

Aringa affumicata. Kippered 
herring. Smoked herring. 
"Bloaters" (Inglese). 
Aringa marinata. Pickled her- 
ring. 
Arrosto. Roast. 
Arrowroot. Arrowroot. 
Artemisia. Tarragon. 
Asparagi. Asparagus. 

Asparagi Manchi. White as- 
paragus. 
Asparagi verdi. Green aspara- 
gus. 
Punte d'asparagi. Asparagus 
tips. 
Astaco. Lobster. 
Avellane. Filberts. 
Avena, Farina di. Oatmeal. 

B 

Baccala. Codfish. 

Baccala salato. Salt cod. 
Baccala secco. Dried cod. 
Bacche. Berries. 
Bacche di mortella. Cranberries. 
Banane. Bananas. 
Barba di becco. Oyster plant. 
Barbabietole. Beetroots. 
Batate. Sweat potatoes. 
Beccaccino. Snipe. 
Bianchetti. Whitebait. 
Birra. Beer. 

Birra inglese. Ale. 
Biscotti. Biscottini. Biscuits. 
Bistecca. Steak. 
Braciuola. Steak. 
Broccoli. Broccoli. 
Broccoli di Brusselle. Brussels 

sprouts. 
Brodo. Broth. 

Budino Inglese. Plum pudding. 
Burro. Butter. 

Burro per cuocere. Cooking 
butter. 

Burro salato. Salt butter. 



Cacao. Cocoa. 
Caffe. Coffee. 



Caff4 in grani. Whole coffee. 
Caffi macinato. Ground coffee. 
Gaffi tostato. Roasted coffee. 
Caglio. Rennet. 
Cannella. Cinnamon. 
Capperi. Capers. 
Cappone. Capon. 
Carciofi. Artichokes. 

Fondi (o torsi) di carciofo. 
Artichoke bottoms. 
Cardamomo. Cardamom. 
Carne. Meat. 

Essenza di carne. Meat extract. 
Carote. Carrots. 
Carruba. Carob-bean. St. John's 

bread. 
Carvi, Seme di. Caraway seed. 
Cassia (corteccia). Cassia. 
Castagne. Chestnuts. 

Gastagne candite. Candied 
chestnuts. 
Castrate. Mutton. 
Caviale. Caviar. 
Cavolo. Cabbage. 

Gavolo rosso. Red cabbage. 
Gavoli salati. Sourkraut. 
Insalata di cavolo. Cold slaw. 
Cavolo cappuccio. Savoy cabbage. 
Cavolo fiore. Cauliflower. 
Cavolo rapa. Kohlrabi. 
Cavolo riccio. Kale. 
Cedrato candito. Candied citron. 
Cervella. Brains. 
Cetriuoli. Cucumber. 
GetriuoU sotto aceto. Pickled 

cucumbers. 
Cetriuoli sotto aneto. Dill 

pickles. 
Cetriuolini {all 'aceto). 
Gherkins. 
Champagne. Champagne. 
Cheppia. Shad. 
Chicche. Candy. 
Cialde. Waffles. 
Cicoria. Chicory. 
Ciliegie. Cherries. 

Giliegie candite. Candied cher- 
ries. 
Cioccolata. Chocolate. 
Cipolle. Onions. 



734 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Dizionario Italiano-Inglese — Gontinued. 



Claretto. Claret. 

Cocomero. Watermelon. 

Coda di bue. Ox tail. 

Cognac. Brandy. 

CoUo. Neck. Rack (v. 407). 

Condimento. Seasoning. 

Confetti. 1 — Candy {dolci, 
chicche). 2 — Jam (frutta 
indolcite collo zuccUero sci- 
roppato e cotto). 

Confettura. Jam (v. Cow/etii 2). 

Coniglio. Rabbit. 

Conserva. Jam. Preserves. 

Coriandoli. Coriander. 

Coscia. Leg. 

Costola. Rib. 

Costolette. Cutlets. Chops. 

Crauti. Sourkraut. 

Crema. Cream. 

Crema ghiacciata. Ice cream. 

Cremor di tartaro. Cream of 
tartar. 

Crescione. Cress. 
Crescione di riviera. Water- 
cress. 

Creste di gallo. Cockscombs. 

Crosta di zucchero. Icing. Frost- 
ing. 

Crostata. Pie. Tart (piccolo). 

Culatta. Rump. 

Cuore. Heart. 



Damoscina. Bamson (plum). 
Datteri. Dates. 
Datteri di mare. Mussels. 
Dolci. Candy. Sweets. 



Elianto tuberoso. Jerusalem ar- 
tichoke. 

Erbaggio. Herbs. 
Erie fini. Erie aromatiche. 
Fine herbs. Sweet herbs. 

Essenza. Estratto. Extract. 



Faggiole. Beechnuts. 
Fagiano. Pheasant. 
Fagiuoli. Beans. Kidney beans. 
Fagiuoli giovani. Young green 

beans. 
Fagiuoli di Lima. Lima beans. 
Fagiuoli secchi. Navy beans. 
Fagiuoletti. Fagiuolini. String 

beans. 
Fagiuolini gialU. Wax beans. 
Farina. Flour. 

Farina saracena. Cornmeal. 
Indian meal. Farina (v. 715). 



Fave. Beans. 
Favo. Honeycomb. 
Fegato. Liver. 
Fetta. Slice. 
Fetta sottile di lardo. Rasher 
of bacon. 
Fichi. Figs. 
Filetto. Tenderloin. 
Focaccia. Cake. 
Focaocia inglese. Focaccia 
con uva passa. "Plum" cake. 
Forbici. Claws. 
Fomiaggio. Cheese. 
Formaggio di crema. Formag- 

gio grasso. Cream cheese. 
Formaggio grattato. Grated 

cheese. 
Focaccia di formaggio. Cheese 
cake, 
Fragole. Strawberries. 

Focaccia di fragole. Straw- 
berry shortcake. 
Frattaglie. Giblets. 
Frumento. Wheat. 
Frutta. Fruit. 
Frutta candita. Candied fruit. 
Frutta secca. Dried fruit. 
Fu. Corn salad (plant). 
Funghi. Mushrooms. 

Funghicini. Button mush- 
rooms. 



Galletta. Hard tack. 

Galletto. Spring chicken. 

Gallina. Hen. 

Gallina di faraone. Guinea fowl. 

Gallo di montagna. Grouse. 

Gambe. Leg. 

Gamberetti di mare. Prawns. 

Gamberettini. Shrimps. 

Gambero d' acqua dolce. Cray- 
fish. 

Gambero marlno. Lobster. 

Garofani. Cloves. 

Gelatina. Gelatine. Jelly igela- 
tina di frutti). 

Gelato. Ice cream. Ice (dessert). 

Ghiaccio. Ice. 

Giambone. Ham. 

Ginepro. Gin. 

Granchio. Crab. 
Granchio a guscio molle. Soft- 
shell crab. 

Granchio ostrica. Oyster crab. 

Granchiolini. Prawns. Shrimps. 

Grano mondato. Groats. 

Grano saraceno. Corn (Indian). 
Maize. 

Grasso. Fat. 



Grasso strutto (di porco). Lard. 
Grongo. Sea eel. 
Guajava. Guava. 
Guarnitura. Garnishing. 



Indivia. Endive. 
Insalata. Salad. 



Leunponi. Raspberries. 
Aceto di lamponi. Raspberry 
vinegar. 
Lardo. Bacon (grasso di porco, 
salato e affumicato). Lard 
(grasso strutto). 
Lardone. Corned (o Salt) pork. 
Laterini. Sprats. 
Latte. Milk. 
Latte condensato. Condensed 

milk. 
Latte quagliato. Curd. 
Latte di pesce. Roe (soft). Milt. 
Lattuga. Lettuce. 
Lattuga romana. Romaine 
(lettuce). 
Lenticchie. Lentils. 
Lepre. Hare. 
Lievito. Yeast. 
Lima (piccolo limone). Lime. 

Agro di lima. Lime juice. 
Limonata. Lemonade. 
Limone. Lemon. 
Essenea di limone. Estratto di 

limone. Lemon extract. 
Scorza di limone. Lemon peel. 
Scorza di limone candita. Can- 
died lemon peel. 
Agro di limone. Sugo di 
limone. Lemon juice. 
Lingua. Tongue. 
Liquirizia. Licorice. 
Lombo. Loin. 
Lumache. Snails. 
Luppoli. Hops. 

M 

Maccheroni. Macaroni. 

Macerone. Dandelion. 

Macis. Mace. 

Majale. Pig. 

Magiorana (dolce). Marjoram 

(sweet). 
Mandorle. Almonds. 
■Mandorle ahirustolite (in 

zucchero). Burned almonds 

(in sugar). 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



735 



Dizionario Italiano-Inglese — Continued. 



Mandorle amare. Bitter al- 
monds. 
Mandorle dolci. Sweet almonds. 
Mandorle siucciate. Shelled 

almonds. 
Pasta di mandorla. Almond 
paste. 
Mango. Mango. 
Manzo. Beef. 
Mango aromatico. Spiced beef. 
Manzo arrosto. Roast beef. 
Manzo salato. Corned beef. 
Manzo seccato. Dried beef. 
Lingua di manzo. Ox tongue. 
Marmellata. Marmalade {in 
generate, conserva d'aranci). 
Marrobbio, Confetti di. Hore- 

hound candy. 
Marzapane. Marchpane. 
Melanzana. Egg plant. 
Mele. Apples. 
Mele da cuocere. Cooking 

apples. 
Mele da mangiare. Eating 

apples. 
Mele secche. Dried apples. 
Mele selvatiche. Crab apples. 
Mela cotogna. Quince. 
Melassa. Molasses. 
Melegrana. Pomegranate. 
Mellone. Melon. 
M ello ne muscMato. Musk 

melon. 
Meloncini. Cantaloupe. Musk 
melon. 

Menta. Mint. 

Menta pepata. Peppermint. 
Merluzzo. Codfish. 
Ling u e di merluzzo. Cod 

tongues. 
V e s ci ca di merluzzo. Cod 
sounds. 
Merluzzo, Olio di fegato di. Cod 
liver oil. 

Midollo. Marrow. 

Osso midolloso. Marrow bone. 
Miele. Honey. 

Mirtillo. Huckleberries. Blue- 
berries. 

More. Mulberries. 

More di rovo. Blackberries. 

Mostarda. Mustard. 



N 

Nespola. Medlar. 
Nocca. Knuckle. 
Nocciuole. Filberts. 



Hazelnuts. 



Noci. Walnuts. 
Noce di cocao. Cocoanut. 
Noci del BrasUe. Brazil nuts. 
Noce moscata. Nutmeg. 
Noci di pistacchio. Pistachios. 

O 

Oca. Goose. 

Fegato d'oca. Goose liver. 
Ocra. Okra. 
Olio. Oil. 

Olio da tavola. Sweet oil. 

Olio d'oliva. Olive oil. 
Olive. Olives. 
Orzo. Barley. 

Orzo malto. Malt. 
Osso. Bone. 
Ostriche. Oysters. 



Pampelimossa. Grape fruit. 
Pane. Bread. Loaf of bread. 

Pane bianco. White bread. 

Pane bruno. Pan nero. Brown 
bread. 

Pane casalingo. Home made 
bread. 

Pane fresco. New bread. 

Pane di segala. Rye bread. 

Pane abbrustolato. Toast. 
Pan pepato. Gingerbread. 
Panini. Roll. 
Papero. Gosling. 
Patate. Potatoes. 
Patate dolci. Sweet potatoes. 
Pasticcieria. Pastry. 
Pasticcio. Pie. • 
Pasticcetto. Patty. 
Pastiglie. Lozenges. 
Pastinache. Parsnips. 
Pelle. Skin. 
Pepe. Pepper. 

Pepe bianco. White pepper. 

Pepe nero. Black pepper. 

Pepe rosso. Red pepper. 

Pepe di Gaienna. Cayenne pep- 
per. 

Grani di pepe. Peppercorns. 
Peperoni di Guinea. Chilies. 
Peperoni comuni. Sweet peppers. 
Pere. Pears. 

Pera avvocato. Alligator pear. 
Pernice. Partridge. 
Pesche. Peaches. 
Pesca noce. Nectarine. 
Pesce. Fish. 

Pesce d'acgua fresca. Fresh- 
water fish. 

Pesce di mare. Salt-water fish. 



Pesce di scorza. Pesce con 

guscio. Shellfish. 
Petto. Brisket (di bue, ecc). 
Breast (d'agnello o d'uccello). 
Pettonchi. Scallops. 
Piccione. Pigeon. 

Piccione novella. Piccioncello. 
Squab. 
Piedi. Feet. "Trotters." 
Pimento, Coccola di. Allspice. 
Piselli. Peas. 
Piselli spaccati. Split peas. 
Piselli verdi. Green peas. 
Pistacchi di terra. Peanuts. 
Pollame. Poultry. 
Polio. Chicken. 
Polio per arrosto. Roasting 

chicken. 
Pollastrino. Pullet. Spring 
chicken. 
Polvere crescente. Baking pow- 
der. 
Pomo d'oro. Tomato. 
Ponce. Punch. 

Porco. Pig (il majale) . Pork 
{la carne di majale^. 
Porco fresco. Fresh pork. 
Porco salato. Corned (o Salt) 

pork. 
Porcellino lattante. Sucking 

pis- 
Lingua di porco. Pig's tongue. 
Gostole di porco. Spare ribs. 
Porri. Leeks. 

Pospasto (dessert). Dessert. 
Prezzemolo. Parsley. 
Prosciutto. Ham. 
Prugne. Plums. 

Pruna di damasco. Damson 
(plum). 
Prugne secche. Prunes. 



Quaglia. Quail. 

Quarto davanti. Forequarter. 

Quarto di dietro. Hindquarter. 



R 



Rabarbaro. Rhubarb. 

Rafano. Ramolaccio. Horse 

radish. 
Ranocchie, Gambe di. Frogs' 

legs. 
Rape. Turnips. 
Ravanelli. Radishes. 
Rhum. Rum. 
Ribes. Currants. 

Gelatina di ribes. Conserva di 

ribes. Currant jelly. 



736 



THE GROCEE^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Dizionario Italiano-Inglese — Continued. 



Ribes uva spina. Gooseberries. 
Ripieno. Stuffing. 
Riso. Rice. 

Farina di riso. Rice flour. 
Rognone. Kidney. 
Rombo. Turbot. 
Rostbif. Roast beef. 
Rotella (di manzo). Round (of 
beef). 

S 

Saggina. Buckwlieat. 

Sago. Sago. 

Saime. Lard. 

Sale. Salt. 

Salmoja. Brine. 

Salmone. Salmon. 

Salsa. Sauce. 

Salsapariglia. Sarsaparilla. 

Salsiccia. Sausage, 

Salvia. Sage. 

Sangue. Blood. 

Sanguinaccio. Blood pudding. 

Sardine. Sardines. 

Sassafrasso. Sassafras. 

Scalogno. Shallot. 

Schiena. Saddle. 

Sciampagna. Champagne. 

Sciroppo. Syrup. 

Sedano. Celery. 

Segala. Rye. 
Farina di segala. Rye flour. 

Selvaggiume. Game (qualsisia 
animale, quadrupede o vola- 
tile, preso alia caccia) . Veni- 
son (came di cervi). 

Semolino. Farina. 

Senapa. Mustard. 

Sermollino. Wild thyme. 

Sgombro. Mackerel. 

Sgomhro salato. Salt mackerel. 

Sidro. Cider. 

Siero di latte. Buttermilk. 

Soda. Carbonato di soda. Soda. 
Carbonate of soda. 

Sogliuola (pesce). Sole. 

Sorbetto. Ice. 



Sourcrout. Sourkraut. 
Spalla. Shoulder. 
Spezie. Spice. 
Spinacci. Spinach. 
Stomaco. Stomach. 
Storione. Sturgeon. 
Succo. Sugo. Juice. 
Sugna. Suet. 
Susine verdi. Greengages. 



Tacchino. Turkey. 

Tacchino giovane. Young tur- 
key. 

Taglio. Joint. 

Tamarindi. Tamarinds. 

Tanaglie. Claws. 

Tapioca. Tapioca. 

Targone. Tarragon. 

Tartaruga. Tortoise {tartarughe 
di terra e di flume). Turtle 
{tartaruga di mare). 

Tartufi. Truffles. 

Te. Tea. 

Testa. Head. 

Timo. Thyme. 

Tomata. Tomato. 

Tonno. Tunny fish. 

Torta. Pie (torta di mele. ecc). 
Tart (piccolo). Pudding 
(torta di riso, eoc). 

Trippa. Tripe. 

Trota. Trout. 

Tuorlo. Yolks. 

U 
Uova. Eggs. 

Bianco d'tiovo. Whites (of 

eggs). 
Rosso d'uovo. Yolks. 
Uova di pesce. Roe (hard). 
Uva. Grapes. 

Conserva d'uva. Grape jelly. 
Sugo d'uva. Grape juice. 
Uva passa. Raisins. 
Uva passa di Corinto. Currants 
(dried). 



Uva crespina. Gooseberries. 



Vainiglia. Vanilla. 
Fagiuolo di vainiglia. Vanilla 
bean. 
Valeriana domestica. Corn salad 

(plant). 
Vegetali. Vegetables. 
Ventriccio. Ventriglio. Gizzard. 
Verdura. "Greens." Green vege- 
tables. 
Vermicelli. Vermicelli. 
Vino. Wine. 

Vifio bianco. White wine. 
Vino di Bordo. Yino rosso. 

Claret. 
Yino di Borgogna. Burgundy 

wine. 
Vino dolce. Sweet wine. 
Vino di Oporto. Port. 
Vino del Reno. Rhine wine. 
Vino rosso. Red wine. 
Vino spumante. Sparkling 

wine. 
Vino di Xeres. Sherry. 
Vitello. Veal. 

Cervella di vitello. Calf's 

brains. 
Fegato di vitello. Calf's liver. 
Testa di vitello. Calf's head. 



Zenzero. Ginger. 

Birra di zenzero. Ginger ale. 
Zucca. Squash. 

Zucca melopopone. Pumpkin. 
Zucchero. Sugar. 
Zuccliero in grano. Granulated 

sugar. 
Zucchero di muscavado. Brown 

sugar. 
Zucchero in pani. Lump sugar. 
Zucchero polverizzato. Pow- 
dered sugar. 
Zuppa. Soup. 



SVENSK-ENGELSK ORDBOK. 



Alkohol. Alcohol. 
Alligator-Paron. Alligator Pear. 
Ananas. Pineapple. 
And. Duck. 
Anis. Anise. 
Ansjovis. Anchovies. 

Ansjovismassa. Anchovy paste. 

Ansjovissmor. Anchovy butter. 

Ansjovissds. Anchovy sauce. 
Apelsiner. Oranges. 
Aprikoser. Apricots. 
Arrowrotmjol. Arrowroot. 

B 

Backtimjan. Wild thyme. 
Bakfjarding. Hindquarter. 
Bakverk. Pastry. 
Bananer. Bananas. 
Beckasin. Snipe. 
Ben. Bone. Leg (Idr) . 
Betor. Beetroots. 
Biffstek. Steak. 
Bitter-vin. Bitters. 
Bjornbar. Blackberries. 
Blod. Blood. 

Blodkorf. Blodpuclding. Blood 
pudding. 
Blomkal. Cauliflower. 
Blabar. Huckleberries. Blueber- 
ries. 
Bog. Shoulder. 
Bohvete. Buckwheat. 
Boknotter. Beechnuts. 
Bourgognevin. Burgundy (wine). 
Brasilnotter. Brazil nuts. 
Bringa. Breast (a/ lam och 

fdgel). Brisket (af oxe). 
Brysselkal. Brussels sprouts. 
Brass. Sweetbread. 

Kalfbriiss. Calf's sweetbread. 
Brod. Bread. ^ 

FransTct brod. Smor hrod. Roll. 

Farskt brod. New bread. 

Groft brod. Brown bread. 

Bembakadt brod. Home-made 
bread. 

Hvetebrod. "White bread. 

R&gbriid. Rye bread. 

Rostadt brod. Toast. 



Brost. Breast. 

Brostkarameller. Cough drops. 
Bar. Berries. 
Biinor. Beans. 

Bond-bonor. Lima beans. 

Bruna bonor. (Brown) Kid- 
ney beans. 

Grona bonor. Young green 
beans. 

Hvita bonor. Navy beans. 

Lima-bonor. Lima beans. 

Skdrbonor. String beans. 
French beans. 

Turska-bonor. Kidney beans. 

Vaxbonor. Wax beans. 



Champagne. Champagne. 
Champinjoner. ' Mushrooms. 
Champinjonhufvud. Button 
mushrooms. 
Chokolad. Chocolate. 
Cider. Cider. 
Cikoria. Chicory. 
Citron. 1 — Lemon. 2 — Citron 
(ere stor starkt kryddad 
frukt af citron sldgtet, hvars 
skal anvandes kanderadt — 
"Sttccoi"). 
Citronskal. Lemon peel. 
Kanderad citronskal. Candied 
lemon peel. Candied citron 
(v. Citron). 
Citronextrakt. Lemon extract. 
Siir citronsaft. Lemon juice. 
Cremor tartari. Cream of tartar. 



Dadlar. Dates. 

Damascenerplommon. Damson 
(plum). 
Dessert. Dessert. 
Dillgurkor. Dill pickles. 
Dragonort. Tarragon. 
Drufgele. Grape jelly. 
Drufsaft. Grape juice. 
Dubbelsmorgas. Sandwich. 
Dufva. Pigeon. 

Ung dufva. Squab. 



Endivia. Endive. 
"Estragon." Tarragon. 
Extrakt. Extract. 



Fasan. Pheasant. 
Fett. Fat. 
Fikon. Figs. 
Filbertsnotter. Filberts. 
Filet. Tenderloin. 
Fisk. Fish. 

Insjoflsk. Fresh-water fish. 
Fisklefvertran. Cod liver oil. 
Fjaderfa. Poultry. 
FlodkrSftor. Crayfish. 
Flask. Pork. 

Rokt flask. Bacon. 

Farskt flask. Fresh pork. 

Salt flask. Corned (eller Salt) 
pork. 
Forell. Trout. 
Framfjarding. Forequarter. 
Frukt. Fruit. 

Kanderad frukt. Candied fruit. 

Torkad frukt. Dried fruit. 
Fyllning. Stuffing. 
Fagelkras. Giblets. 
Farkott. Mutton. 
Fotter. Feet. "Trotters." 



Garnering. Garnishing. 

Gelatin. Gelatine. 

Gele. Jelly. 

Genever. Genever branvin. Gin. 

Glace. Ice (som frukt glace). 
Ice cream (grdddglace). 

Glasering. Glasyr. Icing. Frost- 
ing. 

Granatapple. Pomegranate. 

Grape frukt. Grape fruit. . 

Gris. Pig. 
Digris. Sucking pig. 
Gristunga. Pig's tongue. 

Grodben. Frogs' legs. 

Gradde. Cream. 

Gronsaker. Green vegetables. 
"Greens." 



738 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Svensk-Engelsk Ordbok — Continued. 



Gronsalad. Lettuce. 
Guavafrukt. Guava. 
Gurkor. Cucumbers. 
Attiksgurkor. SaltgurJcor. 

Pickled cucumbers. 
Syltgurkor. Sweet pickled cu- 
cumbers. 
Inlagda gurkor. Spiced pickled 

cucumbers. 
Testerds gurkor. Gherkins. 
Gas. Goose. 
Gdskrds. Goose giblets. 
Q&sunge. Gosling. 
Gaslefver. Goose liver. 

H 

Hafremjol. Oatmeal. 
Hafsfisk. Salt-water flsh. 
Hafstunga. Sole. 
Hallon. Raspberries. 

Eallondttika. Raspberry vine- 
gar. 
Hals. Halsstycke. Neck. 
Hare. Hare. 

Hasselnotter. Hazel-nuts. 
Hjarna. Brains. 
Hjarta. Heart. 
Honung. Honey. 

Honungskaka. Honeycomb. 
Hufvud. Head. 
Humle. Hops. 
Hummer. Lobster. 
Hvete. Wheat. 
Hvitkal. Cabbage. 

Hvitkdl sallat. Cold slaw. 
Hvitlok. Garlic. 
HSft. Hip. 
Hona. Hen. 
Honsfoglar. Poultry. 

I 

Ingefara. Ginger. 
- (Ingefiirs) Sockerdricka. Gin- 
ger ale. 
Innanlar. Round. 
Is. Ice. 
Ister. Lard. 



Johannesbrod. Carob-bean. St. 
John's bread. 

Jordartskocka. Jerusalem arti- 
choke. 

Jordgubbar. Strawberries. 
Jordgiiilistdrta. Strawberry 
shortcake. 

Jordnotter. Peanuts. 

Jast. Yeast. 

Jastpulver. Baking powder. 



Kabiljo. Codfish. 

Saltad kahiljo. Salt cod. 

Torkad kahiljo. Dried cod. 
Kaffe. Coffee. 

Kaffehonor. Whole coffee. 

Brandt (eller Rostadt) kaffe. 
Roasted coffee. 

Malet kaffe. Ground coffee. 
Kaka. Cake. 
Kakao. Cocoa. 
Kalfhjarna. Calf's brains. 
Kalfhufvud. Calf's head. 
KalfkStt. Veal. 
Kalflefver. Calf's liver. 
Kalkon. Turkey. 

Kalkonkyckling . Young tur- 
key. 
Kammussla. Scallops. 
Kandering. Icing. 
Kanel. Cinnamon. 
Kanin. Rabbit. 
Kantaloup-melon. Cantaloupe. 

Musk melon. 
Kapris. Capers. 
Kapun. Capon. 
Kardemumma. Cardamom. 
Kassavagryn. Tapioca. 
Kassiabark. Cassia. 
Kastanjer. Chestnuts. 

Kanderade kastanjer. Candied 
chestnuts. 
Kaviar. Caviar. 
Kejsarsallat. Tarragon. 
Kex. Biscuits. Crackers. 
Klippfisk. Dried cod. 
Klor. Claws. 
Kokosnot. Cocoanut. 
Kolja. Haddock. 

Rokt kolja. Smoked haddock. 
"Finnan Haddie." 
Kolsyradt natron. Soda. 
Konditorivaror. Confectionery. 
Konfekt. Confectionery. Candy. 

Sweets. 
Konjak. Brandy. 
Konserver. Preserves. 
Korf. Sausage. 
Koriander. Coriander. 
Korinter. Currants (dried). 
Korngryn. Barley. 
Kotletter. Cutlets. Chops. 
Krabba. Crab. 

Krahha rued mjtikt skal. Soft- 
shell crab. 

Kraftsoppa. Broth. 
Krasse. Cress. 
Kraftor. Crayfish. 
Krafva. Gizzard. 



Kronartskockor. Artichokes. 
Krondrtskockhottnar. Arti- 
choke bottoms. 

Krossgryn. Groats. 

Krusbar. Gooseberries. 

Kruskal. Kale. 

Krydda. Spice. 

Kryddning. Seasoning. 

Kryddnejlikor. Cloves. 

Kryddpeppar. Allspice. 

Kryddvaxter. Pine herbs. Sweet 
herbs. 

Kummin. Caraway seed. 

Kurbits. Squash. 

Kurry. Kurrypeppar. Curry 

Kvitten. Quince. 

Kyckling. Spring chicken. 

Kalrabbi. Kohlrabi. 

Kalrotter. Turnips. 

Karnmjolk. Buttermilk. 

Koksvaxter. Vegetables. 

Korsbar. Cherries. 
Kanderade korslar. Candied 
cherries. 

Kott. Meat. 

Kottextrakt. Meat extract. 

Kottskifva. Steak. , 



Lagerblarsblad. Bay leaves. 

Lakrits. Licorice. 

Lamkott. Lamb. 

Dilamm.. Spring lamb. 

Lax. Salmon. 

Lefver. Liver. 

Limonad. Lemonade. 

Limon (ere liten citron). Lime. 
Lim,onsaft. Lime juice. 

Linser. Lentils. 

Lar. Larstycke. Leg. Haunch 
Cbakfjdrding — af rddjurs- 
kott). 

Lagg. Knuckle. 

Landstycke. Loin {frdmre Idnd- 
stycke). Rump (^takre land- 
stycke). 

Lok. Onions. 

Lonnsirap. Maple syrup. 

Lonnsocker. Maple sugar. 

• M 

Mage. Stomach. 

Maghinna. Tripe. 

Majs. Corn (Indian). Maize. 

Majskrossgryn. Hominy. 

Majsmjol. Cornmeal. Indian 
meal. 

Majsstdrkelse. Cornstarch. 



THE GROCER-'S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



739 



Svensk-Engelsk Ordbok — Continued. 



Makaroni. Macaroni. 
Makrill. Mackerel. 

Salt makrill. Salt mackerel. 
Makron. Macaroons. 
Malt. Malt. 
Malort. Bitters. 
Mandel. Almonds. 

Bittermandel. Bitter almonds. 

Brdnda mandlar. Burned al- 
monds (in sugar). 

Krakmandel. Shelled almonds. 

Sotmandel. Sweet almonds. 

Mandel massa. Almond paste. 
Mandelbakelse. Macaroons. 
Mango. Mango. 
Marmelad. Marmalade. 
Marsipan. Marchpane. 
Maskros. Dandelion. 
Matolja. Sweet oil. 
Mejram. Marjoram (sweet). 
Melass. Molasses. 
Melon. Melon. 

Mineral-vatten. Mineral waters. 
Mlspel. Medlar. 
MjSl (fint). Flour. 
MjSlk. Milk. 

Kondenserad, mjolk. Condensed 
milk. 
Mjolke. Roe (soft). Milt. 
Morotter. Carrots. 
Mullbar. Mulberries. 
Muskott. Nutmeg. 
Muskotblomma. Mace. 
Musslor. Mussels. Clams {en 
Amerikansk mussla) . 

TrAg musslor. Soft clams. 

Venus musslor. Hard clams. 
Mynta. Mint. 
Marg. Marrow. 

Mdrgten. Marrow bone. 



N 

Nektarin. Nectarine. 
Njure. Kidney. 
Njurfett. Suet. 
Nudlar. Noodles. 
Notter. Nuts. 



O 

Ochra. Okra. 
Oliver. Olives. 
Olivolja. Olive oil. 
Olja. Oil. 
Ost. Cheese. 

Graddost. Cream cheese. 

Rifven ost. Grated cheese. 
Ostkaka. Cheese cake. 
Ostmysja. Curd. 



Ostron. Oysters. 
Ostronkrabba. Oyster crab. 
Oxhare. Loin. 
Oxkott. Beef. 

Kryddad oxkott. Spiced beef. 

Salt oxkott. Corned beef. 

Torkadt oxkott. Dried beef. 
Oxsiek. Roast beef. 
Oxsvans. Ox tail. 
Oxtunga. 0.x tongue. 



Palsternacka. Parsnips. 
Pastej. Pie. Tart (iakelse). 
Pastjlj. Lozenges. 
Peppar. Pepper. 

Cayenne peppar. Cayenne 
pepper. 

Hvitpeppar. "White pepper. 

Rodpeppar. Red pepper. 

Starkpeppar. Black pepper. 

Pepparkorn. Peppercorns. 

Farsk peppar. Fresh peppers. 

Spansk peppar. Chilies. 
Pepparkaka. Gingerbread. 
Pepparmynta. Peppermint. 
Pepparrot. Horseradish. 
Perlhona. Guinea fowl. 
Persikor. Peaches. 
Persilja. Parsley. 
Pigghvar. Turbot. 
Pistacier. Pistachio nuts. 
Plommon. Plums. 

Grona plommon. Greengages. 
Plumpudding. Plum pudding. 
Portvin. Port. 
Potatis. Potatoes. 
Pressylta. Head cheese. Brawn. 
Pumpa. Pumpkin. 
Punsch. Punch. 
Purjolok. Leeks. 
Paron. Pears. 



Rabarber. Rhubarb. 
Rapphons. Partridge. 
Refben. Rib. 
Refbensspjall. Spare ribs. 
Reineclaude. Greengages. 
Renad vinsten. Cream of tartar. 
Renett. Rennet. 
Renskt vin. Rhine wine. 
Ripa. Grouse. 
Ris. Rice. 

Rismjol. Rice flour. 
Rofva. Turnips. 
Rom. Rum (en dryck). Roe 
(fisk rom). 



Rostbiff. Roast beef. 
Russin. Raisins. 
Russinkaka. "Plum" cake. 
Radjurskott. Venison. 
Rag. Rye. 

Rdgmjol. Rye flour. 
Radisor. Radishes. 
Rakor. Prawns. Shrimps. 
Ranta. Tripe. 
Rodbetor. Beets (red). 
Rodkal. Red cabbage. 



Sadel. Saddle. 

Saft. Juice. 

Sago. Sago. 

Salad. Salad. 

Salsofi. Oyster plant. 

Salt. Salt. 

Saltlake. Saltvatten. Brine. 

Salvia. Sage. 

Sardiner. Sardines. 

Sassafrasbark. Sassafras. 

Sassaparill. Sarsaparilla. 

Savojkal. Savoy cabbage. 

SchalottenlBk. Shallot. 

Seller!. Celery. 

Semolinagryn. Farina. 

Senap. Mustard. 

Sherry. Sherry. 

Sill. Herring. 

Inlagd sill. Pickled herring. 

Rokt sill. Kippered herring. 
Smoked herring. 
Sirap. Molasses. Syrup. 
Sjotunga. Sole. 
Skaldjur. Shellfish. 
Skarpsill. Sprats. 
Skeppsskorpor. Hard tack. 
Skifva. Slice. Rasher {af rokt 

flask.) . 
Skinka. RSkt skinka. Ham. 
Skinn. Skin. 
Skorpor. Biscuits. 
Skoldpadda. Tortoise (Land- 
eller Fdrsk-Vattens-). 
Turtle (Hafs-). 
Smasill. Whitebait. 
Smor. Butter. 

Matsmdr. Cooking butter. 

Salt smor. Salt butter. 
Smorbakelse. Pastry. 
Sniglar. Snails. 
Socker. Sugar. 

Bitsocker. Lump sugar. 

Brunt farinsocker. Brown 
sugar. 

Pudersocker. Powdered sugar. 

Strdsocker. Granulated sugar. 
Sockerrotter. Oyster plant. 



740 



THE GROCER^S ENCYCLOPEDIA 



Svensk-Engelsk Ordbok — Continued. 



Sockersirup. Molasses. 

Soda. Soda. 

Sodavatten. Carbonated waters. 

Soda water. 
Soppa. Soup. 
Sparris. Asparagus. 

Oron sparris. Green asparagus. 

Hvit sparris. White asparagus. 

Sparris toppar. Asparagus tips. 
Sparriskal. Broccoli. 

Spenat. Spinach. 

Sprit. Alcohol. 

Staksill. Shad. 

Stek. Roast. Steak (Tcottskifva') . 

Stockfish. Dried cod. 

Stromming. Whitebait. 

Stor. Sturgeon. 

Succat. Candied citron. 

Surdeg. Leaven. 

Surkal. Sourkraut. 

Svansstek. Rump. 

Svin. Pig. 

Svinfett. Lard. 

Sviskon. Prunes. 

Sylt. Jam. 

Sylta. Head cheese. Brawn. 

Syra. Sorrel. 

Sas. Sauce. 

Sot potatis. Sweet potato. 

Sotsaker. Candy. Confectionery. 



Tamarinder. Tamarinds. 
Tapioca. Tapioca. 
Te. Tea. 
Timjan. Thyme. 



Tomat. Tomato. 
Tonfisk. Tunny fish. 
Torsk. Codfish. 

Simbldsor af torsTc. Cod sounds. 

Tunga af torsk. Cod tongues. 
Tranbar. Cranberries. 
Tryffel. Truffles. 
Tunga. Tongue. 
Tuppkammar. Cockscombs. 
Tarta. Pie. Tart (bakelse). 

V 

Unghons. Chicken. Pullet {ung- 
Tiona). 
Unghons for stekning. Roast- 
ing chicken. 



Vaktel. Quail. 
Valnotter. Walnuts. 
Vanilj. Vanilla. 

Taniljeiona. Vanilla bean. 
Vatten. Water. 
Vattenkrasse. Watercress. 
Vattenmelon. Watermelon. 
Vermiceller. Vermicelli. 
Vildand. Wild duck. 
Vildt. Game. 
Vildapplen. Crab apples. 
Vin. Wine. 

Hvitt vin. White wine. 

Musserande vin. Sparkling 
wine, 

Bodvin. Red wine. Claret. 

Sott vin. Sweet wine. 
Vinbar. Currants f fresh). 

VinWrsqeU. Currant jelly. 



Vindrufvor. Grapes. 

Vinge. Wing. 

Vinsyradtkali. Cream of tartar. 

Vafflor. Waffles. 

W 
Whisky. Whisky. 

A 

Al. Eel. 
Hafsal. Sea eel. 
Insjodl. Fresh-water eel. 



Agg. Eggs. 

Jgghvitor. Egg whites. 

Aggulor. Yolks. 
Aggplanta. Egg plant. 
Applen. Apples. 

Dessert (ipplen. Eating apples. 

Matdpplen. Cooking apples. 

Torkade applen. Dried apples. 
Appelvin. Cider. 
Arter. Peas. 

Grona drter. Green peas. 

Erossade iirter. Split peas. 
Attika. Vinegar. 

Ciderdttika. Cider vinegar. 

Maltdttlka. Malt vinegar. 

Vindttika. Wine vinegar. 

O 

Ol. Beer (bier). Ale (Engelskt 

61). 
Orter. Herbs. 



CULINARY AND BILL-OF-FARE ITEMS. 



A la. (1) An elliptical form of a la mode de — "in 

tiie fashion (or style) of — ." (2) with (as 

a la crCine, "witli cream"). (3) in (as A la 

moutarcle, in mustard sauce). 
Aiguillette. A small Strip or slice of cooked fish, 

meat, etc. 
AUemande. A smooth, yellow sauce, consisting of 

Velouti with butter, egg yolks, catsup, etc. 
Allumettes ("Matches"). A term sometimes 

applied to things cut in strips— as Pommes 

allumettes, "straw potatoes"; Allumettes 

all fromage, "cheese straws." 
Amiral. A red sauce, usually flavored with lobster 

butter. 
Aspic. See page 37. 
Attereaux. Pieces of meat cooked together on a 

skewer. 
Au. "With," "in" or "of." 

B 

Baba (au rhum). Yeast-raised cakes, generally 
flavored with rum sauce. 

Bagration. Generally, a soup of fish and vege- 
tables. Named after Pierre Bagration, a 
Russian general. 

Ballotine. Pieces of meat or poultry, boned and 
shaped round. Also applied to small game 
birds stuffed with forcemeat (of ham, 
poultry, etc.). 

Barde. "Larded" — covered with slices of bacon or 
fat pork. 

Barigoule (Consomme). A game-flavored con- 
somme, garnished with sliced mushrooms 
and olives, etc. 

Bavarois (cream). Whipped cream strengthened 
with gelatine. 

Bearnaise. A sauce resembling a yellow parsley 
sauce, prepared with egg yolks and butter, 
chopped parsley, tarragon, etc. 

Bechamel. A fine white cream sauce. Invented by 
the Marquis de Bechamel, maltre d'hotel 
to Louis XIV. 

Beignet. Fritter. 

Beurre fondu. Melted butter. 

Bigarade (sauce). A sauce with bitter-orange 
(Bigarade orange) flavor. 

Biscuit glace. Rich ice cream containing powdered 
macaroons — or, without such addition, 
frozen in paper cases in oblong individual 
"Biscuit" shapes. 

Bisque. See sub-head in article on Soups. The 
word is also sometimes used in the same 
sense as Biscuit glac6 (see preceding). 

Blanc-mange. See page 71. 

Blanchi. Blanched, Parboiled. See sub-head of 
Parboiling in article on Cookery. 

Blanquette. See page 71. 

Bleu (au). Plain boiled — used only in speaking 
of fresh-water fish. Bleu, or "Blue," be- 
cause boiling vinegar should be poured 
over the flsh to give a blue color to the 
skin. 

Bombe ("Bomb"). A fllled ice or ice cream "pud- 
ding" in ball shape. 

Bon Gout ("Good Taste"). A term frequently used 
in naming highly flavored dishes. 

Bonne Femme ("Good Wife"). In plain home 
style — as of a soup or stew of meat, vege- 
tables, etc. 



Bordelaise (sauce). Espagnole with the addition 

of red wine, shallots and marrow. 

Bordure (en). With a border— of rice, mashed 
potato, etc. 

Bouchee ("Mouthful"). A small patty. Also ap- 
plied to some small fancy cakes. 

Boudin. A delicate entree prepared with fish or 
chicken forcemeat. 

Bouillabaisse. A famous French (Provengal) fish 
stew — made of several kinds of fish, cut 
into small pieces and stewed with olive oil 
and a variety of herbs and spices. 

Bouilli. (1) Boiled. (2) Boiled beef — especially 
that which has been used to make bouillon 
or soup. 

Bouillon. See sub-head in article on Soups. 

Bourgeoise ("Citizen" cooking). In simple family 
style. See also use of Bourgeois in article 
on Claret. 

Bourgogne, EourgJgnonne. Burgundy, Burgundy 
style. Burgundy Sauce is Espagnole with 
the addition of mushrooms, small onions, 
etc., and Burgundy wine. 

Braise. See Braising in article on Cookery. 

Brioche. See page 84. 

Broche (a la). Cooked on a skewer. 

Brochettes. Pieces of meat cooked on a skewer. 

Brouilles. Scrambled. 

Buisson. A "bush" or "pyramid" — as a Imisson of 
crayfish in the centre of a dish. 

C 
Cafe. See sub-head of Grinding, Preparation, etc., 

in article on Coffee. 
Caisse (en). Served in a case (of paper, china, 

etc.). 
Canape ("Couch"). Fried or toasted bread, spread 

with or supporting any one of a great 

variety of items. 
Cannelons. Small rolls of pastry, rice, etc., stuffed 

with meat or sweets. 
Capilotade. Formerly a stew or hash of cold meat 

but now generally a stew of cooked 

chicken. 
Carafon. A small carafe or decanter, containing 

ordinarily about one-half pint. 
Caramel. See page 100. 
Carbonnade. An entree consisting usually of 

braised loin of mutton, pork, etc. The 

term originally meant "half-burned" or 

"grilled." 
Careme. Used in the same way as Maigre (see 

page 356). The name is that of a famous 

French chef and culinary author. 
Casserole (en). Service in a special squat-shaped 

covered earthenware or metal saucepan, 

or other similar vessel. 
Cassolette. A small casserole. 
Chantilly Cream. Sweetened, flavored, whipped 

cream. 
Charlotte. A pudding consisting of a mold, lining, 

or layers of bread or cake, filled with fruit 

or cream — as Apple Charlotte, Charlotte 

Russe, etc. 
Chartreuse. A mold of different colored vegetables 

enveloping some kind of meat — as poultry, 

game, etc. Also the name of a famous 

liqueur. 
Chasseur ("Hunter style"). With, or of, game or 

mushrooms. 



742 THE grocer's encyclopedi a — Culinary and Bill-of-Fare Items, cont'd. 



Chateaubriand. A very .thick tenderloin steak. 
Named after Francois Rene, Vicomte de 
Chateaubriand, a noted statesman, writer 
and epicure. 

Chaud. Hot. 

Chaudfroid ("Hot-Cold"). A term applied prin- 
cipally to game birds or poultry, cut or 
pressed after cooking into various shapes 
or forms and covered with chaudfroid, or 
jelly sauce, for eating cold. 

Chemise (en). With their skins on — generally of 
potatoes. 

Chiffonade. With, or of, shredded vegetables. 

Civet. A highly seasoned stew of hare or venison. 

Cloche (sous). "Under cover." 

Cocotte. A small earthern pot (see Casseeole). 

Colbert. A clear soup with poached eggs. Also 
a rich brown sauce. Named after Jean 
Baptiste Colbert, minister of finance dur- 
ing the reign of Louis XIV. 

Compote. A "stew" of fruits or small birds, the 
former generally retaining their natural 
shape. 

Conde (a la). A term applied to dishes of stewed 
fruit served with rice. Named after the 
last Prince de Conde. 

Consomme. See sub-head in article on Soups. 

Coque (a la). Boiled — of eggs. 

Coquelicot (a la). Poppy-shaped or resembling a 
poppy. 

Coquilles (en). In shells Or shell shapes. 

Coupe. Cup. 

Coupe St. Jacques. A fruit macedoine, topped with 
ice cream, served in punch glasses. The 
most famous dessert of its type. 

Courtbouillon. A highly seasoned fine fish broth. 

Crapaudine ("Frog style"). Flattened and trussed 
like a frog before broiling. Generally ap- 
plied to small birds. 

Crecy. Generally signifies garnishing, or other use, 
of carrots. Named after the French city 
made immortal by the Battle of Cr6cy. 
The district is famous for its carrots and 
other vegetables. 

Creme. Cream. Cream Sauce. Custard. Cream 
Soup — see sub-head in article on Soups. 

Creole. Sauce — Tomato Sauce with chopped garlic, 
mushrooms, peppers, onions, etc. Souv — 
Okra Soup with onions, tomatoes and 
peppers. 

Crepe. Pancake. 

Crepinette. A flat sausage wrapped in pig's caul. 

Croissants. Crescent-shaped rolls. Also used as 
a confectionery term. 

Cromeskies. Croquette mixture cork-shaped, dipped 
in batter before frying. 

Croquette. A mince of any kind of meat, shaped 
into cones, cutlets, etc. 

Croustade. See page 201. 

Croute-au-pot ("Crust in the Pot"). A vegetable 
soup containing bread crusts. 

Croutons (aux). With dice or similarly shaped 
pieces of thin fried or toasted bread. 

Cul. Bottom. Used in the same way as Fond 
(which see). 



Dariole. A kind of small tart, filled with custard 

or cream, etc. 
Darne. A thick slice (of fish). 
Daube (en). Stewed or braised (see sub-head of 

Braising in article on Cookeky). 



Dejeuner. Breakfast. 
Dejeuner a la fourchette. Luncheon. 
Demi-deuil ("Half -Mourning"). A black and 
white effect — generally white poultry meat, 
or white sauce, with truffles. 
Demi-glace ("Half-Glaze"). Rich thickened gravy. 
Demi-tasse ("Half-Cup"). A small cup of black 

coffee. 
Diable ("Devil"). A term often applied to dishes 
"devilled," i. e., highly peppered and 
spiced. 
Diner. Dinner. 

Diplomate (sauce). Bechamel or Cream Sauce; 
with the addition of crayfish, courtbouillon, 
etc. 
Duchesse. Sauce — Tomato and Hollandaise sauces 
with the addition of diced ham, white 
wine, etc. Garnish — strips of tongue and 
cockscombs in rich white sauce. 
Duglere. Generally signifies the use of tomatoes. 
After a famous Paris restaurateur who 
popularized tomatoes in France. 
D'Uxelles. A brown sauce with finely chopped 
herbs and mushrooms. Also a mixture of 
mushrooms, parsley, etc., for stuffing. 
Named after a French nobleman. 
E 
Ecarlate ("Scarlet"). A red sauce or one contain- 
ing lobster roe, red tongue, etc. 
Emince. Sliced small. Sometimes used to signify 

"hashed." 
Entrecote. A rib or sirloin steak. Its name, 
"between ribs," is derived from its original 
application to such a cut. 
Entree. (1) A term which has come to include a 
great variety of "made" dishes. (2) The 
course of such dishes. 
Entremet. As employed in America, the term 
usually signifies the sweet course. French 
cookery recognizes two distinct classes — 
Entremets de Douceur, sweet dishes, and 
Entremets de Legumes, a course of vege- 
tables (a popular service in France). 
Epigramme. An entree containing two pieces of 
meat, generally cooked together but pre- 
pared in different ways — as, one breaded 
and one plain. 
Escalope. A thin slice. 
Espagnole ("Spanish"). See page 228. 
Estoufade. A beef stew with claret and spices. 
Etuvee. Etouffe. Stewed or "smothered" (a kind 
of braising). The term is also used to 
signify "pot roast." 
F 
Farce. Forcemeat. Stuffing. 
Farsi. Stuffed. 
Fausse-tortue. Mock turtle. 
Fermiere ("Farmer's Wife"). In plain, country 

fashion. 
Filet. See Fillet, page 236. 
Financiere (sauce). Espagnole with the addition 

of madeira, mushrooms, cut truffles, etc. 
Fines herbes. See page 236. 
Fond. Bottom, as Fonds d'artichauts, "Artichoke 

bottoms." 
Fondant. See page 246. 
Fondu. Melted. 

Frangipane. A flavored custard cream, filled into 
eclairs, paper cases, etc. Named after a 
famous Italian pastry cook. 
Frappe. Partly frozen. 
Friandise. A small dainty dish. 



THE GROCEE^s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Culinary and Bill-of-Fare Items, cont'd. 743 



Fricadelles. Cakes of chopped cooked meat, mixed 
with bread, spices and eggs. 

Fricandeau. A piece of meat, generally veal, larded 
and braised. 

Fricassee. A stew with thick (usually white) 
sauce, generally of chicken, frog's legs or 
similar items or cold butcher's meat. 

Frit. Fried. 

Fume. Smoked. 

Fumet. Extract (of game, poultry, fish, etc.). 
G 

Galantine. See page 259. 

Gateaux assortis. Assorted cakes. 

Genoise. Sauce — Espagnole with claret and an- 
chovy flavoring. See also Genoa Cake, 
page 265. 

Glace. Ice. Ice Cream. 

Glace. (1) Frozen. (2) Glazed or browned with 
meat extract. (3) "Frosted," as of cakes. 
(4) Candied or crystallized, as of fruits, 
chestnuts, etc. 

Godard. A very rich Garnish containing truflBes, 
sweetbreads, mushrooms, etc., and Madeira 
Sauce. Named after Benjamin Godard, a 
French composer. Also, though less often, 
a Sauce — Espagnole with carrots, onions, 
champagne, mushrooms, etc. 

Godiveau. A forcemeat prepared with veal and 
beef suet. 

Goulash. See page 274. 

Gras (au). Cooked in rich broth. 

Gratin (au) . Applied to dishes covered with bread 
crumbs or grated cheese, etc., and browned 
in the oven. 

Grenadin. (1) A small fricandeau. (2) Pome- 
granate syrup. 

Grille. Grilled. 

Gumbo. See pages 291 and 419. 
H 

Hache. Minced, chopped. 

Hachis. Hash. 

Haricot (de mouton). A mutton stew with vege- 
tables. See also Flageolets (Haricots 
flageolets), 240, and Haricots Verts, 297. 

Hollandaise. One of the most important sauces. 
Its composition includes butter, egg yolks, 
vinegar, salt and pepper. It is of yellow 
color and is especially suitable for serving 
with boiled fish, asparagus, cauliflower, 
etc. 

Horly. See 07-ly, this list. 

Hors d'oeuvre. Appetizers or small "side" dishes 
served at the beginning of a meal to stimu- 
late the appetite. 
I 

Indienne ("Indian style"). Generally signifies the 
use or accompaniment of curry or similar 
East Indian seasoning. 

J 
Jardiniere ("Gardener's style"). With a variety 

of vegetables. 
Julienne. See page 317. 
Jus (au). "With gravy, or juice. 

L 
Lucullus. Applied to various rich sauces, etc. 

After the luxurious Roman consul of that 

name. 
Lyonnaise. Containing onions. 

M 
Macedoine. See page 354. 
Maigre. See page 356. 



Maitre d'hotel ("Hotel Steward's style"). Prepara- 
tions so designated generally include 
flavoring with chopped parsley. Maitre 
d'hotel Sauce consists of melted butter, 
chopped parsley and lemon juice and is 
popular for service with broiled meats and 
broiled or boiled fish. 

Marengo (a la). A term used chiefly in connection 
with Chicken Saut4 and signifying its 
preparation and service with mushrooms, 
tomatoes, olives, oil and wine — those hav- 
ing been the only supplies that Napoleon's 
chef could obtain for the emperor's supper 
after the battle of Marengo. 

Marine. Pickled. See Marinade, page 366. 

Masque. Covered — as with sauce, forcemeat or 
jelly. 

Matelote ("Sailor's style"). With, or of, a variety 
of fish. 

Mayonnaise. See page 375. 

Mazarin. Applied to small almond cakes and pas- 
tries. Named after Ordinal Mazarin, 
prime minister under Louis XIV. 

Medallion. (1) A small round fillet. (2) Similar 
service of many other items, as foie gras. 

Mendiants ("Beggars"). A dessert of dried figs, 
raisins, almonds and filberts. 

Meringue. With or of egg-white froth and sugar. 

Mille feuilles ("a thousand leaves"). A cake con- 
sisting of layers of puff paste, with jam, 
etc., between, and variously decorated. 

Minestra. A famous Italian thick vegetable soup. 

Mode (a la). Literally, "in the fashion." Beef d 
la Mode has come to mean a dish closely 
allied to Braised Beef or Pot Roast. 

Mignon. "Dainty," "Delicate" — as Filet Mignon, 
a small choice fillet. 

Mirepoix. See Braising in article on Cookery. 

Miroton. Sliced cooked meat warmed over with 
onions, etc. 

Mock Turtle. See page 392. 

Mongol ("Mongolian style"). A pur6e containing 
peas and tomatoes, garnished with juli- 
enne. 

Montpellier Butter. A green "butter" made of 
green herbs, scalded, drained and pounded, 
and a variety of additional items — garlic, 
capers, yolks, anchovies, etc. — worked into 
a paste. It is served cold as sauce for fish, 
lobster, etc. 

Mornay. A cream sauce with oheese. 

Mousse ("Froth," "Foam"). Applied to very light 
dishes, generally prepared with whipped 
cream or whipped egg whites — as Mousse 
de Volaille, chicken mousse; Mousse 
frapp4, a frozen whipped cream dessert. 

Mousseline (sauce). Hollandaise sauce with 
whipped cream. The term Mousseline de is 
also frequently used in the same way as 
Mousse de (see preceding item). 

Mulligatawny. See page 395. 
N 

Napolitaine. A name given to various changes or 
modifications of Espagnole. 

Naturel (au). In plain or simple style. 

Navarin. A brown mutton or lamb stew with vege- 
tables. 

Nesselrode. Containing chestnuts. Named after 
a Russian statesman and epicure. 

Newburg. A term generally applied to lobster 
cooked with sherry, cream and egg yolks 
and served in a chafing dish. 



744 THE GROCER-'s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Culinary and Bill-of-Fare Items, cont'd. 



Nivernaise. G-amishing of carrots. 

Noisette. A small piece of lean meat — generally 

a chop minus the bone. 
Nouveau. Nouvelle. New — of peas, potatoes, etc. 

O 
Olla Podriaa. See page 425. 
Orly (a la). Strips of fish or meat, dipped in 

batter and fried. 

P 

Pailles ("Straws"). Used to designate thin strips. 
See AUumettes, this list. 

Panache ("Variegated"). Of mixed colors, as sev- 
eral vegetables, or fruits and cream, etc. 

Pane. Bread-crumbed. 

Papillotes (en). In paper casings, with paper 
frills, etc. 

Parfait. A light ice cream, as Parfait Gaf4, Parfait 
pralini. 

Parmentier (a la). With, or of, potatoes. Named 
after Baron Augustin Parmentier, who in- 
troduced potatoes into France in 1785 and 
devised numerous methods of preparing 
them. 

Parmesan (au). With Parmesan (grated cheese). 

Paupiette. A small meat roll. 

Paysanne ("Peasant style"). In plain, country 
fashion. 

Pate. Pie. Patty. See also page 453. 

Pepper Pot. See page 468. 

Perigord. With truffles or truffle sauce. Perigord 
was formerly the name of a section of 
France famous for its truffles (see page 
648). 

Perigueux (a la). With truffles or truffle sauce. 
Perigueux is the chief city of the former 
province of Perigord (see preceding item). 

Persillade. Containing parsley. 

Petit. Petits. Small. New — as of peas. 

Petite Marmite ("Little Pot"). See page 478. 

Petits-fours. Small cakes. 

Piquante. Sharp — applied to sauces, etc., containing 
spices, lemon juice or vinegar, capers, etc. 

Pique. Larded. 

Poche. Poached. 

Poivrade. Pepper sauce. 

P6t-au-feu ("Pot on the fire"). See reference in 
Petite Mabmite, page 478. 

Poulette. A white sauce, generally made from 
chicken broth. Poulette signifies "hen 
chicken" or pullet. 

Praline. Mixed with or containing burnt almonds. 

Pre sale ("Salt Meadow"). See page 407 in article 
on Mutton. 

Printanier ("Spring style"). With spring vege- 
tables (generally cut in small shapes). 
See Printaniee Soup, page 511. 

Proveneale (Provence style). Sauces, etc., so 
styled generally contain garlic or onions 
and olive oil — in addition to mushrooms, 
herbs, etc. 

Puree. See article on Soups. Also applied to 
mashed vegetables, as Purie de pommes de 
terre. 

Q 

Quenelle. A forcemeat dumpling of poultry or 
other meat formed into oval or round 
shape. 

R 

Ragout. Stew. 

Ramequin. A cheese cake or tartlet. 



Ravigote (sauce). Yeloiiti with a puree of tarra- 
gon and parsley, shallots, wine vinegar, etc. 

Releve ("Remove"). A title for the course of 
large joints of meat, the larger poultry 
birds, etc. The term is a survival of the 
ancient custom of setting the table with 
the filled plates of soup before the guests 
entered the dining room. After they had 
finished the soup, the latter was "removed" 
and replaced generally by the joint — at 
that period either a large fish, poultry or 
butcher's meat. 

Remoulade. A cold sharp sauce of egg yolks, olive 
oil, vinegar, gherkins, parsley, mustard, 
etc. 

Risi Pisi. An Italian soup containing rice and 
green peas. 

Risotto (Italian). A dish of rice and cheese. Also 
a stew containing rice, olive oil, chicken 
broth, etc. 

Rissoles. Croquettes enclosed in pastry. 

Robert. A brown mustard sauce, named after a 
famous French restaurateur. 

Rot or Roti. Roast. Roasted. 

Roulade. Rolled meat. 

S 

Sabayon. A sweet sauce containing eggs and 
flavored with wine, as Madeira. Also a 
kind of egg punch and a dessert containing 
similar ingredients. 

Sale. Salted. 

Salmagundi. See page 538. 

Salmi. See page 538. 

Salpicon. A rich hash of goose liver, game, 
truffles, mushrooms, etc. 

Saute ("Tossed"). A form of frying. See sub- 
head of Sauter in article on Cookery. 

Solferino. A consomme with tomatoes and other 
vegetables. 

Sorbet. Sherbet (see page 563). 

Soubise (a la). With onion puree or sauce. 

Souffle ("Puffed"). A very light dish— as Souffli 
Potatoes, Pudding soiiffl4, Omelette souffle. 

Souper. Supper.' 

Supreme. (1) A rich white sauce, generally of 
chicken. (2) A term freely applied to 
various delicately prepared dishes, as 
Supreme de Volaille, breast of chicken; 
Supreme de Sole, etc. 

T 
Tartare (a la). Hot, spiced. Tartare Sauce is 

mayonnaise with chopped parsley, capers, 

shallots, etc. 
Tasse (en). In a cup. 
Timbale. A paste crust, or cup made of forcemeat, 

etc. (filled with various ingredients). 
Toulouse. A rich white stew consisting of Alle- 

mande Sauce with white wine, truffles, 

mushrooms, etc. Named after the Comte 

de Toulouse. 
Tournedos. Small fillets of beef. 
Tutti Frutti (Italian, "All Fruits"). Ices or ice 

cream mixed with various candied fruits. 

V 
Veloute ("Velvety"). See page 666. 
Vert-pre ("Green Meadow"). A green garnishing. 
Vin blanc (au). In, or with, white wine. 
Vinaigrette. With vinegar sauce. 
Vol-au-vent ("Flying at the mercy of the wind"). 
A light puff-paste patty. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



General Commercial Weights and Measures 



AVOIRDUPOIS — The system of weights used in 
the United States for all ordinary trade purposes. 



PRODUCE WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL 



16 drams 
16 ounces 

25 pounds 
4 quarters 



1 ounce 

1 pound (7,000 Troy 
grs. U. S. Standard) 
1 quarter* 
1 hundredweight 



20 hundredweight = 1 ton 

*With the exception of the Coal Mines in Penna., the 
Eastern Fish Markets and U. S. Custom House, the 
allowance of 28 pounds to the quarter is nearly obsolete. 

LIQUID MEASURE 
8 drams = 1 fluid ounce 

mces = 1 gill 
= 1 pint 
= 1 quart 
= 1 gallon* 
= 1 barrel t 
= 1 hogshead ^ 
= 1 tierce ** 
= 1 puncheon 
= 1 pipe ft 
= 1 lun 

*The standard U. S. gallon corresponds to the English 
Winchester gallon and contains 231 cubic inches. The 
British Imperial gallon contains 277+ cubic inches or 
approximately IJ U. S. gallons. The Beer Gallon con- 
tains 282 cubic inches. 

tin various sections and for various purposes, a 
"barrel" = 43 3 gallons. A barrel of 31 Va gallons is also 
specifically distinguished as a "wine barrel" and one of 
36 gallons as a "beer barrel." 

SSee also under Miscellaneous Goynmercial. 

**The term "tierce" is now frejjuently employed as 
an indeterminate measure — as a "tierce of lard," hams, 
etc.. without regard to the quantity of its contents. 

ttAn English ale pipe = 1174 gallons. A Cognac 
brandy pipe = 152% gallons. 

DRY MEASURE 



4 


gills 


2 


pints 


4 


quarts 


SIV2 


gallons 


2 


barrels 


42 


gallons 


84 


It 


126 


" 


252 


'•■ 



2 pints 


= 




quart 


8 quarts (2 gallons) 


= 




peck 


4 pecks (8 gallons) 


= 




bushel 


11 pecks 


= 




barrel 


3 bushels 


= 




sack 


8 bushels 


= 




quarter 


5 quarters 


= 




load 



BARREL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
(These figures are subject to variations in accordance 
with commercial usage and state statutes.) 



One barrel of apples contains 


2% 


bushels 


" " butter " 


224 


pounds 


" beef 


200 


" 


" " (pkld.) " 


306 


" 


" " flour 


196 


" 


" " " hams 


226 


" 


" " " pork 


190-200 


(( 


" " " rice 


600 


" 



(Standard weights by the 
states.) 

Per Bushel 
Apples, dried 

25 to 26 Lbs. 

Barley 48 

Beans (white). 60 

Bran 20 

Buckwheat 

42 to 56 
Clover Seed . . .60 
Corn in the Ear.70 
Corn, Shelled .56 
Cornmeal 48 to 50 

Flax Seed 56 

Hemp Seed ... .44 

Malt 34 

Millet Seed ...50 
Oats 32 

* SALT. — The weight per bushel as regulated by dif- 
ferent states varies from 50 to 80 pounds. Coarse salt 
is reckoned in New York at 70 pounds ; In Pennsylvania 
at 80 pounds, and in Illinois at 5ii pounds per bushel. 
Fine salt is reckoned !n New York at 56 pounds : In 
Pennsylvania at 62 pounds and in Illinois at 55 pounds 
per bushel. 



MISCELLANEOUS COMMERCIAL 



laws of a majority of the 

Per Bushel 

Onions 56 Lbs. 

Peaches, Dried .33 " 
Peas (in all 
states where 
regulated b y 

statute) 60 " 

Potatoes 60 

Rye 56 " 

Salt* 

Sweet Potatoes. 55 " 

Turnips 55 

Wheat (in all 
states where 
regulated b y 
statute) 60 " 



1 quintal* of flsh 



1 hundredweight 
(100 or 112 lbs.) 
56 lbs. (generally) 
10 1 U. S. gallons 
64 lbs. 
84 lbs. 
304 to 336 lbs. 
750 to 1200 lbs. 
150 gallons ( g e n e r - 
ally) 
A Ti.eg is a small barrel or cask, made in various 
sizes, as 5 gal., 10 gal., etc. 

*In the Metric System (which see), a quintal is a 
mass of 100 kilograms. 

tThe word "firkin" is frequently employed to designate 
a small bai-rel or covered tub without regard to the 
quantity of its contents. 



firkint of butter 
" of ale or beer 
" of soap 
tub of butter 
tierce of salt meat 
1 hogshead of tobacco 
1 " ■' molasses 



1 gross 
1 score 
1 hand (horse measure — taken 

at the foreshoulder) 
1 palm 
1 span 
1 pace (land measure)* 



12 doz. 

20 



inches 
inches 
inches 
feet 



•In some sections, a pace = J rod, or about ZVt feet. 



746 THE grocer's encyclopedia — Weights and Measures, cont'd. 



CUBIC MEASURE 

1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot 

27 " feet = 1 " yard 

1 U. S. standard gal- 
lon (for wine, 
beer, etc.)* = 231 " inches 

•See footnote on page 745 under Liquid Mbasueb. 



1 Standard bushel — nearly 1^4 cubic feet 

(2150.42 cubic ins.) 
1 cord of stove wood = 128 cubic feet 
1 ton (shipping) = 40 " 

To ascertain the number of bushels in a bin of 
any dimensions, find the cubic feet by multiplying 
three dimensions of the bin in feet. Deduct one- 
fifth and the result is the (approximate) number 
of bushels. 



Household Weights and Measures (Approximate) 



(A) "Dry" 

4 saltspoonfuls = 1 teaspoonful 
3 medium or 4 very flat teaspoonfuls = 1 heap- 
ing tablespoonful 

1 heaping tablespoonful of granulated sugar = 

nearly 1 ounce 

2 scant tablespoonfuls of wheat flour — about 1 

ounce 

1 well-rounded tablespoonful of butter = about 1 

ounce 

2 ordinary cups, or glasses, of granulated sugar = 

about 1 pound 
2% ordinary cups, or glasses, of white pulverized 
sugar = about 1 pound 

3 ordinary cups, or glasses, of wheat flour* = 

about 1 pound 
3 ordinary cups, or glasses, of cornmeal = about 
1 pound 



2 ordinary cups, or glasses, of butter (cold, hard 

and pressed solid) = about 1 pound 
1 pound of granulated sugar — 1 pint 
1 pound of wheat flour* = 1% pint 

*Tliis measurement is for flour that has "settled" in 
the sack. If lightened by handling, 3% to 4 cups, or 
nearly 1 quart, are required to make 1 pound. 



^ 



(B) Liquid 

flat teaspoonfuls = 1 flat tablespoonful 

fluid ounce 
large tablespoonfuls = 1 ordinary wineglass =: 

2 fluid ounces 
ordinary wineglasses = 1 ordinary glass or cup 

(about % pint or 2 gills) = 8 fluid ounces 
ordinary cups or glasses = about 1 pint = 16 

fluid ounces 



Special Systems of Weights and Measures 



APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT 
(A) Fluid 



LONG MEASURE 



60 minims (Til) 
or "drops" 

8 /3 
16 /3 

8 o 



= 1 fluid dram fi 

= 1 fluid ounce fl 

= 1 pint o 

= 1 gallon c 



(B) Dry 

20 grains (gr.) =1 scruple (3) 

3 scruples = 1 dram ( 3 ) 

8 drams = 1 ounce ( § ) 

12 ounces = 1 pound (Troy) 



TROY WEIGHT 

(Now seldom used except by jewelers, 
at the mints.) 



:o!dsmiths and 



3 barleycorns 


= 1 inch 


12 inches 


= 1 foot 


3 feet 


= 1 yard 


5% yards 


= 1 rod or pole 


40 rods or poles 


= 1 furlong 


8 furlongs 


= 1 mile (1,760 yards or 5,2S0 




feet) 


3 miles 


= 1 league 


69r miles 


= 1 degree of a great circle of 




the earth's circumference 


CLOTH MEASURE 


21/4 inches 


= 1 nail 


4 nails 


= 1 quarter 


4 quarters 


= 1 yard (3 feet) 


5 


= 1 ell 



24 grains 


— 


1 pennyweight 


20 pennyweights 


— 


1 ounce (480 grains, U. S. 
Standard) 


12 ounces 


^ 


1 pound (5,760 grains, 
U. S. Standard). 


SQUARE 


MEASURE 


144 sq. inches 




= 1 sq. foot 


9 sq. feet 




= 1 sq. yard 


30% sq. yards 




= 1 sq. rod or perch 


40 sq. rods or perches 


= 1 rood 


4 roods 




= 1 acre 


640 acres 




=: 1 sq. mile 



32 ells (40 yards) = 1 bolt 

GOODS BY YARD MEASURE 
2% inches = 1 sixteenth 

2 sixteenths = 1 eighth 

2 eighths = 1 quarter 

4 quarters = 1 yard (3 feet) 

PAPER MEASURE 
24 sheets = 1 quire 
20 quires = 1 ream 
2 reams = 1 bundle 
5 bundles = 1 bale 



THE GROCER^s E N c Y CLO p ED I A^lFei(//ifs and Measures, cont'd. 747 

LAND AND SURVEYORS' MEASURE MARINERS' MEASURE 

7.92 Inches = 1 link 6 feet = 1 fathom 

25 links = 1 rod 100 fathoms = 1 cable's length* 



4 rods = 1 chain 



1 geographical or nau- 



SO chains — 1 mile ticai mile or ad- 

10 sq. chains = 160 sq. rods or 1 acre* (4,840 sq. miralty knot = 2,029 yards (1.151 stat- 

yards, U. S. standard) y(.g miles) 
640 acres = 1 sq. mile or 1 gov't section 

36 so miles = 1 townshin ' 'Among merchantmen, a "Cable's length" varies from 

oq. luiicD e ^QQ j^ ^gp fathoms (200 to 300 yards). Chain cables 

•An acre, if square, is about 209 feet on all sides. are generally 120 fathoms in length. 

Metric System 

The Metric System, adopted by the French Government, November 2, 1801, after a most elab- 
orate investigation by the greatest scientists of France, is based on the decimal calculation and is intended 
to be the standard of the world. 

It has been made the only legal system of all European countries except Great Britain and Russia, 
and in those it is permissive. It has also been adopted by Mexico and a majority of the South Ameri- 
can States, and made obligatory in British India. In 1866 it was legalized in the United States and its 
use is now obligatory on United States officials for all ofBcial medical and pharmacal purposes. It thus 
appears that the system has received the approbation of all civilized nations. 

Some of its advantages are as follows: 

Unchangeable Standards. The base of the system, the Metre, is unalterable, being a certain length 
shown on a platinum rod, preserved in the archives of the International Metric Commission at Paris, 
equal to one ten-millionth part of the earth's quadrant, passing through Paris. As thousands of copies 
of the original bar have been made, and are almost everywhere in use, we have for the entire commer- 
cial world a unit of length, which is also the fundamental unit, which is as unalterable as the merid- 
ian itself. On the other hand, the barley-corn, foot, grain, pennyweight, etc., having originally been 
taken from common things of variable size, utterly lack correspondence — more than one hundred 
foot-measures of different lengths have been In use at various times in Europe, and the total of differ- 
ent units of weights and measures employed has exceeded five thousand! 

Simplicity. The system is comprised In twelve words, each in itself expressive of value — as 
against about fifty in our present system. 

Uniformity. It renders mutually intelligible our own and foreign books containing statements of 
weights and measures, facilitating commerce and trade by avoiding delays and diflBculties in reducing 
values from one system to another. The bulk of our imports and exports Is with nations using in whole 
or part the metric. 

Reciprocal Use. The relations existing between the measures of length, weight and capacity, 
are such that, given the weight of a body, its volume can easily be determined — and reciprocally — a rela- 
tion not existing in our present system. 

UNITS 

Length. The unit is the Metre, already described. 

Weight. The unit is the Gram, which represents a cube of pure water at greatest density, the edge 
being one hundredth of a metre. 1,000 grams make a Kilogram. For commercial purposes, the gram is 
more clearly defined as 1/1000 part of a Standard Kilogram — a block of platinum-iridium — as preserved in 
the archives of the International Metric Commission. 

Capacity. The unit is the Litre, which represents the space occupied by 1 kilogram of pure water 
at the greatest density, forming a cube of which the edge is 1/10 of g, metre. 

Surface. The unit is the Are, which equals 100 square metres. 

The principal denominations in every-day use in the countries where the metric system is uni- 
versally employed are: 

Length: Metre (m) equivalent to about 3 feet 3^ inches. 

Centimetre (cm), one hundredth part of a metre; equivalent to about | inch. 

Weight. Kilogram (Kg) or Kilo, equivalent to about 2 i. lbs. avoirdupois. 
One-half Kilo, equivalent to about 1^'^ lbs. avoirdupois. 

Capacity: Litre (1) equivalent to about ^'^ of a quart, dry measure, and a trifle more than a 
quart, liquid measure. 

Measure: Hectare (ha) or 100 ares, equivalent to a little less than 2% acres; 
Are (a) or 100 square metres, equivalent to about 119^4 sq. yards; 
Square metre (m^), equivalent to a little more than 1^ sq. yard. 

The tables on the page following constitute the schedule of exact comparative weights, etc., legalized 
In this country by Act of Congress. 



748 



THE GROCER^s ENCYCLOPEDIA — Weights and Pleasures, cont'd. 



Metric System — Continued. 

MEASURES OP LENGTH 



Metric denominations and values 


Equivalents in denominations in use 


Myriameter 


10,000 meters. 


6.2137 
0.62137 

328 

393.7 
39.37 
3.937 
0.3937 
0.0394 


miles. 


Kilometer 


1 000 meters. 


miles, or 3,280 feet and 10 inches. 


Hectometer 
Dekameter 


■ 100 meters. 

10 meters. 


feet and 1 inch, 
inches. 


Meter .... 


1 meter. 


inches. 


Decimeter 


^ijj of a meter. 


inches. 


Centimeter 
Millimeter 


Y^5 of a meter. 

TTiTiTi of a meter. 


inch, 
inch. 









WEIGHTS 



Metric denominations and values 


Equivalents in denominations 
in use 


Names 


Number o£ 
grams 


Weight of what quantity of water 
at maximum density 


Avoirdupois weight 


Mlllier or Tonneau. . 


1,000,000 

100,000 

10,000 

1,000 

100 

10 

1 

tV 
nnr 


1 cubic meter 


2204.6 pounds. 


Quintal 

Myriagram 

Kilogram or kilo . . 


1 hectoliter 

10 liters 

1 liter 


220.46 pounds. 

22.046 pounds. 

2.2046 pounds. 


Hectogram 

Dekagram 

Gram 


1 deciliter 

10 cubic centimeters 

1 cubic centimeter 


3.5274 ounces. 

0.3527 ounces. 

15.432 grains. 


Decigram 

Centigram 

Milligram 


j\ of a cubic centimeter 

10 cubic millimeters 


1.5432 grains. 
0.1543 grain. 
0.0154 grain. 









MEASURES OP CAPACITY 



Metric denominations and values 


Equivalents in denominations in use 


Names 


Number of 


Cubic Measure 


„ „ 1 Liquor or 
Dry Measure | wine Measure 


Kiloliter or 

Stere. 
Hectoliter 


1,000 

100 

10 

1 
A 

1000 


1 cubic meter 

3^ of a cubic meter 

10 cubic decimeters 

1 cubic centimeter 

.jl^ of a cubic decimeter . . 
10 cubic centimeters 

1 cubic centimeter 


1,308 cub. yards ' 264.17 gallons. 

2 bushels and 26.417 gallons. 
3.35 pecks. 

9.08 quarts ; 2.6417 gallons. 

908 quart 1 1.0567 quarts. 


Dekaliter 


Liter 


Deciliter 


6 1022 cub inches 0.845 gill. 


Centiliter 


0.6102 cub. inch 0.338 fluid ounce. 


Milliliter 


061 cub inch 27 fluid dram. 







MEASURES OP SURPACE. 



Metric denominations and values 



Hectare 10,000 square meters 

Are 100 square meters. 

Centare 1 square meter. 



Equivalents in denominations in use 



2.471 acres. 
119.6 square yards. 
1,550 square inches. 



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